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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Protection
Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV

system with selectivity
By Edvard | October, 30th 2012 | 3 comments | Save to PDF

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selectivity
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Safety point
From the point of view of the operational safety and reliability of an entire low-voltage
installation, it is usually desirable to specifically isolate the part of a system affected by a
short-circuit in order to prevent spreading of the fault.
Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV system with selectivity (on photo: ABB MNS
low voltage switchgear – an upgrade of a production Yara plant, the leading global
fertilizer company in Porsgrunn, Norway; credit: ABB)
Selectivity is intended to ensure that the protective shutdown is as close as possible to the

location of the fault so that unaffected installation components can continue to operate
normally.
IEC 61439 standard – The new standard for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear
ASSEMBLIES – Applies to enclosures for which the rated voltage is under 1000 V AC or
1500 V DC.
This is often also desired for safety reasons and in IEC 60439-1 (low-voltage switchgear
assemblies) addressed for installations that require a high level of continuity in current
supply.
In buildings and industrial plants, radial distribution networks are the norm. In radial
distribution systems there are several protective devices in series, usually with decreasing
rated currents from the supply end to the load end.
While the operational currents decrease from the supply end to the load end, in the event of
a short-circuit the same fault current will flow through all the protective devices connected
in series.
By a cascading of the trip characteristics it must be ensured that only the respective
protective device that is closest to the location of the fault is activated and hence the fault is
selectively limited to the smallest possible part of the installation. We saw in one of the
previous technical article Simplify Downstream Installation with Cascading – that
cascading actually makes protection system cheaper by simplifying the downstream
installation (e.g. circuit breakers).
The basic prerequisite for selectivity of protective devices connected in series is that the
trip characteristic of the downstream (closer to the load) protective device is faster than
that of the upstream device. And all this taking into account all tolerances and over the
entire current range up to largest prospective short-circuit current.
Special attention should be paid to the area of high overcurrents, where the effects of
current limitation and breaking times are significant. Thus an upstream fuse does not
operate if the entire I2t of the downstream protective device (fuse, circuit breaker) is
smaller than the melting I2t the fuse. An upstream circuit breaker on the other hand does
not operate if the maximum cut-off current ID of the downstream protective device is
smaller than the activation value of its magnetic release.
In individual cases, reference to manufacture documents and frequently the technical

support of the manufacturer is required for the correct selection of devices. The basic facts
are presented below.
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Selectivity between fuses connected in series

Fuses connected in series act selectively if their time current-characteristic curves
have sufficient mutual spacing and their tolerance bands do not touch (Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Selectivity between fuses
connected in series
At high short-circuit currents the melting I2t value of the upstream fuse must be larger than
the breaking I2t value (melting and clearing time) of the smaller downstream fuse. This is
usually the case if their rated currents differ by a factor of 1.6 or more.
Selectivity of circuit breakers connected in series

Current selectivity
In distribution networks, the rated currents of the switches decrease constantly from the
transformer to the load. As the short-circuit releases normally operate at a multiple of the
rated current, their release levels decrease in the same way with distance from the supply.
As the prospective short-circuit currents also become smaller with increasing distance from
the supply point due to line damping, a so-called natural selectivity can be created via the
current magnitude.
This means that the maximum short-circuit current with a short-circuit on the load-side
of the switch 2 (Figure 2) is below the trip value of the magnetic release of switch 1.
The short-circuit currents must be known at the installation sites of the switches. Selectivity
is usually not assured with short-circuit currents above the response value of the magnetic
release of the upstream circuit breaker.
Figure 2 – Current selectivity of two circuit breakers in
series is given, if the prospective short-circuit current downstream of Circuit breaker 2 is
smaller than the trip value of the magnetic release of Switch 1
b = Overload release
s = Short-circuit release
When assessing the current selectivity the tolerance of the short-circuit trigger (+/-20 % in
accordance with IEC 60947-2) should be taken into account.
Time selectivity
If current selectivity between circuit breakers is not possible, selectivity must be achieved
by cascading of the trip times, i.e. the upstream circuit breaker operates with a short
delay to give the downstream circuit breaker time to clear the short-circuit.
If the short-circuit occurs between the two switches, then it will continue during the short
trip delay time of the switch 1 and after lapse of this time it will be switched off by the
latter (Figure 3).
Figure 3 – Time selectivity of
two circuit breakers in series
b = Overload release
s = Short-circuit release (switch 1 with short-time delay; utilization category B)
The cascading of trip times requires that Switch 1 is capable of carrying the short-circuit
current during the trip delay time. This is the case when using circuit breakers of utilization
category B.
The critical variable is the rated short-time current Icw that determines the magnitude of the
permissible short-time current during a defined period. It is usually stated as the 1s –
current and can be converted for other times with I2t = const.
Selectivity between fuse and downstream circuit breaker

Figure 4 – Selectivity between fuse and
downstream circuit breaker
1 = Circuit breaker
2 = Fuse
In the overload range selectivity is given, if the trip characteristic of the overload release
lies under the characteristic curve of the fuse (considering the tolerance band). In the short-
circuit range selectivity is given to the extent that the total breaking time (including
clearing time) of the circuit breaker is below the melting characteristic of the fuse.
Selectivity between a circuit breaker and downstream

fuse
Figure 5 – Selectivity between circuit breaker
and downstream fuse
1 = Circuit breaker
2 = Fuse
Selectivity in the tripping range of the short-circuit release of the circuit breaker is given
when the cut-off current of the fuse is smaller than its trip value.
Selectivity and undervoltage

In a short-circuit the supply voltage breaks down at the short-circuit location. The size of
the residual voltage depends on the impedance of the fault. If an electric arc is produced,
the voltage is appr. 30 V to 70 V.
As the short-circuit current flows over the entire power line up to power source, along this
line there is a voltage drop whose size is determined by the impedances lying between the
two points.
All connected electrical consumers are affected by the voltage drop and the closer they are
to the fault location the greater is this effect. Devices such as contactors or undervoltage
releases of circuit breakers may trip depending on the amount and duration of the voltage
drop.
In order to guarantee operational continuity, suitable off-delays or remaking equipment

should be provided. When short-circuits are broken by current limiting circuit breakers,
voltage break-downs are so short that no disruptions should be expected.
Resource: Allen Bradley – Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear

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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for design of
LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in power substations,
commercial buildings and industry fascilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
Present on Google+
3 Comments
1.
muath alsalloom
Feb 08, 2015
I’m an Electrical Engineer in position of Electrical Team Manager, I’ve read and
enjoyed learning from you site, thank you for sharing and I would like to offer my
service to and I want to contribute to the community,
Please reach me at the email above
Regards,
(reply)
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Power Substation / Protection / Transformers
Protection scheme for the substation with a

single supply from the utility
By Edvard | January, 7th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / Protection scheme for the substation with a single supply from
the utility
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Single-transformer, single-bus configuration

The utility supply voltage depends on both availability and consumer requirements. The
consumer transformer is connected delta on the high-voltage side and grounded wye on the
low-voltage side.
P
rotection scheme for the substation with a single supply from the utility
A fused-disconnect switch provides three-phase switching and protection for the

transformer, as well as physical isolation of the transformer during maintenance. The
consumer voltage may range from 480 V to 34.5 kV. As stated above, power transformer is
connected delta/wye and system configuration is single-transformer / single-bus.
A normally open feeder tie switch is shown to facilitate circuit breaker maintenance.
Single supply from a remote utility substation (single-transformer / single-bus
configuration)
Contents:
1. Transformer protection
2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection
3. Protection of the supply line
4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)
1. Transformer protection
Several factors are involved in selecting the transformer high-side fuses.
FACTOR #1 – In general, the voltage rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than
the system phase-to-phase voltage. Solid material expulsion-type fuses are not “voltage
critical” and may be applied on systems rated less than the voltage rating of the fuse.
In contrast, current-limiting fuses, which are available in ratings through 34.5 kV,
inherently develop an overvoltage during fault current interruption.
This overvoltage typically restricts application of current-limiting fuses to the same system
voltage class as the maximum voltage rating of the current-limiting fuse.
FACTOR #2 – The interrupting rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than the
maximum anticipated fault
duty, including possible utility system expansion.
FACTOR #3 – The continuous current rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than
the maximum anticipated emergency loading of the transformer.
IMPORTANT! Overload capability of power fuses may vary from 0% to 40% with
different fuse types and with different ampere ratings of the same fuse type.
FACTOR #4 – The continuous current rating and melting time-current characteristics of the
fuse should be selected to provide optimum transformer protection as well as coordination
with upstream and downstream relays or fuses, taking into account the effect of ambient
temperature and load current heating.
To achieve fast fault clearing, it may be necessary to accept fuse melting along with
tripping of the low-side breakers for close-in feeder faults. For further information, refer
to IEEE Std C37.91.
If two transformers are involved, as in Figure 2, the fuse size and relay setting or fuse
coordination should be selected based on the normal maximum loading level of both
transformers.
Coordination with the low-side breaker may be sacrificed under emergency loading
conditions with one transformer out of service.
Figure 2 – Dual supply-dual transformer (single-supply circuit breakers)
FACTOR #5 – Primary fusing as the only means of transformer protection may not be
suitable if the secondary ground fault current is limited by using resistance grounding on
the neutral.
This is because the primary current resulting from a phase-to-ground secondary fault may
not be sufficient to melt the fuse.
If low-resistance grounding is used, several relay schemes can be employed to clear a

ground fault between the transformer and feeder breakers, or beyond the feeder breakers if
one fails to open.
All of these schemes use a neutral CT and overcurrent relay (51G).

Figure 4 – Transformer neutral and zero-sequence ground relaying applications for
resistance-grounded systems
For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay connected to a CT in

the service transformer neutral is usually the best option. This CT should have a ratio
smaller than the phase CT’s, and the relay pickup range in conjunction with the neutral CT
should allow a pickup as low as 10% of the neutral resistor rating.
For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-sequence CT is

recommended, again with a ratio small enough to allow a pickup as low as 10% of the
neutral resistor rating.
When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a zero-sequence CT it is referred to as a 50G,

51G or 50/51G relay depending upon relay type used. Figure 4 shows typical arrangements
for both these applications.
This neutral overcurrent relay (51G) trip output can be connected to do one of the
following:
1. Close a high-side grounding switch to force tripping of the remote utility breaker
2. Open a high-side motor-operated switch that is rated to interrupt such faults
3. Transfer trip the remote utility breaker
Go back to contents ↑
2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection
The fuse provides protection for transformer high-side and low-side faults. It also provides
limited backup protection for low-side feeder faults.
Feeder phase protection is provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-

overcurrent relays. The purpose of the instantaneous relays is to provide high-speed
detection of close-in faults.
On short feeders, where the magnitude of fault current does not decrease significantly from
the bus to the end of the feeder, coordination of the instantaneous relays with downstream
protective devices may be difficult, if not impossible. The time-overcurrent relays should
coordinate with the largest protective device on the feeder.
The time current characteristics of the relays should be selected accordingly.
For coordination with branch fuses, a very inverse or extremely inverse-time characteristic
should be selected. Phase relay pickup should be greater than the expected full load current
on the feeder.
It is also important to check coordination of the time-overcurrent relay with the

transformer high-side fuse. Coordination should be reviewed when the load-side tie
switch is closed. The phase relay pickup should be high enough to carry the load of both
feeders and still provide adequate fault protection while maintaining coordination with the
high-side fuse.
Figur
e 3 – ANSI 50 and 51 overcurrent relay characteristics
Feeder ground fault protection may be provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-
overcurrent relays. A ground relay, connected in the neutral circuit, is not sensitive to
balanced three-phase load current.
Only currents resulting from an unbalanced load (on a four-wire system), or unbalanced
faults involving ground, will flow in the ground relay. Thus, the feeder full load current
need not be a directly considered when determining relay pickup.
The following are two different methods for setting ground relays:
a. Maximum coordination
b. Maximum ground fault sensitivity
a) Maximum coordination
The ground relay has a setting identical to that of the phase relays. This ensures the same
degree of coordination with downstream protective devices as the phase relay.
The ground relay will provide redundancy in the event of phase relay failure for a line-
to-ground fault.
b) Maximum ground fault sensitivity
The ground relay instantaneous and time-overcurrent pickup may be set much lower than
phase relay pickup. This provides sensitive protection for ground faults but may also
result in feeder outages for faults that would normally be cleared by downstream protective
devices.
For greater sensitivity, the ground relay may also be set with a time-overcurrent relay
pickup of about one-half that of the phase relay but with a high time-dial setting to
coordinate with downstream fuses over a reasonable range of fault current.
3. Protection of the supply line
Different supply voltage levels generally dictate different levels of utility line protection.
These systems will normally trip instantaneously for all line faults. The utility’s
instantaneous relaying may reach into the consumer’s transformer, but not completely
through it.
Ideally, transformer faults that are detected by instantaneous line relaying should also blow
the transformer fuse. This permits the line to be re-energized and the fault located.
Transformer isolation in this manner may not always be possible, particularly on utility
systems with large fuses and relatively low levels of ground fault current.
Normally, the supply line will also be protected with time-delayed relays. These relays
may reach completely through the transformer, depending on other relay setting restraints
on the utility system. If the relays do respond to low-side faults, coordination is necessary
with the transformer fuses.
If coordination between the fuses and the supply line protection is not possible, the
consumer may be required to use relay protection (connected to high-voltage CTs) for the
transformer, instead of fuses.
Failure to achieve coordination may result in nuisance tripping, additional damage to the
transformer due to supply line automatic reclosing, and an extended outage of the
supply line while maintenance personnel are trying to locate the fault.
4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)
Part 1
Calculating the required fuse ampacity ratios for selective coordination between the
primary side and secondary side of a transformer and downstream circuits.
https://youtu.be/ZrYH4he-Bbo
Part 2
Selectively coordination circuit breakers around a transformer.
https://youtu.be/HiPNLlvYu94
Part 3
Achieving selective coordination between fuses and circuit breakers when protecting
transformers.
https://youtu.be/pwVrKNPib7w
Sources:
1. IEEE Std C37.95 – IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer

Interconnections
2. System Protection by Bill Brown at Square D Engineering Services
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One Comment
1.
dennis chee
Jan 07, 2019
I wonder why the power outtage happen all the time in my native country capital in
Ysngon, Myanmar. That why i am interesting reading power related article.
(reply)
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Energy Generation / Protection
Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker

(GCB) in terms of breaking capacity

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Home / Technical Articles / Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker (GCB) in terms of
breaking capacity
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The complex role of a generator CB

The main function of a circuit breaker is to carry the rated current of the generator and
break both the short-circuit current supplied by the generator and that supplied by the
power grid.
Sizin
g a MV generator circuit breaker (GCB) in terms of breaking capacity
Introduction to GCB circuits
The basic design of the generator circuit configuration is displayed in Figure 1. Generator
circuit-breakers (GCB) are essentially located between the generator and the step-up
transformer of the high voltage network.
In generator circuits two different faults are possible with a combination of high short-
circuit current at high asymmetrical components:
1. The system-source fault (fault on generator side, point A) and

2. on system-source fault (fault on the transformer side, point B).
In case of a “bad” synchronisation between the network and the generator circuit breaker
may close into a condition that is known as “out-of phase”. If this occurs with a phase
angle of up to 90°, the generator circuit-breaker has to interrupt short-circuit current values
nearly as high as the system source fault.
This is in contrast to the values of the short-circuit current under conditions according IEC
62271-100, which is 25 % of the rated short circuit current.
If a system-source fault occurs, the short-circuit current is established at high magnitudes

and the breaker is located close to the generator. The energy of the system feeds the fault
from the system through the transformer.
Figure 0 – Compact three phase vacuum generator circuit breaker type: VD4G-50 (15kV-
50kA-3150 … 4000A-50/60Hz)
Breaking capacity of a GCB
Requirements in terms of breaking capacity depend on the amount the installation

contributes to the fault current and the location of the actual fault itself. Figure 1 illustrates
a typical single-line diagram and two possible points of failure, i.e.:
 Fault in A – system-source fault

 Fault in B – generator-source fault
Figure 1 – Single-line diagram of a generator connection to the grid with two possible
points of failure (fault in A and B)
Regarding amplitude, fault current supplied by the grid is almost always higher than that
supplied by the generator. This is due to the lower reactance of the transformer and network
compared to the transient and sub-transient reactance of the generator.
This is also true of the X/R ratio, which is lower when the fault is supplied by the grid.
This current is therefore the requirement that determines the breaking capacity of the circuit
breaker.
However, when a circuit breaker is chosen for protecting a generator, in accordance with
the new Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 Ed. 1: High-voltage switchgear and
controlgear – Part 37-013:
Alternating current generator circuit breakers, short-circuit overcurrent is only one of the
parameters required for this specific application. One must also consider the fault in B,
supplied by the generator, characterized by higher levels of asymmetry and higher time
constants (Figure 2).
Fig
ure 2 – Fault in B supplied by generator
Circuit breakers for generators conforming to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 are

designed to overcome these critical conditions and to withstand longer electric arc duration.
For example, the ABB’s VD4G family of generator circuit breakers includes three
apparatuses: VD4G-50, VD4G-40 and VD4G-25 for voltage ratings up to 15 kV, currents
up to 4000 A and breaking capacities of up to 50 kA for supply by generator.
Generator circuit breakers must conform to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 “High-

voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 37-013: Alternating-current generator
circuit breakers”.
Figure 3 – ABB’s VD4G generator circuit breaker family
The following table lists the breaking capacities of the family in the three conditions:
1. System-source,
2. Generator-source and
3. Out-of-phase conditions.
In the case of generator-source breaking capacity, the first value refers to maximum

breaking capacity with 110% asymmetry and the second to 74% breaking capacity but
130% asymmetry (called class G1 in the Standard). The same value means that the circuit
breaker is able to interrupt at maximum breaking capacity with 130% asymmetry (called
class G2 in the Standard).
In all cases, if the cause of asymmetry occurs during delays in current zero crossing, it will
be necessary to demonstrate that the circuit breaker is able to interrupt the current within
the maximum arcing time it is able to sustain.
If the arcing time resulting from the lack of current zeroes were to exceed the maximum
arcing time the circuit breaker is able to sustain, a possible solution would be to delay the
release signal of the circuit breaker so as to return below that maximum value.
This would clearly lengthen the time the installation would be exposed to short-circuit
current. For that reason, this solution must be carefully assessed and agreed with the user.
The other differences with respect to interruption of faults supplied by the grid are that the
rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage (TRV) is much steeper and there are fault
currents due to closing in out-of-phase conditions.
Current interruption due to generator-source faults is an extremely complex

phenomenon, considering the differences in the way generators behave due to different
design and construction techniques.
Since it is very difficult to reproduce these faults in test laboratories, the standard
underscores how the only way to assess the capability of a generator circuit breaker
to interrupt a short-circuit current with lack of current zero crossing is by simulation.
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Example of how a generator circuit breaker is sized
Two generators connected to the HV grid by means of a transformer with three windings
are considered in the installation proposed as an example. The starting condition will be
that of an initially no-load generator. A 1.05 voltage factor is considered for this
installation.
The main grid data are:
 Scc=2000 MVA
 X/R=10
 Vn=150 kV
Transformer with 3 windings:
V1 = 150 kV S1 = 150 MVA Vcc_12 = 11.5% at 55 MVA

V2 = 11.5 kV S2 = 75 MVA Vcc_13 = 11.1% at 55 MVA
V3 = 11.5 kV S3 = 75 MVA Vcc_23 = 21% at 55 MVA
Generators:
 Sn = 75.294 MVA
 Vn = 11.5kV
Xd = 2.26 Xq = 2.06 Td’ = 0.71 Tq’ = 0.71

Xd’ = 0.217 Xq’ = 0.26 Td’’ = 0.04 Tq’’ = 0.04
Xd’’ = 0.155 Xq’’ = 0.19 Ra = 0.001309
The reactances and resistances are given in p.u. while the values of the time constants are
given in seconds. According to Standard IEC 60034-3, the admissible tolerances can be
around ±15 %, thus all reactances are decreased by that percentage as a precaution.
We will first analyze the symmetrical current at instant t=0 (i.e. the moment that short-
circuit occurs) on the supply side and then on the load side of the generator circuit breaker
(GCB).
After this, the capability of the circuit breaker to eliminate a three-phase-earth short-
circuit in the two above-mentioned points will be assessed.
We will first consider a three-phase-earth fault between the GCB and generator G1.
Application of the MVA method allows the value of the short-circuit symmetrical current
to be assessed in just a few steps.
First, we must make sure that the Vcc_12; Vcc_13; Vcc_23 values are given according to the same
basis. After this, the values of the short-circuit impedances for each winding can be
obtained from the following relations:
Now let us suppose that the transformer with three windings is like the one in the
equivalent diagram of Figure 4:
Figure 4 – Transformer with 3 windings
The MVA method can now be applied to the circuit, as shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5 – Layout of the installation
The short-circuit current for a fault between the machine circuit breaker and generator G1
will be calculated first:
The symmetrical short-circuit current at instant t=0 can be obtained from this value.
Ik” is the symmetrical short-circuit current value at time t=0. This value acts as a reference
for successive simulation performed via computer using EMTP (Electromagnetic
Transient Program) software.
It also allows an initial estimation to be made of the size of the circuit breaker required.
The single-line diagram showing the system-source short-circuit currents for this particular
example is given in figure 6 below. Current Isff is the symmetrical short-circuit current to
which value Ik” corresponds at time t=0.
Figure
6 – Trend of short-circuit currents for a system-source fault
The trend of the short-circuit current in the time calculated with EMTP is illustrated in the
graph of figure 7.
Figure 7 – Short-circuit current for a system-source fault
The graph shows that the maximum current peak is:
Ip = 56.70 kA
while the remaining current values at instant t = 45 ms are:
Issf_sym = 21.38 kA
idc% = 53,75%
Note that the value of the symmetrical component is slightly different from the one
observed at instant t=0.
This is due to the contribution from the generator of the right-hand busbar which,
in the absence of a constant symmetrical component, also changes the total
symmetrical current value, although to a lesser extent.
The next data item to assess is the short-circuit current value in the case of a generator-
source three-phase to earth fault, considering the symmetrical component at instant t=0
and -15% tolerance on the reactance as explained previously:
Here again, short-circuit current I”kg acts as the reference value for the following
computer simulation. The single-line diagram showing the current flow for generator-
source faults (Igff) is given below.
Figure
8 – Trend of short-circuit currents for a generator-source fault
The graphs in figures 9 and 10 show the short-circuit current trend for the 90 and 0 degree
voltage phase angles, respectively (also calculated with EMTP).
Figure 9 – Short-circuit current for a generator-source fault, 90° voltage angle
The graph shows that the maximum value of the current peak is:
Ip = 80 kA
Considering a 45ms instant, the remaining current values are as follows:
Isym = 22.52 kA
idc% = 118%
Table 1 – ABB’s generator circuit breaker VD4G family
System-source Generator-source breaking Out-of-phase breaking

breakingcapacity [kA] capacity [kA] capacity [kA]
VD4G-50 50 50/37 25
VD4G-40 40 25/25 20
VD4G-25 25 16/16 12.5
This result shows that continued operation can be guaranteed by a class G1 circuit
breaker, as is for example ABB’s breaker type VD4G-50 (from above table).
Figure 10 – Short-circuit current for a generator-source fault, 0° voltage angle
Both the graphs in Figures 9 and 10 show the two asymmetry values that must be
considered when choosing the circuit breaker, as clearly suggested by the new Standard for
generator circuit breakers (IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 Annex E).
These graphs show that the short-circuit current has a maximum peak value of 80kA and
a 22.5 kA symmetrical component.
In the case of system-source faults, thus owing to simultaneous contributions from the grid
and generator, the ratio between peak value and the real symmetrical component the instant
the contacts separate may exceed the value of 2.74 (standardized value for system-source
faults, corresponding to a 133 ms time constant of the direct component).
Checks based on the peak value mentioned above are therefore necessary when assessing
the minimum size that can be selected.
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The other limit when the MVA method is used for the calculations is that the
symmetrical component of the short-circuit current is calculated at instant t=0. However,
this value could be useful in the absence of detailed data.
As mentioned previously, the value of the symmetrical component varies over time since a
generator, whose symmetrical component is not constant during short-circuits, is involved.
This means that it is important to calculate the value of the total symmetrical component
the instant the contacts separate, which is less than that calculated with the MVA method,
i.e. at t=0, so as to avoid choosing an oversized circuit breaker.
However, to calculate the circuit breaker precisely, the exact characteristic parameters of

the generator must be known and the technician who performs the calculation must be fully
familiar with the use of EMTP software.
Faults due to out-of-phase must also be assessed if the circuit breaker can be closed in
the absence of synchronism between the grid and the generator itself, e.g. owing to faulty
operation of the parallelled system.
The fault current that occurs in this case follows the characteristic trend in Figure 11, which
mainly depends on the inertia of the rotor and relative turbine connected.
Figure 11 – Fault current due to circuit breaker closing in out-of-phase conditions at 90°
phase difference
Although it may not seem so frequent, this type of fault must still be considered since its
effects can be serious. Thus the capability of a generator circuit breaker to deal with it is of
fundamental importance.
Protection relays for generators
All or only some of the following protection functions can be used for protecting
the generator, depending on the rated power of the machine and the type of application:
 relay 87 residual current protection of the generator (sometimes called 87G);

 relay 49 thermal overload protection of stator;
 relay 51 overcurrent protection;
 relay 40 loss of field protection;
 relay 32 reverse power;
 relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection;
 relay 21 underimpedance protection (as an alternative to zero-sequence
overcurrent protection with voltage control when there is a unit transformer);
 relay 50V overcurrent protection with voltage control (as an alternative to
underimpedance protection when there is no unit transformer);
 relay 27 undervoltage protection;
 relay 59 overvoltage protection;
 relay 81 underfrequency and overfrequency protection;
 relay 24 maximum overflux protection;
 relay 64R rotor ground protection;
 relay 64S stator ground protection (function of the type of state of the neutral).
There are other protection functions used for high-power machines, e.g.:
 5 accidental energization;
 37 underpower relay
 49R (51R) rotor overload;
 60 voltage balance relay;
 78 ou of step.
A few typical protection system configurations are illustrated in Figure 12 as well as an

example ABB’s protection relay type REG630 which is recommended in this case.
Figure 12 – Generator with earthed neutral and isolated neutral
Generator Protection Fundamentals (VIDEO)
Sources:
1. MV switching devices – Technologies & application by ABB

2. A three-phase generator vacuum circuit breaker based on vacuum interrupter
technology has been established for the application in generator circuits up to 15
kv-50 KA by Dietmar GENTSCH and Stephan SCHOFT (ABB)
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Edvard Csanyi
Present on Google+
One Comment
1.
amin hassan
Jan 14, 2019
thanks
(reply)
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Energy and Power
What is the difference between Bonding,

Grounding and Earthing?
By jiguparmar | September, 27th 2012 | 34 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / What is the difference between Bonding, Grounding and
Earthing?
Bonding, Grounding and Earthing

1. Introduction
2. Bonding
3. Earthing
4. Grounding
5. Micro Difference between Earthing and Grounding
6. Illegal Practice of interchange Purpose of Grounding and earthing wire
7. Conclusion
What is the difference between Bonding, Grounding and Earthing?
Introduction
One of the most misunderstood and confused concept is difference between Bonding,
Grounding and Earthing. Bonding is more clear word compare to Grounding and
Earthing, but there is a micro difference between Grounding and Earhing.
Earthing and Grounding are actually different terms for expressing the same concept.
Ground or earth in a mains electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low
impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment.
Earthing is more commonly used in Britain, European and most of the commonwealth
countries standards (IEC, IS), while Grounding is the word used in North American
standards (NEC, IEEE, ANSI, UL).
The earthing connection to switchboard
rear door (metal parts)
We understand that Earthing and Grounding are necessary and have an idea how to do it
but we don’t have crystal clear concept for that. We need to understand that there are really
two separate things we are doing for same purpose that we call Grounding or Earthing. The
Earthing is to reference our electrical source to earth (usually via connection to some kind
of rod driven into the earth or some other metal that has direct contact with the earth).
The grounded circuits of machines need to have an effective return path from the machines
to the power source in order to function properly (Here by Neutral Circuit).
In addition, non-current-carrying metallic components in a System, such as equipment

cabinets, enclosures, and structural steel, need to be electrically interconnected and earthed
properly so voltage potential cannot exist between them. However, troubles can arise when
terms like “bonding”, “grounding”, and “earthing” are interchanged or confused in certain
situations.
In TN Type Power Distribution System, in US NEC (and possibly other) usage: Equipment
is earthed to pass fault Current and to trip the protective device without electrifying the
device enclosure. Neutral is the current return path for phase. These Earthing conductor and
Neutral conductor are connected together and earthed at the distribution panel and also at
the street, but the intent is that no current flow on earthed ground, except during momentary
fault conditions.
Here we may say that Earthing and grounding are nearly same by practice.
But In the TT Type Power Distribution System (in India) Neutral is only earthed (here it is
actually called Grounding) at distribution source (at distribution transformer) and Four
wires (Neutral and Three Phase) are distributed to consumer. While at consumer side all
electrical equipment body are connected and earthed at consumer premises (here it is
called Earthing).
Consumer has no any permission to mix Neutral with earth at his premises here earthing
and grounding is the different by practice.
In both above case Earthing and Grounding are used for the same Purpose. Let’s try to
understand this terminology one by one.
Go to Content ↑
Bonding
Bonding is simply the act of joining two electrical conductors together. These may be two
wires, a wire and a pipe, or these may be two Equipments. Bonding has to be done by
connecting of all the metal parts that are not supposed to be carrying current during normal
operations to bringing them to the same electrical potential.
Bonding ensures that these two things which are bonded will be at the same electrical
potential. That means we would not get electricity building up in one equipment or between
two different equipment. No current flow can take place between two bonded bodies
because they have the same potential.
Bonding itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of those boxes is earthed there
can be no electrical energy build-up. If the grounded box is bonded to the other box, the
other box is also at zero electrical potential.
It protects equipment and person by reducing current flow between pieces of equipment at
different potentials.
The primary reason for bonding is personnel safety, so someone touching two pieces of
equipment at the same time does not receive a shock by becoming the path of equalization
if they happen to be at different potentials. The Second reason has to do with what happens
if Phase conductor may be touched an external metal part.
The bonding helps to create a low impedance path back to the source. This will force a
large current to flow, which in turn will cause the breaker to trip.
In other words, bonding is there to allow a breaker to trip and thereby to terminate a
fault.
Typical bonding connection
Bonding to electrical earth is used extensively to ensure that all conductors (person,

surface and product) are at the same electrical potential. When all conductors are at the
same potential no discharge can occur.
Go to Content ↑
Earthing
Earthing means connecting the dead part (it means the part which does not carries current
under normal condition) to the earth for example electrical equipment’s frames, enclosures,
supports etc.
The purpose of earthing is to minimize the risk of receiving an electric shock if touching
metal parts when a fault is present. Generally green wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
Under fault conditions the non-current carrying metal parts of an electrical installation such
as frames, enclosures, supports, fencing etc. may attain high potential with respect to
ground so that any person or stray animal touching these or approaching these will be
subjected to potential difference which may result in the flow of a current through the body
of the person or the animal of such a value as may prove fatal.
To avoid this non-current carrying metal parts of the electrical system are connected to the
general mass of earth by means of an earthing system comprising of earth conductors to
conduct the fault currents safely to the ground.
Earthing has been accomplished through bonding of a metallic system to earth. It is

normally achieved by inserting ground rods or other electrodes deep inside earth.
Earthing is to ensure safety or Protection of electrical equipment and Human by

discharging the electrical energy to the earth.
Go to Content ↑
Grounding
Grounding means connecting the live part (it means the part which carries current under
normal condition) to the earth for example neutral of power transformer. It is done for the
protections of power system equipment and to provide an effective return path from the
machine to the power source.
For example grounding of neutral point of a star connected transformer.
Grounding refers the current carrying part of the system such as neutral (of the transformer
or generator).
Because of lightening, line surges or unintentional contact with other high voltage lines,
dangerously high voltages can develop in the electrical distribution system wires.
Grounding provides a safe, alternate path around the electrical system of your house thus
minimizing damage from such occurrences.
Generally Black wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
All electrical/electronic circuits (AC & DC) need a reference potential (zero volts) which is
called ground in order to make possible the current flow from generator to load. Ground is
May or May not be earthed. In Electrical Power distribution it is either earthed at
distribution Point or at Consumer end but it is not earthed in Automobile( for instance all
vehicles’ electrical circuits have ground connected to the chassis and metallic body that are
insulated from earth through tires).
There may exist a neutral to ground voltage due to voltage drop in the wiring, thus neutral
does not necessarily have to be at ground potential.
Cant see this video? Click here to watch it on Youtube.

In a properly balanced system, the phase currents balance each other, so that the total
neutral current is also zero. For individual systems, this is not completely possible, but we
strive to come close in aggregate.
This balancing allows maximum efficiency of the distribution transformer’s secondary

winding.
Go to Content ↑
Micro Difference between earthing and Grounding

There is no major difference between earthing and Grounding, both means “Connecting an
electrical circuit or device to the Earth”. This serves various purposes like to drain away
unwanted currents, to provide a reference voltage for circuits needing one, to lead lightning
away from delicate equipment.
Even though there is a micro difference between grounding and earthing:
1. Difference in Terminology
In USA term Grounding is used but in UK term Earthing is used.
2. Balancing the Load Vs Safety
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current some
times. While earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate
equipments. It is an alternate low resistance path for current.
When we take out the neutral for a three phase unbalanced connection and send it to
ground, it is called grounding. Grounding is done to balance unbalanced load. While
earthing is used between the equipment and earth pit so as to avoid electrical shock and
equipment damage.
3. Equipment Protection Vs Human Safety
Earthing is to protect the circuit elements whenever high voltage is passed by thunders or
by any other sources while Grounding is the common point in the circuit to maintain the
voltage levels.
Earth is used for the safety of the human body in fault conditions while Grounding (As
neutral earth) is used for the protection of equipment. Earthing is a preventive measure
while Grounding is just a return path.
The ground conductor provides a return path for fault current when a phase conductor
accidentally comes in contact with a grounded object. This is a safety feature of the wiring
system and we would never expect to see grounding conductor current flow during normal
operation.
IMPORTANT: Do not Ground the neutral second time when It is grounded either at
Distribution Transformer or at Main service panel of Consumer end. Grounding act as
neutral. But neutral cannot act as ground.
4. System Zero Potential Vs Circuit Zero Potential
Earthing and Grounding both is refer to zero potential, but the system connected to zero
potential is differ than Equipment connected to zero potential .If a neutral point of a
generator or transformer is connected to zero potential then it is known as grounding.
At the same time if the body of the transformer or generator is connected to zero potential
then it is known as earthing.
The term “Earthing means that the circuit is physically connected to the ground and it is
Zero Volt Potential to the Ground (Earth) but in case of “Grounding” the circuit is not
physically connected to ground, but its potential is zero(where the currents are algebraically
zero) with respect to other point, which is also known as “Virtual Grounding”.
Earth having zero potential whereas neutral may have some potential. That means neutral
does not always have zero potential with respect to ground. In earthing we have Zero Volt
potential references to the earth while in grounding we have local Zero Volt potential
reference to circuit. When we connect two different Power circuits in power distribution
system, we want to have the same Zero Volt reference so we connect them and grounds
together.
This common reference might be different from the earth potential.
Go to Content ↑
Illegal Practice of interchange Purpose of Grounding and

earthing wire
Neutral wire in grid connections is mandatory for safety. Imagine a person from 4th floor in
a building uses Earth wire (which is earthed in the basement at Basement) as neutral to
power his lights. Another Person from 2nd floor has a normal setup and uses neutral for the
same purpose. Neutral wire is also earthed at the ground level (as per USA practice Neutral
is Grounded (earthed) at Building and as per Indian Practice it is Grounded (earthed) at
Distribution Transformer).
However, ground wire (Neutral wire) has a much lower electrical resistance than Earth
Wire (Earthing) which results in a difference of electrical potential (i.e. voltage) between
them. This voltage is quite a hazard for anyone touching a Earth wire (Metal Body of
Equipment) as it may have several tens of volts.
The second issue is legality. Using ground wire instead of neutral makes you an energy
thief as the meter uses only the Phase and neutral for recording your energy consumption.
Many Consumers make energy theft by using Earthing wire as a Neutral wire in an Energy
meter.
Go to Content ↑
Conclusion
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current. While
earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate equipments. It is an
alternate low resistance path for current.
Earth is used for the safety of the human body in fault conditions while Grounding (As
neutral earth) is used for the protection of equipment.
Go to Content ↑
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Jignesh Parmar
Jignesh Parmar has completed M.Tech (Power System Control) ,B.E(Electrical). He is

member of Institution of Engineers (MIE),India. Membership No:M-1473586.He has more
than 13 years experience in Transmission -Distribution-Electrical Energy theft detection-
Electrical Maintenance-Electrical Projects (Planning-Designing-Technical Review-
coordination -Execution). He is Presently associate with one of the leading business group
as a Deputy Manager at Ahmedabad,India.
34 Comments
1.
E.J
May 10, 2018
i connect the base of a 3phase diesel genset together with its neutral to the neutral of
the step-up tranformer then connect it to the tranformer grounding then connect it to
the the grounding rod buried 6ft.
Is it ok??
(reply)
2.
qusai
Mar 08, 2018
Hi
Greetings,,
Does the Equipotantioal bonding require separate earth pit.?
Regards,,
(reply)
3.
Eric
Dec 30, 2017

Hello Sir, i would like to ask a question. my country electrical code most of them
are copied or similar from NEC thr american standard. well the problem is in my
work i have notice that europeans always bashing american electrical standards and
they will laughing at it and they will said one of the poorest standard.most of the
jobs are confuse me.but in my experience if im compare who has the better method
or the work outputs i would say NEC is telling the correct method rather than IEC.
(reply)
4.
SANJAY RATHOD
Aug 13, 2017
Hello Jignesh,
Good Information.
As you are working on transmission line, I would like to know how to over come
the lightning stokes on 33KV OHL with porcelain insulators.Is there any method to
limit the failure of insulators.
(reply)
5.
Daud Salis
Aug 06, 2017
Great information sir,teach us more stuffs on these.As an electrical engineering

student plz update me on how to choose a topic on these for my first degree
program
(reply)
6.
Daud Salis
Aug 06, 2017

Box ks 13072
Ghana
(reply)
7.
Les Hammer
Dec 13, 2016
> Generally Black wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
This statement should not be used in any article published in the USA. Black wires
in your house are at 115V potential. The novice reader may become confused when
you speak of Black wires and ground.
(reply)
8.
farzin khaleghi
Nov 27, 2016
your definition about differences between earthing & Grounding is Totally wrong.
Both of them have same meaning.
(reply)
9.
Roger ANiez
Oct 24, 2016
new Rectifier installed in substation is not grounded… then for initial energization
the rectifier is exploded…what is the cause ??? pls advise
(reply)
10.
Tarique Anwar
Apr 28, 2016
Dear Jignesh,
During the material receiving of industrial lighting fixture, indoor and outdoor, The
lighting fixture was are totally in wet conditions happened during transportation or
in custom storage.
I would like to know the technical reason, can we use the lighting fixture yes or no,
please let me know the reason.
I am waiting for your kind responce.
(reply)
o
farhan shaikh
Dec 24, 2016
dry it out and check insulation resistance, it can be installed after that.
(reply)
11.
Ashingu
Nov 05, 2015
What do you think about grounding’s health effects on the body? Is it safe to be
grounded? Is there any possibility of danger from touching a grounding wire?
(reply)
12.
EMIL
Aug 15, 2015
Excelent this post,congrat…to all.

Good job .
(reply)
13.
sivakumar palani
May 30, 2015
Dear sir,
Is grounding wire a requirement even for the light fittings which has got metal to
metal contact with the ships structure.
(reply)
14.
AbduRahman Yusuf
Apr 26, 2015
Let me firstly thank Engr. Jignesh Parmar.
Then, how best can we sum up single phase loads (say 30 x 150W SPN @ 220V) in
a TPN @ 400V Distribution Board for the purpose of calculating/determining TPN
DB”s main CB and its 4-Core feeder Cable?
(reply)
15.
murat
Apr 14, 2015
Jignesh Parmar! Your articles make a difference for the people following this site.
Thank you for your contributions.
(reply)
16.
Ahmed
Feb 26, 2015
Great Information… thanks
(reply)
17.
Ashokkumar
Feb 03, 2015
1.Differ the earth connection to main earth grid via by exothermic welding and
normal earth connection.
2.We are having more tanks and vessels and pumps on it earthing all via Earth bar is
better or direct connection to earth grid is better.
(reply)
18.
fady samy
Oct 21, 2014
why do always keep 6 mt separate distance between earth pits???
(reply)
19.
ATAKAN CANER
Oct 16, 2014
Please see our patented high voltage protection VoltCare. VoltCare is a Low voltage
lightning arrester without discharge grounding line. You can find more details on
http://www.voltcare.net .
(reply)
20.
T.Ch.H.Rao
Oct 16, 2014
excellent article
(reply)
21.
sajid
Sep 30, 2014
Dear Sir
i have a question which software we can use for designing earthing system.
if you have any please share at portal also help to understand the designing
parameters for earthing of a system.
(reply)
22.
Amit kumar lenka
Sep 22, 2014
clear answer sir
(reply)
23.
ravi chandra
Feb 23, 2014
Wonderful explanation sir. Actually always a confusion existed, but now my

thoughts are clear. Thank you so much for the write up. Its worth reading :)
(reply)
24.
krishnajirao
Mar 19, 2013
After going through the article, I find there is non-congruence in the three
terms.grounding,earthing and bonding.If grounding is not done then earthing
becomes bonding! Is it right?
Through earthing and bonding fault current will flow?
What is the purpose of grounding and grounding electrodes if we provide an earth
bus from the neutral point to all the enclosures through out the system?
(reply)
25.
Magnito
Oct 14, 2012
Which is a more effective way for substation earthing? I work in a plant were all the
old substations have earth pits but most of the morden ones multiple earth rods
around the substation. I am new in the field. Which one is a much better my
arrangement?
(reply)
26.
richxtlc
Sep 27, 2012
The terms grounding and bonding have been misused for may years in the US. The
problem has been addressed by the NEC to clarify it.
In the US the grounding of the electrical system is accomplished at two point, at the
source transformer, (neutral point on a 3-phase wye connected winding or at the
midpoint of a single-phase transformer for local distribution and at the first
disconnecting device at the customer’s premise. The earth ground is connected to a
ground rod or other grounding electrode and then it is tied to the grounded
conductor (neutral) in the first disconnecting device.
This is done to accomplish two things, one to provide a low impedance path back to
the source for unbalanced and fault currents and in the event the grounded
conductor opens prior to the first disconnecting device the path still exists through
ground to return to the source.
The bonding of all non-current carrying metallic parts provides a low impedance
path to the first disconnecting device to provide sufficient current to operate the
OCPD and to connect to the grounded conductor (neutral) to return to the source.
The use of earth as the sole means for fault current return may not allow sufficient
current to flow as the impedance can vary greatly between tow points. The
impedance of the earth can vary with the moisture content, the type of soil (sand,
loam, gravel) and temperature. The temperature and moisture can vary with the
changes in seasons. it can therefore provide an inconsistent impedance between the
fault and the source.
The article does clarify the differences between the North American and European
methods and clarifies the terms used in each except as noted above.
(reply)
27.
Al Warner
Sep 27, 2012

Edi – With all due respect, there are many technical errors with respect to grounding
practices in the USA, etc. I would be happy to offer comment & corrections if either
you or Jiguparmar would send me an unsecured PDF of this article that I could edit
with Adobe Acrobat 8 Standard.
Al
(reply)
o
Edvard
Sep 27, 2012
Hi Al,
Thanks for the commenting. Can you name mistakes one by one here in the
comment field? Article is already published, so editing is not very
recommended, but still possible only with permission of author Jignesh
Parmar.
However you can create PDF using button PDF below article title.
I’d love to see your comments to continue the discussion.
(reply)
o
jiguparmar
Sep 27, 2012
Thanks richxtlc,
At some angle agree with You. As per my view, As per USA practice
Grounding and Earthing make combined so Can we say that for this type of
Practice Earthing and Grounding are similar word for that. and I think there
is no problem of Neutral Floating in this practice .
I write this Article on the base of Indian Practice here Earthing and
Grounding is totally separate from its source to user end and don’t mix
neutral with earth.
Can you agree for the statement that Neutral earthing to earth is called
“Grounding” and Equipment Earhitng to the earth is called “Earthing” (Not
Grounding).
Waiting for your Reply.
(reply)

richxtlc
Sep 28, 2012
In the sense that we are talking about using the European or IEC
terminology, you are correct. In the US we only tie the neutral
(grounded conducfor) to ground at the source transformer and at the
customer’s first disconnecting device (in most cases). We use an
equipment grounding conductor (either the connecting conduit, bare
copper wire, or green or green with yellow stripe) to connect the
non-current carrying metal casing to the ground bus in the first
disconnect device.
We normally never have more that one ground in any circuit as this
would create problems with getting sufficient current to flow to
operate the OCPD.
There are instances were we have ungrounded wye circuits to

prevent operation of the OCPD for a single phase-to-ground fault.
But, the protective grounding of the equipment is stilled connected in
the way described above.
(reply)

Olubunmi
Feb 02, 2017

Please is there a difference between earthing for lighting
protection and earthing/grounding of electrical panels in a
building
(reply)

N. Collins
Mar 23, 2018
No difference really, both can be connected to same

main earth Path.

Engr.Olawoyin
Oct 13, 2018
Your earthing cable must be connected to lightning

down conductor and to the earth grid. Your earthing
cable and that of earthing grid cable shall be of the
same size.
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Winston Cabas: El psiquiatra le está
mintiendo al país
10 marzo, 2019
ND / 10 mar 2019.- El ingeniero Winston Cabas, experto en sistemas eléctricos, exigió este
domingo a Jorge Rodríguez y al ministro Luis Motta Domínguez, que dejen de mentir sobre
las causas del apagón nacional que cumplió 72 horas, sin intermitencias en algunos sectores
del país.
Así lo dijo en entrevista con Vladimir

Villegas por Unión Radio.
“Eso es verdad. El sistema SCADA que administra, que controla y que supervisa nuestra
red, no puede ser hackeada desde el exterior. Por eso el señor psiquiatra, doctor Jorge
Rodríguez, y el señor ministro de energía, general Motta, le mienten al país. . Hubo
efectivamente un incendio en el corredor de servicio de la línea 765 kVa e impactó
severamente en la generación hidroeléctrica y la sacó de servicio. Eso hace que el sistema
eléctrico colapse porque el sistema complementario que debe acompañar a la hidroeléctrica
no está disponible”
Comentó, ante una pregunta de Villegas, que el sistema lo han tenido que arracar
manualmente. “Se arracan manualmente porque las telemetrías, los teleprotectores… no
están operando correctamente. Fueron canibalizadas. Nunca se les hizo mantenimiento. Se
abandonaron esas subestaciones. Entonces hay que ir manualmente con un motogenerador
para darle los servicios auxiliares. ¿Cuáles son los servicios auxiliares? Las baterias…”
“¿Y eso hace que el sistema sea inestable?”, le preguntó el periodista.
“Por supuesto. Eso hace más frágil el sistema. Lo hace más vulnerable. En consecuencia se
tandan mucho en recuperar la carga en esos sistemas. Eso está ocurriendo y hay que
decírselo al país”.
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More Information
Energy Generation / Protection / Transmission and Distribution
Issues with distributed generation

protection (bulk power and distributed
generators)
By Edvard | July, 10th 2019 | 0 comments | Save to PDF
Share!
Home / Technical Articles / Issues with distributed generation protection (bulk power and
distributed generators)
Protection requirements for DG

Besides a number of benefits, there are some technical problems with relay protection of
distributed generators. It turned out to be one of the most problematical technical issues
since its malfunction could cause serious risk for people and components.
Problems with distributed generation protection (bulk power and distributed generators) (on
photo: Mark Emlick's Gas Peaking Plant at Westshore Fraserburgh with Cummins Gas Generators)
Much more small distributed generation units are nowadays connected to power systems
than in the past. Protection requirements should relate to the value of the equipment
protected. As such, protection requirements for large units differ from those for smaller
units.
Furthermore, the location in the power system at which a generator is connected can create
site-specific hazards to the generator as well as to the power system to which it is
connected.
The changes that have occurred to date in worldwide power grids have impacted the types of
generation placed in service and the manner in which they are connected to the power grid. This,
in turn, has created some new hazards to both the generators and the supply system for which
protective systems need to be applied.
Generally, generators can be classified as bulk power generators and distributed generators.
Both types share many common hazards. Therefore, protection requirements are similar.
Smaller generators, common among distributed generators, warrant less sophisticated
protection, however, as their cost is significantly less than large units.
Let’s have a word about each type of generators and their basic protection.
Table of Content:
1. Bulk power generators

2. Distributed generators
3. Protection issues with distributed generators
4. Connections and protection schemes
1. Direct connected
2. Unit connected
1. Bulk power generators
Bulk power generators are synchronous machines that interconnect into the bulk power
transmission system. Such generators are typically above 20 MVA in size and usually range
in the 100 to 1200 MVA size.
These generators are often located in power plants that may house one or more generating
units. The geographic locations of bulk power plants are selected on the basis of factors
such as proximity to fuel supply and load centers, availability of a suitable cooling source,
and restrictions related to environmental concerns and public acceptance.
Most such generating plants are steam plants fueled by coal, oil, gas, and uranium. Bulk power
hydro plants are limited to availability of large-scale hydropower.
Typical example are hydro-driven generators. These hydro-units have vertical shafts. Steam
turbine driven generators have horizontal shafts.
Bulk power generators are usually connected to the power system through a HV switchyard
located at the plant location. Some smaller bulk power units may tap into a bulk power
transmission line, thus effectively creating a three-terminal line.
https://youtu.be/5uSOp9tvVrA
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2. Distributed generators
Distributed generators are made up of induction and synchronous machines. An

induction generator is simply an induction motor driven above synchronous speed by a
prime mover. Induction generators require a source of excitation, which is typically
obtained from the power system to which it is connected.
Loss of the power source to the circuit to which an induction generator is connected,
therefore, will normally cause the generator to shut down, as its source of excitation is lost.
Continued operation of an induction generator is possible after the source to its connected
line is removed, however, only if a source of excitation, such as a capacitor bank, exists on
the line to which the induction generator remains connected.
To sustain operation in a self-excitation state, the amount of excitation, and load that
remains isolated with the induction generator must fall within a suitable range.
There are many different types of distributed generation systems along with a variety
of ways in which they are connected to the power system.
Generators located at industrial plants may be connected to the plant’s electrical system
electrically at a distance from the point of electrical delivery to the associated industrial
complex.
Industrial generators may be cogenerators or backup generators. Cogenerators operate off waste
energy produced as part of the industrial process. Backup generators are installed for reliability
purposes to maintain service to critical processes in the event of the loss of utility power source.
Other types of distributed generation are powered from a variety of sources such as wind,
solar, hydro, biomas, geothermal, urban waste, and conventional fossil fuel. The sizes of
such units can also vary from very small single-phase units rated at several kVA to larger
units exceeding 100 MVA.
Larger distributed generators are usually connected to a sub-transmission system.

Distributed generators connected to distribution systems are usually limited to units of
about 10-15 MVA in size.
https://youtu.be/SSpT8vAPBvk

3. Protection issues with distributed generators
The overall problem when integrating distributed generators in existing networks is that
distribution systems are planned as passive networks, carrying the power unidirectionally
from the central generation (HV level) downstream to the loads at MV/LV level.
The protection system design in common MV and LV distribution networks is determined

by a passive paradigm, i.e. no generation is expected in the network.
Nowadays, electromechanical protection devices are replaced by microprocessor based relays

with a number of integrated features. Currents and voltages are suitably transformed and isolated
from the line quantities by instrument transformers and converted into digital form. These values
are inputs for several algorithms which then reach tripping decisions.
For the design and coordination of protective relays in a network, some overall rules have
become widely accepted:
Selectivity
A protection system should disconnect only the faulted part (or the smallest possible part
containing the fault) of the system in order to minimize fault consequences.
Redundancy
A protection system has to care for redundant function of relays in order to improve
reliability. Redundant functionalities are planed and referred to as backup protection.
Moreover, redundancy is reached by combining different protection principles, for example

distance and differential protection for transmission lines.
Grading
For the purpose of clear selectivity and redundancy, relay characteristics are graded. This
measure helps to achieve high redundancy
whereas selectivity is not disabled.
Security
The security of a relay protection system is the ”ability to reject all power system events
and transients that are not faults so that healthy parts of the power system are not
unnecessarily disconnected”.
Dependability
The dependability of a relay protection system is ”the ability to detect and disconnect all
faults within the protected zone”.
https://youtu.be/-xjprcbFK3Q
Different network topologies require different protection schemes. The simplest network
structure to protect are radial systems, therefore simple relays are used.
Normally, time-dependent, graded overcurrent protection is installed regarding redundancy

(backup protection). More sophisticated relays are used for the protection of rings and
meshed grids. Impedance relays trip due to a low voltage-current quotient. Since these
relays allow to determine the position of the fault on the line, they are also called distance
relays.
A very common principle for the protection of generators, transformers, busbars and lines is
differential protection. The trigger criteria is, simply speaking, a certain difference between input
and output current.
Furthermore, a number of other techniques are used, also device-specific ones.
4. Generator connections and protection
Some common connections for generators are as follows:
4.1 Direct connected
Direct connected (one or several), each through a circuit breaker to a common bus, as
illustrated in Figure 1. Usually they are wye-grounded through impedance, but may be
undergrounded, or are delta-connected.
Figure 1 – Direct-connected generator units (one or more) to a common system bus
They may be connected to a grounded power system or to the power system through a
delta-connected transformer.
Typical protection for distributed generator is shown in Figure 2. For such generators
undervoltage and overvoltage as well as underfrequency and overfrequency relays are
applied for disconnecting the power sources from the utility.
Figure 2 – Typical protection for a direct-connected generator. (*) Dotted relays are optional
except 29=57 under- or overvoltage and 81 undervoltage or overvoltage mandatory for nonutility
generators connected to a utility; (#50) not always applicable
A separate transfer trip channel from the utility to the distributed unit may be required to
assure that the unit is not connected when the utility recloses to restore service.
This is important where the distributed generator may be islanded and able to supply
the utility loads in the island.
4.2 Unit connected
Unit connected, in which the generator is connected directly to an associated power

transformer without a circuit breaker in between, as shown in Figure 3.
This is the common connection for the large bulk power generators in the utilities.
Figure 3 – Unit-connected generator
Most generators are wye-connected, with a few delta-connected. These can either be a
single generator or two separate generators (cross-compound) that are supplied by a
common prime-mover system. Cross-compound generators may have the separate units
directly connected together to a single transformer, or connected to separate secondary
delta windings of a three-winding power transformer.
Generators are also connected to the power system through autotransformers.

Figure 4 – Typical protection for a unit generator and for large generators in utility systems
Typical illustration of protection for the unit-connected generator is shown in Figure 4. The
individual protection units shown in Figure 8.3 and Figure 4 may be separate relays or may
be combined in various combinations.
The multifunction digital (microprocessor) relays provide many functions in a single

package along with digital fault recording, self-checking, and so on.
Sources:
1. Protective Relaying – Principles and Applications by H. Lee Willis (KEMA T&D Consulting)
and Muhammad H. Rashid (University of West Florida)
2. Protection of Power Systems with Distributed Generation: State of the Art by Martin Geidl
(Power Systems Laboratory; Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich)
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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for design of LV/MV
switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in power substations, commercial
buildings and industry facilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
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Electric Motor / Energy and Power
Troubleshooting An Open Circuit Faults in

the Control Circuit
By Edvard | October, 26th 2015 | 4 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Troubleshooting An Open Circuit Faults in the Control Circuit
General Troubleshooting Procedure

Symptom The machine does not start when the start button is pressed. At this point the
problem could be mechanical or electrical. We will focus on just the electrical circuit faults
for now.
Tro
ubleshooting An Open Circuit Faults in the Control Circuit (photo credit:
lpmanagementservices.com)
This fault could be located in either the power circuit or the control circuit. The fault could
also be many different types, such as, open circuit fault, short circuit fault or a ground fault.
This general troubleshooting procedure is designed to start in the middle of the problem area and
give us the best idea which direction to go. The control transformer is a good place to start since
it is in the middle of the circuit and is part of the power and control circuits.
The first three steps of this procedure will be the same for all faults and the rest will be
completed throughout this chapter in more than one procedure. There is no one procedure
that can guide you through any given problem. For simplicity’s sake we will now take
one area and one type of fault at a time. The first fault we will investigate is the open
circuit fault.
We will now investigate open circuit faults in the control circuit.
Open Circuit Faults in the Control Circuit

Open circuit faults – An open circuit fault is any fault that stops the operation of a
machine due to an open wire or component. Let’s develop our procedure for
troubleshooting an open circuit in the control circuit. Remember that the first three steps
will be the same for all faults.
Step 1 //
You must analyze the schematic diagram for a general circuit overview.
Step 2 //
You must carefully open the control panel with power energized since voltage checks will
need to be made. (The operation of the voltmeter should have been verified before
continuing)
Step 3 //
You should check the voltage at the X1 and X2 terminals at the secondary of the control
transformer.
 If correct voltage is not present, then the problem is in the power circuit.
 If correct voltage is present and the contactor is energized, then the problem is in
the power circuit.
 If correct voltage is present, the contactor is not energized and the OL is not tripped, then
the problem is in the control circuit.
Schematic diagram – Control circuit
Scenario // What’s happening?
Scenario is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the OL is not tripped,
then the problem is in the control circuit. For this scenario, the fault is an open circuit fault
and inside the panel. From the schematic on the previous page you should have read 120
volts at terminals X1 and X2.
Since the correct voltage is present we must troubleshoot the system in a logical order until
we lose the correct voltage.
If the voltage changes from a good reading on one device to a different reading on the next device
in logical order, then the device or wire in between those readings is open.
Step 4 //
You should check the voltage on X1 at the top of the control circuit fuse and X2 terminal at
the secondary of the control transformer.
 If the correct voltage is present, continue to Step 5.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then X1 wire is open from the top of the fuse to the
terminal on the secondary of the transformer.
You should check the voltage on X1 at the top of the control circuit fuse and X2 terminal at the
secondary of the control transformer.
Step 5 //
You should check the voltage on X1 at the top of the control circuit fuse and X2 at the top
of the neutral link.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then X2 wire is open from the top of the neutral link
to the terminal on the secondary of the transformer.
You should check the voltage on X1 at the top of the control circuit fuse and X2 at the top of the
neutral link.
Step 6 //
You should check the voltage on wire #1 at the bottom of the control fuse and X2 at the top
of the neutral link.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then the control fuse is open.
If the fuse is open, then there is either a short circuit or ground fault. If the fuse is not
open, then there is an open circuit fault. This is our first indication that the fault is an open
circuit fault.
You should check the voltage on wire #1 at the bottom of the control fuse and X2 at the top of the
neutral link.
Step 7 //
You should check the voltage on wire #1 at the bottom of the control fuse and wire #2 on
the bottom of the neutral link.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then the neutral link is open.
You should check the voltage on wire #1 at the bottom of the control fuse and wire #2 on the
bottom of the neutral link.
Use the schematic diagram below as an illustration for Scenario A, assuming that we
don’t know the location of the fault:
Schematic diagram as an illustration for Scenario A
Step 8 //
Since the voltage at point a (bottom of the fuse) is the correct voltage, we will use wire #2
as our reference. We will make our measurements from left to right and then top to bottom
until we find the voltage not present. If the correct voltage is present, continue to Step 9.
Step 9 //
Check the voltage at point b (left side of 1OL) with wire #2 as a reference. If the correct
voltage is present, continue to Step 10.
 If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #1 is open from the bottom of the fuse to
the left of the normally closed contacts for 1OL.
Step 10 //
Check the voltage at point c (right side of 1OL) with wire #2 as a reference.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then 1OL normally closed contacts are open.
Step 11 //
Check the voltage at point d (top of terminal #3) with wire #2 as a reference.

 If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #3 is open between the right side of 1OL
and the top of #3 terminal.
SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM // – The fault is between the point where the voltage is present and
the point at which it is not present anymore.
Reference // Electrical Theory – Technology, PLC Concepts and Basic Electronics –

Michelin North America, Inc. (Download)
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Edvard Csanyi
4 Comments
1.
Arwin France Goyena
Jan 29, 2018
Can you provide me an open fault calculation or what is difference for the open
circuit fault, ty
(reply)
2.
Glenn Gibert
Oct 28, 2015
Article 430.74 of the National Electrical Code states,” Where one conductor of the
motor control circuit is grounded, the motor control circuit shall be arranged so that
a ground fault in the control circuit remote from the motor controller will (1) not
start the motor and (2) not bypass manually operated shutdown devices or automatic
safety shutdown devices.Therefore the drawing for a start/stop control circuit is a
clear violation of the National Electrical Code. Also the overload device is is
located after the magnetic coil and not before the start push button.
(reply)
o
Craig Straughan
Oct 30, 2015
You’re not looking at the circuit correctly Gilbert. A ground fault anywhere
on the ungrounded side of the coil will not start the motor, it will open the
fuse instead since X2 is grounded.
The OL contact may be located anywhere in the ungrounded side of the
control circuit if you desire. The NEC does not prohibit you from changing
its location in the circuit. When you take a new motor starter out of the box
the manufacturer typically pre-wires the OL contact so that you do not have
to. Whether or not the OL contact breaks the grounded side of the circuit
depends on other factors. For instance if it was a 480 V control circuit it
would open the other ungrounded leg of the control circuit.
(reply)

Glenn Gibert
Nov 02, 2015
Yes it does. The OL contact on the motor starter was tested at a

nationally recognized testing laboratory such as the UL with the
connection to it designated X2 for a reason, not my convenience.
NEC 110.3(B) states Listed or labeled equipment shall be installed
and used in accordance with any instructions included in the listing
or labeling. The circuit illustrated clearly has a control transformer.
(reply)
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Energy and Power / Transformers
The most frequent errors in specifying

current transformers (CTs)
By Edvard | April, 24th 2017 | 2 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / The most frequent errors in specifying current transformers (CTs)
Proper specification of CTs

Current transformers (CTs) form an essential link within the protection chain of
electrical networks. Their specification, even if it is handled by specialists, often includes
errors and is insufficiently optimized.
The most frequent errors in specifying current transformers (on photo: CTs installed in MV
switchgear type MCset 1250A, 10kV, 31kA; credit: Edvard Csanyi)
This often leads to technological impossibilities, operating delays, extra costs, incorrect
operation of protections and can even jeopardize the safety of installations and people.
Proper specification of CTs requires sound knowledge of:
 Electrical installation diagram,

 Electrical data (voltage, nominal current, short-circuit current, etc.),
 Associated protections,
 Overall network protections (protection plan, the load that they represent for the CTs, as
well as wiring and their settings.
Often, due to lack of data or even ignorance of how a CT shall be used, a CT manufacturer says
“these features are not feasible”, while a standard CT may be suitable.
Common engineers errors

Many errors normally lead to oversizing of the CTs which increases costs and can be
dangerous. Many CT definition errors stem from ignorance of their operation and from the
unknown or incomplete characteristics of the network component to be protected and of the
associated protections.
The better informed the CT manufacturer, the fewer errors and the more the CT will be
optimised.
Contents
1. Protections and conventional CTs

o Error #1 – Different accuracy limit factor or classes…
o Error #2 – Adding up the powers…
o Error #3 – Changing the required characteristics…
o Error #4 – Lack of real information
o Error #5 – Taking into account relay impedance…
2. Differential protections and class X
o Error #1 – CTs with the greatest knee point voltage…
o Error #2 – Error on the through current…
o Error #3 – Pilot wires in the calculation…
Protections and conventional CTs
For these protections which do not require class X defined CTs, the most frequent “errors”
are:
Error #1 – Different accuracy limit factor or classes…
Using two CTs or one CT with two secondaries for two protective relays the
manufacturers of which recommend different accuracy limit factor (ALF) or different
accuracy classes.
As the CT manufacturers can translate 10P to 5P (according to the corresponding

induction levels), and can move from one ALF to another by adjusting power, they can find
a CT matching the needs of both relays.
Error #2 – Adding up the powers…

Taking into account the wiring resistance although the protection manufacturer has already
integrated it into the needs formulated for the CT. Let us take an example of two relays
whose technical data indicate for 1 A CTs:
 CT1 for relay 1: 5 VA 10P15 (assuming 2 RL < 1.5 Ω),

 CT2 for relay 2: 10 VA 5P15 (assuming 2 RL < 2 Ω).
A single CT may be suitable for both relays: in theory a 10 VA 5P15. You need to:
 Avoid adding up the powers (5 + 10 VA) required for each relay. In point of fact, for the
CT2, relay 1 only represents a load (just like wiring) and vice versa.
 Check, in this case for the CT2, that: 2 RL + Rp1 ≤ 2 Ω;
and if CT1 was selected, that: 2 RL + Rp2 ≤ 1.5 Ω. If this was not verified, the relay supplier
can suggest that “x” VA be added per additional ohm.
Adding the specified power for several protections linked to an application results in CTs that are
often impossible to manufacture or that jeopardise safety during short-circuits. Use of
multifunction numerical relays avoids such errors. You only need to size the CT for the most
restrictive protection.
Error #3 – Changing the required characteristics…
Changing the required characteristics without verifying the consequences.
Case 1 – Low ratio CT…
A CT manufacturer cannot make a low ratio CT and suggests increasing this ratio. Let us
take an example:
 Requested: 30/1 CT – 2.5 VA 5P20,

 CT manufacturer’s proposal: 60/1,
 With motor In = 16 A and minimum thermal protection setting: 40 % of CT In (i.e. 60 × 0.4 =
24 A).
The protection setting at 16 A (normal thermal protection setting at motor In), is then
impossible. The solution is to increase the rating and lower the ALF requirement: 40/1 –
2.5 VA 5P10. This CT, feasible, allows the required setting (40 x 0.4 = 16 A).
Case 2 – Thermal withstand…
A buyer accepts a thermal withstand of 0.1 s proposed by the CT manufacturer instead of

1 s.
What is likely to happen is that, on a short-circuit, if the real fault duration exceeds 0.1 s,
thermal and probably electrodynamic withstand will be insufficient and may result in CT
destruction.
Error #4 – Lack of real information
Due to lack of information on real requirements. Let us take the following case,
relatively educational: a CT with two primaries and three secondaries (200-1000/1-1-1) is
requested with:
 First secondary: 1 A, class X (given ),

 Second secondary: 1 A 15 VA class 0.5 for metering,
 Third secondary: 1 A 10 VA 5P20.
The supplier can propose a CT with three magnetic cores and secondary tappings to meet the 200
A or 1000 A need at the primary. However, such a CT is hard to manufacture because to obtain 15
VA class 0.5 and 10 VA 5P20 on 200/1 ratios, you need 5 × 15 VA class 0.5 and 5 × 10 VA 5P20 on
1000/1 ratios!
Moreover, the supplier must comply with class X for both ratios! In point of fact, class X
concerns only the 1000/1 ratio (for busbar differential protection). The 200/1 ratios
concern metering and the traditional protections (see fig. 1).
Figure 1 – Example of poor understanding between the customer and the CT manufacturer
The CT to be manufactured is then easier, less bulky, cheaper and definitely feasible. This
example shows that the lack of information shared between those involved is a source of
errors and of non-optimization.
A consultation that does not begin properly may result in a CT that cannot be
manufactured!
Error #5 – Taking into account relay impedance…
Taking into account the relay impedance Rh for calculation of real load (see fig. 2) in the
CT calculation for overcurrent or in the calculation for CTs in class X.
Figure 2 – Internal and load impedances of a CT
A word of warning! Rh is only considered when calculating CTs for zero sequence
current lh.
For high impedance differential protections, in the calculation of Knee Point Voltage Vk
given by:
2 If (Rct +2 RL + Ra)
where Ra = other loads, Rh must not intervene.
This is the load of one phase (we assume that no current flows through the neutral). Vk is
indeed calculated for relay stability conditions, i.e. no phase or earth fault, in the protected
zone, no incorrect unbalance, therefore, in the differential connection I = 0 and the voltage
of that connection = 0.
Knee point voltage defined by the BS 3938 standard: Vk for class X (PX in IEC 60044-1). Vk is
determined by the point on the curve Vs (Im) from which a 10% increase in voltage Vs leads to a
50% increase in the magnetizing current.
Differential protections and class X
For these applications, the most usual errors are:
Error #1 – CTs with the greatest knee point voltage…
Asking the CT manufacturer to supply CTs with the greatest knee point voltage Vk that
he can build using a standard mould. This occurs when the differential protection relay
(make, type) is not defined.
There are three consequences:
1. Overcost,
2. Possibility of high overvoltages and overcurrents at the CT secondary which can lead to
destruction of the circuit and the relay,
3. With no requirements for the CT secondary winding resistance Rct, it is not certain that
the Vk expression corresponding to the relay used, will be complied with.
To illustrate this case, let us take the example of a high impedance busbar differential protection.
The CT supplied is a 2000/5 where Vk = 400 V and Rct = 2.5 Ω.
For the relay used, the expression to be satisfied is: Vk ≥ 200 Rct + 20, i.e. 520 V. The Vk
= 400 V is not sufficient!
More serious still, the requirement of too high a Vk may lead to the manufacturing of a
non-standard CT (see the first two consequences above) requiring a specially designed
stabilising resistance and an overvoltage limitor as well as the use of a deeper panel!
Error #2 – Error on the through current…
Error on the through current is very common. Let us take the example of a high impedance
differential protection where the switchboard Isc is taken into account instead of the
maximum through current. The aim is to protect a motor, the CTs have a ratio of 100/1.
 Result obtained with the through current (7 In of CT):

Vk ≥ 14 (Rct + 2 RL).
 Result obtained with switchboard I sc (Isc = 40 kA):
Vk ≥ 800 (Rct + 2 RL)
It is not necessary to go into too much detail to understand the importance of choosing the right
parameter!
The table 1 gives the through current values to be taken into account when the through
current is the CT calculation base.
Table 1 – Determining the through current properly
Error #3 – Pilot wires in the calculation…
With line differential protections, taking into account the pilot wires in the calculation of
Rwiring. In point of fact, RL is given by the wiring linking the CTs to the relay located on the
same side (end) of the line (see fig. 3).
You must not take into account the length of the pilot wires which run from one end to
the other of the protected line.
Figure 3 – RL is given by the wiring between the CT and the relays located on the same side of the
line
Reminders
With respect to high impedance differential protections:
 For the calculation of min. Vk, take account of the through current (see Table 1).
 Calculation of the stabilising resistance Rst is a function of min. Vk and of the relay setting
current.
 Calculation of peak voltage (Vp) is based on the internal Isc of the protected zone and on
the real Vk of the CT.
Reference // Current transformers: Specification errors and solutions by P. Fonti

(Schneider Electric)
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Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Ruslan Sadgalin
Apr 27, 2018
It would be great if you write how specify the CTs installed in neutral of
transformer and how to size this neutral cable.
(reply)
2.
Faisak
Apr 26, 2017
Thank you very much Eodvard , I study Electrical power system . I am very
intersting and connect always your webset it is very helpful for me , so i want to
friend with you because you are expert in my field .
best regards
(reply)
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Protection / Transformers / Transmission and Distribution
Practical implementation of the six most

common transformer protection principles
By Edvard | July, 24th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Practical implementation of the six most common transformer
protection principles
Best transformer protection vs cost

This technical relies on the previously published article (6 alarms coming from a substation
transformer you MUST take very seriously), but is much more dedicated to the
implementation of relay protection principles. You know that transformer is one of the most
important links in a transmission system. Unfotunately, its great range of characteristics and
special features makes complete protection difficult.
Practical implementation of the
six most common transformer protection principles
The choice of suitable protection for transformers also is governed by cost, as the ratings
required in transmission, and distribution systems, range from a few kVA to several
hundred MVA.
Fuses are used for the lower rated transformers. Higher ratings, however, require the best
protection that can be designed.
The most common principles adopted in transformer protection include the following:
1. Overheating protection
2. Overcurrent protection
3. Earth fault protection (restricted and standby)
4. Biased differential protection
5. Gas detection protection, and
6. Overfluxing protection (large transformers or where a risk of over flux exists).
1. Overheating Protection
The rating of a transformer is based on the temperature rise above an assumed

maximum air temperature. An oil temperature of about 95°C is considered to be the
maximum working value beyond which a further rise of 8-10°C will have a detrimental
effect on the transformers insulation. It will lower the life of a transformer, if sustained.
Large transformers have oil and/or winding temperature detection devices. Both direct (oil)
and indirect (winding) methods of temperature measurement may be employed, or a
combination of both.
Generally, these devices are fitted as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 –
Typical instrument for direct measurement of temperatures
LEGEND:
 A – Temperature sensitive bulb

 B – Capillary tube
 C – Bourdon tube
 D – Connecting rod
 E – Main spindle
 F – Plate carrying mercury switches
 G – Mercury switch in alarm circuit
 H – Mercury switch in circuit of motor associated with coolant circulation
 K – Mercury switch in contactor circuit of power lines
 L – Adjustment for operation point of mercury switch G

 M – Adjustment for operation point of mercury switch H
 N – Adjustment for operation point of mercury switch K
 O – Maximum pointer
 P – Scale
 Q – Audible warning device
 R – Signal lamp
 S – Electric motor associated with coolant circulation (air/oil)
 T – Indicating pointer
 U – Ambient temperature compenstator
The direct method for an instrument measuring oil temperature is shown in Figure 1 above.
The temperature detecting element comprises a mercury filled steel bulb A. This is
connected by a capillary tube B to a Bourdon tube C, which is fixed at one end.
Increases in temperature cause expansion in the mercury, resulting in increased pressure in

the Bourdon tube. This causes the free end to deflect. The deflection causes the plate F to
rotate.
Mounted on this plate are several switches. The position of these switches determines the time
and sequence of their operation, that is, how much the plate must rotate to initiate operation.
Note that older devices use mercury switches, modern transformers have micro switches as they
don’t operate due to vibrations caused by earthquakes or through faults.
Compensation for changes in air temperature is provided by the shaped bimetallic strip U
fitted in the linkage between the Bourdon tube and the metal plate. Pointers T and O
indicate the actual temperature of the bulb, as well as the maximum temperature to which it
has been subjected.
The switches carry out the trip and/or alarm functions.
The same principle may be applied for the indirect method which measures the temperature
of a transformer winding. A different type of detecting element is used from the plain bulb
shown.
The mercury bulb is surrounded by a heater coil or a heater is included in the instrument.
This is fed from a current transformer which reflects the actual current in the transformer
winding. If the heater is suitably designed, the instrument can be arranged to measure
either the winding average or ‘hot spot’ temperature. The hot spot temperature is more
commonly used. (Note that the hot spot is the hottest spot in the windings caused by local
heating.)
Generally, two winding temperature instruments are fitted to the larger power transformer.
Each instrument is fitted with up to four switch contacts.
The winding temperature instrument is arranged to start cooling fans and pumps, and to give an
alarm (120°C) and trip (130°C). The oil temperature instrument is also arranged to give an alarm
(95°C) and trip (105°C), usually the lower voltage circuit breaker.
Table 1 shows typical settings for these instruments.
Table 1 – Typical temperature settings
Winding Temperature Oil Temperature
Instrument 1 Instrument 2
In 90°C
Coolers Alarm 95°C
Out 73°C
Alarm 120°C
Trip 130°C — —
Note In cases where forced cooling is not used, usually only an oil temperature instrument
is fitted.
2. Overcurrent Protection
Protection against excess current was the earliest evolved protection system. From this
basic principle, the graded overcurrent system was introduced for fault protection. Most
system disturbances utilizing this method are detected with IDMT relays, that is, relays
having:
1. Inverse characteristic (the larger the fault current, the quicker is the operation), and
2. Definite minimum time of operation.
The degree of overcurrent protection provided to a transformer by an IDMT relay is
limited. Usually, settings of these relays must be high, that is, 150% to 200%. This is
because the relays must not operate for emergency overload conditions.
Therefore, these relays provide negligible protection for faults inside the transformer
tank.
3. Earth Fault (Restricted)
Generally, the simple overcurrent and earth fault scheme used in a typical line protection
application does not give adequate protection to a star connected winding.
The degree of protection is greatly improved by the application of a unit differential earth fault
scheme (or restricted earth fault protection). This is shown in Figure 2. This diagram shows a high
impedance relay.
The protection system is operative for faults within the zone of the current transformers.
Virtually complete cover for earth faults is obtained, particularly when the star point is
solidly earthed.
Figure 2 –
Restricted earth fault connection for star connected transformers with neutral solidly or resistance
connected earth
Star and delta windings can be protected separately with restricted earth fault protection.
This provides high speed protection against earth faults for the whole of the transformer
with relatively simple equipment.
A typical earth fault protection for delta connected windings is shown in Figure 3. This
diagram shows that the restricted earth fault scheme also protects the earthing
transformer (an earth reference used to limit earth fault current).
The earthing transformer is protected by the main transformers differential and tank
overpressure device (Buchholz).
Figure 3 – Earth fault protection

delta connected windings

4. Differential Protection
Differential protection is designed to cover the complete transformer. This is possible

because of the high efficiency of transformer operation and the nearly equal ampere turns
developed in the primary and secondary windings. (MVA ‘in’ approximately equals MVA
‘out’).
This type of protection scheme compares current quantities flowing into the network with
quantities flowing out of the network. The difference between these values is referred to as the
‘spill’ current available for operation of the protection relay.
The principal causes of the spill current include the following:
Transformer Ratio
The rated currents on the primary and secondary sides differ in inverse ratio to the
voltages. This difference is overcome mainly by the appropriate selection of current
transformer ratios.
Tap Changing Facility
If the transformer has a tapping range, the voltage variation must be allowed for in the
differential scheme. This is because the current transformers and connections are selected
to balance at the nominal tap ratio of the transformer. Any variation in ratio away from
the nominal tap position will produce an imbalance proportional to the voltage ratio
changes.
Under certain conditions (particularly out of zone fault conditions), this imbalance current
may be sufficient to operate the relay when operation is
not required.
To offset these spill effects, the protection relay selected usually includes a proportional
amount of bias.
Magnetising Current Inrush

When a transformer is energized initially, magnetising current is required. The current
appears only on the primary side of the transformer, therefore, the whole of the
magnetizing current appears as an imbalance to the differential protection.
Since this phenomenon is only transient, stability of protection may be maintained by the use of
a second harmonic restraint, being the most widely used to prevent the operation of magnetizing
inrush current. This is because the waveform produced by inrush currents has a significant amount
of second harmonics.
A typical oscillogram of transformer inrush currents, due to magnetizing the transformer

core, is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4
– Transformer magnetizing inrush current typical oscillogram
The initial peak value of the inrush current in any phase depends upon the instant of
switching and the residual magnetic condition of the core. The maximum peak values equal
up to 8 times the rated current of the transformer.
The basic unbiased scheme applied to a delta/star transformer is shown in Figure 5
below.
Balance is obtained by using star connected current transformers on the delta side of the
transformer and delta connected current transformers on the star side with the correct ratio.
Figure 5 – Differential protection basic unbiased scheme applied to delta/star transformer
The protection of power transformers with variable ratio (due to on load tap changing
equipment) must include a bias feature, if low fault setting and high operating speed are to
be obtained.
A high speed biased differential relay, incorporating a harmonic restraint, will prevent relay
operation for any variance in ratio which is due to tap changing and for the effects of
magnetizing inrush current.
The basic biased scheme applied to a delta/star transformer is shown in Figure 6.

Figu
re 6 – Differential protection basic biased scheme applied to delta/star transformer
5. Gas Detection
Faults inside oil immersed electrical plant (for example, transformers) cause gas to be
generated. If the fault is severe, oil movement occurs.
The generation of gas is used as a means of fault detection in the gas/oil operated relay.
This comprises one or two hinged vanes, buckets, or similar buoyant masses inserted into
the pipework between the oil conservator and the transformer tank.
Figure 7 shows its general application.
The floats are held in equilibrium by the oil. The rising bubbles (produced by the slow generation
of gas due to a minor fault) pass upwards towards the conservator. As they are trapped in the
relay chamber, a fall occurs in the level of oil inside the chamber. This results in a movement of the
float, closing a pair of contacts in a mercury or reed switch which initiates an alarm.
A heavy fault will produce a rapid generation of gas. This causes violent displacement of
the oil which moves the surge float system of the relay. It results in the closing of another
pair of contacts (surge contacts) which are used to trip the transformer circuit breakers.
Figure 7 – Typical
location gas detection relay (Buchholz relay)
The gas/oil operated Buchholz relay is shown over in Figure 8. This relay gives the best
possible protection against conditions such as incipient (low level) winding faults, core
faults and short circuit situations.
The alarm element will operate for loss of oil, as will the trip element if the oil loss
continues. This alarm and trip will sometimes operate under cold conditions if conservator
oil levels are not maintained.
Analysis of a gas sample collected in a Buchholz chamber frequently may assist

diagnosis of the type of fault. The rate of gas generation indicates the severity of the fault.
Tap changer selector switches, mounted separately from the main oil tank, can be provided
with a separate oil/gas actuated relay. Alternately, the pipework may be arranged in such a
manner that one relay is used for both tanks.
One of the biggest problems associated with older gas/oil actuated protection using mercury
switches is vibration (for example, earthquakes, etc.) It may cause maloperation, however, the
problem has been overcome by using reed relays in place of the older type mercury switch.
Transformers are fitted with pressure relief devices to prevent tank rupture in the event of
a major internal fault. The old type consisted of a thin diaphragm at the top of a relief vent.
The new type is a spring loaded self-resetting diaphragm which also activates a micro
switch to trip the transformer.
Figure 8 –
Gas detection relay and gas receiver (Buchholz relay)
6. Overfluxing
Transformer overfluxing is caused by overvoltage and/or a reduction in system

frequency. Overvoltage causes an increase in the flux generated and stress on insulation.
The increased flux density causes an increase in iron loss and an increase in magnetising
current.
Flux is diverted from the laminated core of the transformer into the steel structure. This
gives rise, particularly, to the core bolts carrying more flux
than their designed limits. Under these conditions, the core bolts may be rapidly heated to a
temperature which destroys the insulation surrounding them.
This could damage the core insulation.
Reduction in frequency has the same effect of increasing core flux, therefore, it follows that
a transformer can operate with some overvoltage, provided it is accompanied by an increase
in frequency. However, the operation must not continue for prolonged periods with high
voltage and low frequency conditions.
The ratio of voltage/frequency (V/f) should be less than or equal to 1-1, where the transformer’s
highest designed operating voltage and nominal system frequency are taken respectively as unity.
Overfluxing protection is used mostly on generator/transformer units. Overfluxing may

occur when generators are run up for synchronisation to the system.
Source: Switching Operator’s Manual – Transmission Switching by Horizon Power
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1.
Sanjay Singh
Jul 24, 2019
I got this information incidentally and since then getting very good articles on
electrical engineering. what more benefits I will get by becoming membership.
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Power substation guides, research papers and studies
Construction & electrical design of

400/220/132 KV power substation
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Home / Download Center / Electrical Engineering Books and Technical Guides / Power substation
guides / Construction & electrical design of 400/220/132 KV power substation
400/220/132 KV substation layout
The first step towards the design of a 400/220/132 KV substation is to determine the load
that the substation has to cater and develop it accordingly. The substation is responsible for
catering bulk power to various load centres distributed all around through 220 KV and 132
KV substations.
Construction & electrical design of 400/220/132 KV power substation
The substation is fed 1316 MW power from 3 generating stations A,B,C through 400 KV
single circuit lines working at around 87% loading. The power is received on 400 KV
busbar (double main and transfer bus scheme).
636 MW power is dispatched to a 400 KV substation ‘a’ catering an area having diversity
factor 1.1 through 400 KV double circuit lines working at 70% loading.
The remaining 680 MW is fed to three 315 MVA (3×105 MVA units) autotransformers
working at an average 80% loading and 0.9 power factor. The 315 MVA transformers step
down the voltage from 400 KV to 220 KV. 6% of the input power 680 MW i.e. around 40
MW power is lost in the transformers.
The rest i.e.640 MW is fed to the 220 KV busbar (double main and transfer bus scheme).
To increase the reliability of the system the 220 KV busbar is also fed from 2 other
substations.
A single circuit line from station E working at 68% loading supplies 85 MW while a double circuit
line from station D working at 70% loading supplies 175 MW power to the busbar. This ensures
continuity of supply to certain extent even when an entire 315 MVA transformer unit fails to
operate.
Thus total incoming power on 220 KV bus is (640+175+85) 900 MW.
From the 220 KV bus two 220 KV single circuit lines are drawn at 90% loading to supply
power to 220KV substations ‘b’and ‘c’ working at a diversity factor of 1.35 to cater 112.5
MW each.
400/220/132 KV substation single line diagram (click to expand SLD)
Three 220 KV double circuit lines working at 80% loading feeds substations ‘d’, ’e’, ’f’
working at a diversity factor of 1.35 to meet a demand of 200 MW each. The remaining
288 MW is fed to three 160 MVA autotransformers working at an average 75% loading and
0.8 power factor.
The 160 MVA transformers step down the voltage from 220 KV to 132 KV. 6% of the
input power 288 MW i.e. around 17 MW power is lost in the transformers. The rest i.e.271
MW is fed to the 132 KV busbar(double main bus scheme).
To increase the reliability of the system the 132 KV busbar is also fed from another
substation.
Doubl
e main and auxiliary busbar arrangement
A 132 KV double circuit line working at 54% loading delivers 54 MW power to the 132
KV bus. This arrangement similar to the one for 220 KV bus and ensures that the substation
is not inconvenienced to a great extent if somehow a 160 MVA transformer goes out.
Total incoming power on 132 KV bus is (271+54) 325 MW. From the 132 KV bus five 220 KV
double circuit lines working at 90% loading feeds substations ‘g’, ’h’, ’i’, ’j’, ’k’ working at a diversity
factor of 1.45 to meet a demand of 90 MW each.
After dispatching 310 MW power, the remaining 15 MW power available from 132 KV bus
is stepped down using 132/33 KV and 33/0.415 KV two winding transformers. This power
is used for auxiliary purposes like pumping, lighting, ac and ventilation purposes within the
substation to ensure its smooth functioning.
To compensate for any reactive power deficit or to balance excess reactive power of lightly
loaded lines Static VAR Compensators (SVCs) are used.
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Electric Motor / Protection
Protecting Motor From External Network

Disturbances (Unbalance, V/Hz-ratio and
Re-Energizing)
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Home / Technical Articles / Protecting Motor From External Network Disturbances (Unbalance,
V/Hz-ratio and Re-Energizing)
Unbalance Protection
Unbalance in the supply voltage is typically due to a broken phase condition somewhere in
the upstream network. This may result from single-phase fuse failure or pole discrepancy of
a circuit breaker or a disconnector.
Protecting Motor From External Network Disturbances (Unbalance, V/Hz-ratio and Re-Energizing)
(photo credit: ABB)
In addition, unequal loading of the phases causes unequal voltage drops, and thus a slight
unbalance in the supply voltage may result. Unsymmetrical faults are causes of short-term
unbalance conditions.
Unbalanced phase currents are a source of negative-sequence current in the motor,

generating a magnetic flux component rotating in the opposite direction compared to the
rotation direction of the motor shaft. The frequency of this flux component is 2-s, where s
is the slip frequency in p.u, and it induces currents of this frequency in the rotor.
This results in a slight negative torque, and especially to increased copper and eddy current
losses. Because of the high frequency of the induced currents in the rotor, the skin effect causes
the resistance of the rotor to increase compared to the corresponding DC-resistance.
Thus, one unit of negative-sequence current causes higher heating effect than one unit of
positive-sequence current.
NOTE: The current distribution between the phases depends on the cause and nature of
the unbalance and on the motor characteristics.
Figure 1 shows an example how the motor loss is increased as the supply voltage and as a
result, the phase currents become unbalanced. It has been assumed that the loss is directly
proportional to IL2 and the skin effect has been neglected (IL is the phase current). In
addition, the calculation of the average loss assumes perfect thermal conductivity between
the phases.
The results in Figure 1 have been calculated by varying the amplitude and phase angle of
each phase voltage in turn.
Figure 1 – Effect of unbalanced supply voltage on the copper loss of an HV-induction motor with |
Z1|/|Z2|=6.5. By multiplying this ratio by the negative-sequence voltage, the corresponding
negative-sequence current can be estimated. ILMAX = maximum phase current, ILMIN = minimum
phase current.
Considering the above, a separate unbalance protection is required to protect the motor
running with unbalanced supply voltage unless the heating effect of the negative-sequence
current has been adequately taken into account by the thermal model used in the overload
protection.
Unbalance also causes mechanical problems like vibration. Therefore, at least severe
unbalance should always be detected, and a dedicated unbalance protection based on, for
example,the magnitude of the negative-sequence current, is recommended.
Inverse time characteristic should be preferred and the operation time should be
selected so that the normal use of the motor is allowed, especially the starting of the
machine, when in practice some negative- sequence current may be measured.
Variation in Supply Voltage and Frequency

In most cases, motors can be approximated as volt-independent loads with constant
V/Hz-ratio: A decrease in the supply voltage will be followed by an increase in the phase
current. As long as the V/Hz-ratio is nearly at a constant level, the variations in voltage and
frequency do not cause any specific harm for the motor.
In this case, undervoltage condition causes an increase in the phase current, and
overloading of the motor may take place, which is then detected by the thermal overload
protection.
Increase in the V/Hz-ratio increases the flux density in the motor, resulting in some point in
saturation effects in the normally flux carrying parts of the motor. This gives rise to excitation
current and stray fluxes flowing outside the normally flux carrying parts, which are then greatly
heated by the induced eddy currents.
Typically, protection against sustained undervoltage and overvoltage is arranged. This

protection operates in case of overvoltage in the order of 10-20%. Undervoltage protection
is set to trip in case of total loss of voltage, so that when the voltage returns, simultaneous
restart of all the motors is prevented.
ABB’s protection relay REM 54 used for the protection of a synchronous motor started with an
autotransformer. Pole slip function implemented with directional power functions.
Out-of-Phase Re-Energizing Protection

Abnormally high starting current can be produced in a motor if energized shortly after a
supply interruption. The resulting current can be higher than the normal starting current
imposing to excessive thermal and mechanical stress, which may result in direct motor
damage.
After the supply interruption, voltage and frequency measured from the motor terminals
start to decay. This decay results in the phase angle, voltage and frequency difference
between the source side and motor terminal voltages (US and UM, Figure 2). The rate of the
decay depends on the motor type and drive characteristics.
An example of this is shown in Figure 2 below:

Figure 2 – Example of difference quantities (dph, df, dU) between the source side and motor
terminal voltage during a short supply interruption. The shaded area represents the time window
possible for re-energizing.
Whether a reclosing to a single source, that is, closing the source circuit breaker, SCB in
Figure 2, can be done or not depends on how the magnitudes of the above difference
quantities develop during the interruption and on the length of the interruption.
Figure 2 shows a possible time window for the reclose to take place without a risk of motor
damage.
The example is based on the requirement that the resultant vectorial voltage difference in
per unit volts per hertz on the motor rated voltage, and the frequency base must not exceed
a value of 1.33 p.u (ANSI C50.41-2000) at the instant the reclose is completed.
In addition, the phase angle difference must not exceed 90° at the instant the reclose is
completed. It can be concluded, for example, that this motor drive can tolerate short supply
interruptions (< 0.1 second) such as a high-speed autoreclose in the incoming line.
However, in case of longer supply interruptions (up to a few seconds), this motor must be
disconnected before the supply is restored to avoid the possibility of re-energizing in out-
of- phase condition.
The detection of the loss-of-supply condition and the initiation of the tripping of the motor
feeder circuit breaker, MCB in Figure 2, when required, typically undervoltage,
underfrequency or loss-of-power functions, or a combination of these can be applied.
Reference // Distribution Automation Handbook – Motor Protection by ABB
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Edvard Csanyi
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1.
Sharifullah
Oct 14, 2018
I am Electrical Technician
I am working in international steel limited
So that is amazing calculations T/f connection and wonderful news
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Energy and Power / Power Substation / Protection
10 unbalance detection schemes for

removing failed capacitor bank from the
system
By Edvard | November, 26th 2018 | 3 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 10 unbalance detection schemes for removing failed capacitor bank
from the system
Unbalance detection & protection schemes

The main purpose of an unbalance detection scheme is to remove a capacitor bank from the
system in the event of a failure and fuse operation. This will prevent damaging
overvoltages across the remaining capacitor units in the group where the operation occurs.
10 unbalance detection schemes for removing failed capacitor bank from the system (on photo:
Medium-voltage reactive power compensation; credit: avalon.rs)
Removing a capacitor bank in such case protects against a situation that can be immediately
harmful to the capacitor units or associated equipment.
Let’s describe how unbalance happens on an example and describe ten schemes for
detecting:
1. General about unbalance detection
Unbalance schemes for grounded wye capacitor banks:
1. Unbalance relaying for grounded capacitor banks

2. Summation of intermediate tap-point voltage
3. Neutral current differential protection (grounded split-wye capacitor banks)
4. Voltage differential protection method for grounded wye capacitor banks
Unbalance schemes for ungrounded wye capacitor banks:

5. Neutral voltage unbalance protection using ungrounded wye connected capacitor banks
6. Neutral voltage unbalance protection method using capacitive voltage divider
7. Neutral voltage unbalance detection method using three PTs
8. Neutral current unbalance detection method for ungrounded split-wye capacitor banks
9. Neutral voltage protection method for ungrounded split-wye connected capacitor banks
10. Neutral voltage unbalance protection method for ungrounded split-wye connected
capacitor banks
1. General about unbalance detection
Consider the capacitor connection shown in Figure 0. When all the four capacitors are in
service, the voltage across each unit will be V/2. If one of the fuses is open, then the
voltage across the upper branch is 2⁄3V and the lower branch is 1⁄3V.
Such a voltage increase in any capacitor unit is unacceptable.
The unbalance in the voltage has to be detected and the unit must be isolated before significant
damage occurs.
There are many methods available for detecting unbalances in capacitor banks, but there is
no practical method that will provide protection under all possible conditions.
Figure 0 – Open fuse and voltage

distribution in a series group
All unbalance detection schemes are set up to signal an alarm upon an initial failure in a
bank. Upon subsequent critical failures, where damaging overvoltages are produced, the
bank would be tripped from the line.
Typical detection schemes associated with grounded and ungrounded wye banks are discussed
below. Since the delta connected banks are so seldom used and ungrounded wye banks serve the
same purpose, delta configurations are not evaluated.
The failure of one or more capacitor units in a bank causes voltage unbalance. Unbalance in
the capacitor banks is identified based on the following considerations:
 The unbalance relay should provide an alarm on 5% or less overvoltage and trip the bank
for overvoltages in excess of 10% of the rated voltage.
 The unbalance relay should have time delay to minimize the damage due to arcing fault
between capacitor units. Also, the time delay should be short enough to
avoid damage to sensors such as a voltage transformer or current transformer.
 The unbalance relay should have time delay to avoid false operations due to inrush,
ground faults, lightning, and switching of equipment nearby. A 0.5 second delay should
be adequate for most applications.
Unbalance schemes for grounded systems:
1. Unbalance relaying for grounded capacitor banks
In Figure 2, a grounded capacitor arrangement is shown with neutral current relay.
Figure 1 – Neutral
current sensing using a current transformer
For a grounded wye bank or each wye of a grounded split-wye bank, the allowable number
of units that can be removed from one series group, given a maximum %VR on the
remaining units, can be calculated using the following formula [1]:
If F is fractional, use the next lower whole number. The relay is then set to signal the alarm
upon failure of F units. The neutral-to-ground current flow IN and relay setting upon loss
of F units for this scheme is determined by the following formula [2]:
The relay would further be set to trip the bank upon loss of F+1 units. The neutral-to-
ground current flow and relay setting can be determined using F+1 in place of F.
The percent of overvoltage for any number of units removed from a series group can be
determined by the following formula [3]:
where:
 Vph = Applied line-to-neutral voltage [kV]

 Vc = Rated voltage of capacitor units [kV]
 VR = Voltage on remaining units in group [%]
 F = Units removed from one series group
 IN = Neutral-to-ground current flow [A]
 IU = Rated current of one unit [A]
 S = Number of series groups per phase
 N = Number of parallel units in one series group
 F = Number of units removed from one series group
A typical unbalance protective scheme consists of a current transformer with a 5 A

secondary using a burden of 10–25 Ω connected to a time-delayed voltage relay through
suitable filters.
The advantages of this scheme are:
1. The capacitor bank contains twice as many parallel units per series group compared to the
double wye bank for a given kVAR size which reduces the overvoltage seen by the
remaining units in a group in event of a fuse operation.
2. This bank may require less substation area and connections than a double wye bank.
3. Relatively inexpensive protection scheme.
The disadvantages of this scheme are:
1. Sensitive to system unbalance, which is a significant factor for large banks.

2. Sensitive to triple harmonics and will generally require a filter circuit.
3. Will not act when there is similar failure in all the phases.
4. It is not possible to identify the phase of the failed capacitor unit.
2. Summation of intermediate tap-point voltage (grounded wye capacitor banks)
Figure 2 shows an unbalance protection scheme for a grounded wye capacitor bank using
capacitor tap point voltages. Any unbalance in the capacitor units will cause an unbalance
in the voltages at the tap points.
Figure 2 – Unbalance
detection using summation of intermediate tap-point voltage in a grounded wye capacitor bank
The resultant voltage in the open delta provides an indication of the unbalance. The
changes in the neutral current magnitude and voltage are given by equations 2 and 3 above.
3. Neutral current differential protection (grounded split-wye capacitor banks)
In this scheme shown in Figure 3, the neutrals of the two sections are grounded through
separate current transformers.
The CT secondaries are connected to an overcurrent relay, which makes it insensitive to
any outside condition, which may affect both sections of the capacitor bank.
Figure 3 – Unbalance
detection in a grounded split-wye capacitor bank using two CTs
1. The scheme is not sensitive to system unbalance and it is sensitive in detecting capacitor
unit outages even on very large capacitor banks.
2. Harmonic currents do not affect this scheme.
3. For very large banks with more than one series group the amount of energy in the
capacitors will decrease. This will lower the fuse interrupting duty and may
reduce the cost of fuses.
By splitting the wye into two sections, the number of parallel units per series group is decreased,
thereby increasing the overvoltages on the remaining units in the series group in the event of a
fuse operation.
A double-wye type of capacitor bank needs more substation area and connections. A

balanced failure in each wye does not provide any indication in this scheme.
4. Voltage differential protection method for grounded wye capacitor banks
In this scheme, shown in Figure 4, two three-phase voltage transformer outputs are

compared in a differential relay. Loss of capacitor unit in each phase can be
detected independently.
The zero sequence voltage is present during the unbalance in the shunt capacitor bank
Figure 4 – Voltage
difference prediction method for a grounded wye connected capacitor bank
1. The capacitor bank contains twice as many parallel units per series group compared to a
split-wye bank. The overvoltages seen by the remaining units in a group in the event of a
fuse operation will be less.
2. This capacitor bank may require less substation area.
3. This scheme is less sensitive to system unbalance. It is sensitive to failure detection in the
series capacitors.
The main limitation of this scheme is that the number of PTs required is six and extensive
connections are also required.
Unbalance Detection in Ungrounded Capacitor Banks
In order to detect the unbalance in ungrounded capacitor banks, the voltage transformer or

current transformer sensors are used along with appropriate relays in the secondary
circuit. Six different schemes for the detection of unbalance in the ungrounded capacitor
circuits are presented.
Unbalance schemes for ungrounded systems:
5. Neutral voltage unbalance protection using ungrounded wye connected capacitor

banks
Using a voltage transformer connected between the neutral and the ground, any neutral
voltage shift due to the failure of a capacitor unit is sensed (see Figure 5) .
voltage unbalance protection for ungrounded wye capacitor bank using a PT
The neutral voltage shift (VNS) due to the loss of individual capacitor unit can
be calculated as:
where F is the number of units removed from one series group. The percentage overvoltage
for any number of units removed from a series group is given by:
The unbalance protective scheme consists of a time-delayed voltage relay with third

harmonic filter connected across the secondary of the PT. The potential transformer may be
a voltage transformer or a capacitive device.
The voltage transformer for this application should be rated for full system voltage because the
neutral voltage can be expected to rise above the rated voltage during certain switching
operations.

1. The capacitor bank contains twice as many parallel units per series group compared to a
split-wye bank. The overvoltages seen by the remaining units in a group in the event of a
fuse operation will be less.
2. This capacitor bank may require less substation area and connection in the power
circuit.
3. This scheme is less sensitive to system unbalance.
6. Neutral voltage unbalance protection method for ungrounded capacitor banks

using capacitive voltage divider
This scheme is similar to the PT scheme shown above (see Figure 6). A conventional
inverse time voltage relay is connected across the grounded end capacitor.
The grounded capacitor is a low voltage unit, 2400 V or less, sized to provide the desired
unbalance voltage to the relay. In the event of one phase open, the voltage in the neutral relay
exceeds the short time rating and a limiter has to be used.
Scheme 6 has the same advantages and disadvantages as Scheme 5.
voltage unbalance protection for an ungrounded wye capacitor bank using a capacitor voltage
divider
7. Neutral voltage unbalance detection method for ungrounded wye capacitor banks
using three PTs
This scheme is shown in Figure 7. This protection scheme uses three lines to neutral PTs
with the secondary connected in the broken delta and an overvoltage relay.
This scheme has advantages similar to Scheme 5. This scheme is sensitive to triplen

harmonics and it is expensive.
Figure 7 – Summation
of line-to-neutral voltages with optional line-to-neutral overvoltage protection using three PTs
8. Neutral current unbalance detection method for ungrounded split-wye capacitor

banks
This scheme is shown in Figure 8. In this protection scheme, a current transformer is used

in the neutral circuit to identify the unbalanced current.
An overcurrent relay can be used to provide an alarm or trip signal.

Figure 8 – Ungrounded
split-wye connected capacitor bank; unbalance detection method using neutral current sensing
Advantages of this scheme:
1. The scheme is not sensitive to system unbalance.

2. The scheme is sensitive to detection of capacitor unit outages and is not affected by the
harmonic currents.
3. This scheme contains only one CT and a relay.
Disadvantages of this scheme:
1. The disadvantages of this scheme are an increase in the overvoltages per unit because
there are fewer parallel units per series group.
2. The scheme requires more substation area compared to a wye connected capacitor bank.
9. Neutral voltage protection method for ungrounded split-wye connected capacitor

banks
A schematic of this scheme is shown in Figure 9.
This scheme is similar to Scheme 8. The sensor is a PT. This scheme is not sensitive to
system unbalance, but it is sensitive to unit outage and is relatively inexpensive. The split-
wye may require more substation area.
Figure 9 – Ungrounded
split-wye connected capacitor bank; unbalance detection method using a PT
10. Neutral voltage unbalance protection method for ungrounded split-wye connected

capacitor banks
A schematic of this scheme is shown in Figure 10. The relay is 59N. This scheme is not
sensitive to system unbalance, but it is sensitive to unit outage and is relatively
inexpensive.
Figure 10 –
Ungrounded split-wye connected capacitor bank; unbalance detection method using a neutral
voltage sensing method
10.1 Overvoltage and undervoltage protection
The relaying for the overvoltage and undervoltage are designated as:
 59 for overvoltage protection

 27 for undervoltage protection
These relays are normally set to coordinate with the system characteristics and with shunt
capacitor banks on the system. Tripping for overvoltage typically occurs at 110% of the
rated voltage. The low voltage tripping is set at 0.95 of the rated voltage.
In certain circumstances, the undervoltage relays are used to trip the capacitor banks when
the system is re-energized.
10.2 Voltage differential relays
The voltage differential relay is designated as 60 voltage or current unbalance relay that
operates on a given difference.
These relays compare the voltage across the total capacitor bank with the midpoint voltage of
the bank for each phase. If one of the capacitor units is lost, then the ratio of the two voltages will
change. The change in the voltage will be proportional to the change in the impedance in the
capacitor bank.
The voltage differential relays are set to alarm for greater than 0.7% but less than 1%
change in the voltage ratio and will trip at greater than 2% change in the voltage ratio.
Figure 11 – Voltage Differential Scheme

for Grounded Single Wye SCB
10.3 Voltage detection relays
The voltage detection relays use the midpoint voltage and are designated as 59–1/S and
59–2/S overvoltage relays. These relays are set to alarm for one capacitor unit out and
will trip the circuit breaker for two capacitor units out.
10.4 Neutral voltage relays
The neutral voltage relays measure the voltages developed by the neutral current through
the capacitor bank and are designated as 59–1/P and 59–2/P overvoltage relays.
The neutral voltage relays need to filter the harmonics and only the voltage due to the
fundamental frequency will be used to operate the relay. Loss of one capacitor unit is indicated
by an alarm.
Loss of two capacitor units indicates the capacitor bank was tripped.
Source // Power System by capacitors by Ramasamy Natarajan (Purchase hardcover from

Amazon)
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by electrical engineering portal, again thank you very much
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Energy and Power / Power Quality
Essential fundamentals of harmonics

distortion for future power quality experts
By Edvard | December, 30th 2019 | 0 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Essential fundamentals of harmonics distortion for future power
quality experts
When loads were linear only…

If you take a look at the past, you must notice that power system was much cleaner and
straightforward. Most loads were primarily linear in nature. Linear loads draw the full sine
wave of electric current at its 50 or 60 cycle (Hz) fundamental frequency. The switching of
such loads was smooth, and harmonics disease didn’t spread yet.
Harmonics Distortion
Well, that has changed a lot in the last fifteen years. Power quality has got a significant
meaning. Nowadays, harmonics distortion is a regular occurrence in the power system. To
be able to better understand the problem of harmonic-distorted networks in the operation of
various electrical devices, we will try to explain the real issues and briefly present the
solutions.
It’s important to understand that measurements to obtain a detailed evaluation of the on

site-situation are essential for the planning of remedial measures for the reduction of
perturbations (power quality distortions).
Before diving into details, I would like to add that one of the most promising and highly
paid jobs in the electrical engineering industry is undoubtedly an expert in power quality.
Table of contents:
1. Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads

2. Harmonic Issues
3. Total Harmonic Distortion
4. Harmonic Solutions
1. Drives and rectifiers (including three-phase UPS loads)
2. Computers/switch-mode power supplies
3. Fluorescent lighting
4. Welding/arcing loads
5. System solutions

Figure 1 shows nice balance single-phase, linear loads. As the figure shows, little or no
current flows in the neutral conductor when the loads are linear and balanced.
The advent of nonlinear electronic loads, where the AC voltage is converted to a DC

voltage, altered the way power was traditionally drawn from a normal AC sine wave.
During the AC to DC conversion, power electronic devices are switched on during a
fraction of each 1/2 cycle causing voltage and current to be drawn in pulses to obtain the
required DC output.
This deviation of voltage and current from the normal sine wave results in harmonics.
It is important to note that the current distortion caused by loads such as rectifiers or switch mode
power supplies causes the voltage distortion. That voltage distortion is caused by distorted
currents flowing through an impedance.
The amount of voltage distortion depends on:
1. System impedance
2. Amount of distorted current
Devices that can cause harmonic disturbances include rectifiers, thrusters and switching
power supplies, all of which are nonlinear. Further, the proliferation of electronic
equipment such as computers, UPS systems, variable speed drives, programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), and the like: nonlinear loads have become a significant part of many
installations.
Figure 1 – Balanced Neutral Current Equals Zero
Other types of harmonic-producing loads include arcing devices (such as arc furnaces,
welders and fluorescent lighting).
Nonlinear load currents vary widely from a sinusoidal wave shape; often they are
discontinuous pulses. This means that nonlinear loads are extremely high in harmonic
content.
Triplen harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, 15th,… harmonics. Further, triplen harmonics are
the most damaging to an electrical system because these harmonics on the A-phase, B-
phase and C-phase are in sequence with each other. Meaning, the triplen harmonics present
on the three phases add together in the neutral, as shown in Figure 2, rather than cancel
each other out, as shown in Figure 1.
Odd non-triplen harmonics are classified as “positive sequence” or “negative sequence”
and are the 1st, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.
Figure 2 – Single-Phase Loads with Triplen Harmonics
In general, as the order of a harmonic gets higher, its amplitude becomes smaller as a
percentage of the fundamental frequency.
Go back to Table of Contents ↑
2. Harmonic Issues
Harmonic currents may cause system losses that over burden the distribution system. This
electrical overloading may contribute to preventing an existing electrical distribution
system from serving additional future loads.
In general, harmonics present on a distribution system can have the following
detrimental effects:
1. Overheating of transformers and rotating equipment

2. Increased hysteresis losses
3. Decreased kVA capacity
4. Overloading of neutral
5. Unacceptable neutral-to-ground voltages
6. Distorted voltage and current waveforms
7. Failed capacitor banks
8. Breakers and fuses tripping
9. Double sized neutrals to defy the negative effects of triplen harmonics
In transformers, generators and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) systems, harmonics

cause overheating and failure at loads below their ratings because the harmonic currents
cause greater heating than standard 60 Hz current. This results from increased eddy current
losses, hysteresis losses in the iron cores, and conductor skin effects of the windings.
In addition, the harmonic currents acting on the impedance of the source cause harmonics
in the source voltage, which is then applied to other loads such as motors, causing them to
overheat.
The harmonics also complicate the application of capacitors for power factor correction. If, at a
given harmonic frequency, the capacitive impedance equals the system reactive impedance, the
harmonic voltage and current can reach dangerous magnitudes
At the same time, the harmonics create problems in the application of power factor
correction capacitors, they lower the actual power factor.
The rotating meters used by the utilities for watt-hour and various measurements do not
detect the distortion component caused by the harmonics. Rectifiers with diode front ends
and large DC side capacitor banks have displacement power factor of 90% to 95%.
Figure 3 – The most typical harmonic waveforms (1st – fundamental, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) – photo
credit: Greg Poole; Industrial Tests, Inc., Rocklin, CA, USA
More recent electronic meters are capable of metering the true kVA hours taken by the
circuit.
Single-phase power supplies for computer and fixture ballasts are rich in third harmonics
and their odd multiples. Even with the phase currents perfectly balanced, the harmonic
currents in the neutral can total 173% of the phase current. This has resulted in overheated
neutrals.
The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) recommends that neutrals in the
supply to electronic equipment be oversized to at least 173% of the ampacity of the phase
conductors to prevent problems. ITIC also recommends derating transformers, loading
them to no more than 50% to 70% of their nameplate kVA, based on a rule-of-thumb
calculation, to compensate for harmonic heating effects.
In spite of all the concerns they cause, nonlinear loads will continue to
increase. Therefore, the systems that supply them will have to be designed so that their
adverse effects are greatly reduced.
Table 1 shows the typical harmonic orders from a variety of harmonic generating sources.
Table 1 – Source and Typical Harmonics
Source Typical Harmonics*
6-pulse rectifier 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…
12-pulse rectifier 11, 13, 23, 25…
Switch-mode power supply 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13…
Fluorescent lights 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13…
Arcing devices 2, 3, 4, 5, 7…
Transformer energization 2, 3, 4
* Generally, magnitude decreases as harmonic order increases.

Standard IEEE 519 indicates the limits of current distortion allowed at the PCC (Point of
Common Coupling) point on the system where the current distortion is calculated. This
standard is more focused on harmonic limits on the system over time. It now clearly
indicates that the PCC is the point of connection to the utility.
The standard now primarily addresses the harmonic limits of the supply voltage from the
utility or cogenerators.
Table 2 – Low-Voltage System Classification and Distortion Limits for 480 V Systems
Class C AN DF
Special application* 10 16,400 3%
General system 5 22,800 5%
Dedicated system 5 36,500 10%
* Special systems are those where the rate of change of voltage of the notch might
mistrigger an event.
 AN is a measurement of notch characteristics measured in volt-microseconds,

 C is the impedance ratio of total impedance to impedance at common point in system.
 DF is distortion factor.
Table 3 – Utility or Cogenerator Supply Voltage Harmonic Limits
Voltage Range 2.3-69 kV 69-138 kV >138 kV
Maximum individual harmonic 3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
Total harmonic distortion 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
Percentages are (Vh/V1)×100 for each harmonic and:

It is important for the system designer to know the harmonic content of the utility’s supply
voltage because it will affect the harmonic distortion of the system.
Table 4 – Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120–69,000 V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of I L
Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC/IL <11 11≤h<17 17≤h<23 23≤h<35 35≤h TDD
<20* 4 2 1.5 0.6 0.3 5
20<50 7 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8
50<100 10 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12
100<1000 12 5.5 5.0 2.0 1 15
>1000 15 7 6.0 2.5 1.4 20
* All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless
of actual ISC/IL where:
 ISC = Maximum short-circuit current at PCC.

 IL = Maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
 TDD = Total Demand Distortion.
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above. Current distortions
that result in a DC offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed.
When evaluating current distortion, it is important to understand the difference between

THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and TDD (Total Demand Distortion).
THD is the measured distortion on the actual magnitude of current flowing at a given instant. This
could be referred to as a “sine wave quality factor” as it is a measure of the amount of distortion
at that given time, for that given magnitude of current. It can be measured with a simple harmonic
current metering device.
Current THD is not utilized anywhere in the IEEE 519 standard. Instead, the IEEE 519
standard sets limits based on TDD, or Total Demand Distortion. TDD is a calculated value
based on the amount of harmonic distortion related to the full load capacity of the electrical
system. The formula for calculating TDD is as follows:
The numerator of the formula is the square root of the sum of the current harmonics
squared. This value is divided by IL, which is the full load capacity of the system. From
this, you can see that even heavily distorted currents (i.e., high current THD) that are only a
small fraction of the capacity of the system will result in a low TDD.
In spite of all the concerns nonlinear loads cause, these loads will continue to increase.
Therefore, the application of nonlinear loads such as variable frequency drives (VFDs) and
the systems that supply them will require further scrutiny by the design professional. The
use of “Clean Power” multi-pulse VFDs has become a common approach so adverse
harmonic effects are greatly reduced.
Tables below depicts many harmonic solutions along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
Drives and rectifiers (includes three-phase UPS loads)
Table 5 – Harmonic solutions for drives and rectifiers (incl. 3-phase UPS loads)
Solutions Advantages Disadvantages
Line reactors  Inexpensive  May require additional

 For 6-pulse standard compensation
drive/rectifier, can reduce
harmonic current distortion
from 80% down to about 35–
40%
K-rated/drive  Offers series reactance  No advantage over reactors

isolation (similar to line reactors) and for reducing harmonics unless
transformer provides isolation for some in pairs for shifting phases
transients
DC choke  Slightly better than AC line  Not always an option for
reactors for 5th and 7th drives
harmonics  Less protection for input
semiconductors
12-pulse convertor  85% reduction versus  Cost difference approaches

standard 6-pulse drives 18-pulse drive and blocking
filters, which guarantee IEEE
519 compliance
Harmonic  Substantial (50–80%)  Harmonic cancellation highly

mitigating reduction in harmonics when dependent on load balance
transformers/phas used in tandem  Must have even multiples of
e shifting matched loads
Tuned filters  Bus connected-accommodates  Requires allocation analysis

load diversity  Sized only to the requirements
 Provides PF correction of that system; must be
resized if system changes
Broadband filters  Makes 6-pulse into the  Higher cost

equivalent of 18-pulse  Requires one filter per drive
18-pulse converter  Excellent harmonic control for  High cost

drives above 100 hp
 IEEE 519 compliant
 No issues when run from
generator sources
Active filters  Handles load/harmonic  High cost

diversity
 Complete solution up to 50th
harmonic
Active front end  Excellent harmonic control  High cost

 Four quadrant (regen)  High complexity
capability  Can have system stability
issues when run from
generator source
Computers/switch-mode power supplies

Table 6 – Harmonic solutions for computers/switch-mode power supplies
Neutral blocking  Eliminates the 3rd harmonic  High cost

filter from load  May increase voltage
 Relieves system capacity distortion
 Possible energy savings
Harmonic  3rd harmonic recalculated  Requires fully rated circuits

mitigating back to the load and oversized neutrals to the
transformers  When used as phase-shifted loads
transformers, reduces other
harmonics
 Reduces voltage “flat-topping”
Oversized  Tolerate harmonics rather  Upstream and downstream

neutral/derated than correct equipment fully rated for
transformer  Typically least expensive harmonics
K-rated  Tolerate harmonics rather  Does not reduce system

transformer than correct harmonics
Fluorescent lighting
Table 7 – Harmonic solutions for fluorescent lighting

harmonics
 Reduces voltage “flat-topping”

transformer than correct them harmonics
Low distortion  Reduce harmonics at the  Additional cost and typically

ballasts source more expensive than “system”
solutions
Welding/arcing loads
Table 8 – Harmonic solutions for welding/arcing loads
Active filters  Fast response and broadband  High cost

harmonic correction
 Reduces voltage flicker
Tuned filters  SCR controlled tuned filters  SCR controlled units are high
simulates an active filter cost but fixed filters are
response reasonable
System solutions
Table 9 – Harmonic system solutions
Tuned filters  Provides PF correction  System analysis required to

 Lower cost compared to other verify application. Must be
systems resized if system changes
Harmonic  Excellent choice for new  No PF correction benefit

mitigating design or upgrade
transformers
Active filters  Ideal solution and handles  Highest cost
system diversity

Source: Power Distribution Systems by Eaton
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Energy and Power / Protection
What Would Be The Worst Type Of Three

Phase Faults (And Why It Happens)
By Edvard | April, 22nd 2016 | 5 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / What Would Be The Worst Type Of Three Phase Faults (And Why It
Happens)
When Three Phase Faults Occur…
In a three phase power system, the type of faults that can occur are classified by the
combination of conductors or buses that are faulted together. In addition, faults may be
classified as either bolted faults or faults that occur through some impedance such as an
arc. Each of the basic types of faults will be described and shown in Figure 1.
What Would Be The Worst Type Of Three Phase Faults And Why It Happens (photo credit:
everreadyelectric.com)
It must be noted that in a majority of cases, the fault current calculation required for the
selection of interrupting and withstand current capabilities of equipment is the three phase
bolted fault with zero impedance.
Let’s go through each of the four three phase faults //
1. Three phase bolted faults

2. Bolted line-to-line faults
3. Line-to-line-to-ground faults
4. Line-to-ground faults
Figure 1 – Designation
of short-circuit categories
1. Three Phase Bolted Faults
A three phase bolted fault describes the condition where the three conductors are physically
held together with zero impedance between them, just as if they were bolted together. For a
balanced symmetrical system, the fault current magnitude is balanced equally within the
three phases.
While this type of fault does not occur frequently, its results are used for protective device
selection, because this fault type generally yields the maximum short-circuit current
values.
Figure 1(a) provides a graphical representation of a bolted three phase fault.
Figure 1a – Three-phase short circuit
Go back to three phase faults ↑
2. Bolted Line-To-Line Faults
Bolted line-to-line faults, Figure 1(b), are more common than three phase faults and have
fault currents that are approximately 87% of the three phase bolted fault current.
This type of fault is not balanced within the three phases and its fault current is seldom
calculated for equipment ratings because it does not provide the maximum fault current
magnitude. The line-to-line current can be calculated by multiplying the three phase
value by 0.866, when the impedance Z1 = Z2.
Special symmetrical component calculating techniques are not required for this
condition.
Figure 1b – Bolted line-to-line faults
3. Line-To-Line-To-Ground Faults
Line-to-line-to-ground faults, Figure 1(c), are typically line-to-ground faults that have
escalated to include a second phase conductor. This is an unbalanced fault. The magnitudes
of double line-to-ground fault currents are usually greater than those of line-to-line faults,
but are less than those of three phase faults.
Calculation of double line-to-ground fault currents requires the use of symmetrical

components analysis. The impedance of the ground return path will affect the result, and
should be obtained if possible.
Figure 1c – Line-to-line-
to-ground faults
4. Line-To-Ground Faults
Line-to-ground faults, Figure 1(d), are the most common type of faults and are usually the
least disturbing to the system. The current in the faulted phase can range from near zero to a
value slightly greater than the bolted three phase fault current.
The line-to-ground fault current magnitude is determined by the method in which the system is
grounded and the impedance of the ground return path of the fault current.
Calculation of the exact line-to-ground fault current magnitudes requires the special
calculating techniques of symmetrical components.
Figure 1d – Line-to-ground faults
However, close approximations can be made knowing the method of system grounding
used. On ungrounded distribution systems, the line-to-ground fault currents are near zero.
Line-to-ground fault current magnitudes in distribution systems with resistance grounded system
neutrals can be estimated by dividing the system line-to-neutral system voltage by the total
value of the system ground- to-neutral resistance.
Line-to-ground fault current magnitudes in distribution systems with a solidly grounded

system will be approximately equal to the three phase fault current magnitudes.
Determining line-to-ground fault currents on long cable runs or transmission lines will
require detailed ground return path impedance data and detailed calculation techniques.

Reference // IEEE Recommended Practice for Calculating Short-Circuit Currents in
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
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5 Comments
1.
Sarah Whiteford
Sep 28, 2019
Hi Edvard;
We love your articles over here at OneStep Power, you are a go-to reference for us.
We do have a question though: You state “Line-to-ground faults, Figure 1(d), are
the most common type of faults and are usually the least disturbing to the system.”
Our industry experience also agrees with you, however you do not cite evidence or
an academic paper to support this claim. Do you have a reference we could review
for further support of this statement? Thanks!!
Reply
Edvard
Sep 28, 2019
Thank you Sarah. This statement is covered by IEEE Std. 551-2006

(Recommended practice for calculating short-circuit currents in industrial
and commercial power systems).
Reply
2.
Kayser Ahmed
Jan 26, 2019
What is the Fault Current of 33 KV DIstribution Line at a point??

Conductor #477 MCM
Please help me to Find the Result.
Reply
3.
Prasad KVSR
Nov 12, 2018
Dear Sir
We are the leading regional daily news paper publisher in INDIA. We have
2000KVA, 33KV/415Volts step down transformer with 2666amps. Three days back
arround 2.00am at the time of 2200amps load, we faced very serious problem..i.e.
we hard sounds from Aluminium bus duct with fire and smoke. Also same time
transformer safety valves was blown and oil was came out (observed transformer
winding temperature was raised to 100degress) my ACB was tripped and no effect
to my equipment. After some time we notice above phenomina was occured after
15foot of tranformer secondry side bus duct and before 20foot of my ACB. Total
bus duct length is 50foot.
Also noticed that, Transformer secondry side Neutral flexible link was cutted and
touched with bus duct body.
What is the reason …1. due to Neutral was cutted & shorted with body or
2. Any short circuit in bus duct..(all coupling link bolt & nuts are in tight condition.
Please give your valuable suggestions in the above…
Reply
4.
Lenny Curcio
Nov 15, 2016
Hi,
Your information has certainly helped my electrical learning curve.
I’m a Mech. Engineer assessing damages and justifying reimbursement from FEMA
for NYC due to Sandy Flooding. Electrical equipment was damaged via faults, but
FEMA advised the equipment is above the flood level. What I have tried to explain
is that the Submersible Sewage Pumps were compromised when the flood level
inundated the splice boxes causing a 3 Phase Fault upon start-up with trailered
portable generators. FEMA says there should have been protective devices between
the Pump Motors and MCC, which would cause an open. I believe the overcurrent
fused these devices as the design and conditions study did not protect for the max
fault as it was the least likely to occur. Arc-flash study may have recommended that
protective devices protect lower voltage/amperage equipment more prevalent to
damage occurrences.
1. Am I correct and can other components be damaged during a 3 Phase fault past
the protective device, and if so;
2. Can you assist in the proper language (Electrical Engineering) to explain and
justify that it could happen?
Much appreciated,
Lenny Curcio
Reply
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3 Overcurrent Protective Device Ratings

You MUST Properly Select
By Edvard | May, 8th 2015 | 6 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 3 Overcurrent Protective Device Ratings You MUST Properly Select
Ampere, voltage and interrupting rating

In order for an overcurrent protective device to operate properly, the overcurrent protective
device ratings must be properly selected.
3 Overcurrent Protective Device Ratings You Must Properly Select (on photo: Masterpact MCCB by
Schneider Electric; credit: masterpact.co.uk)
These ratings include:
1. Voltage rating
2. Ampere rating and
3. Interrupting rating
– Minimum Interrupting Rating.
Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most important and most often over-looked is the
interrupting rating.
If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipment and
personnel will exist. Current limiting can be considered as another overcurrent protective
device rating, although not all overcurrent protective devices are required to have this
characteristic.
Ok, let’s start with ratings…

1. Voltage Rating
The voltage rating of the overcurrent protective device must be at least equal to or greater
than the circuit voltage. The overcurrent protective device rating can be higher than the
system voltage, but never lower.
For instance, a 600V fuse or circuit breaker can be used in a 208V circuit.
Squar
e D Masterpact circuit breaker 2500A (photo credit: utilityrelay.com)
One aspect of the voltage rating of an overcurrent protective device is a function of its
capability to open a circuit under an overcurrent condition. Specifically, the voltage
rating determines the ability of the overcurrent protective device to suppress and extinguish
the internal arcing that occurs during the opening of an overcurrent condition.
If an overcurrent protective device is used with a voltage rating lower than the circuit voltage, arc
suppression and the ability to extinguish the arc will be impaired and, under some overcurrent
conditions, the overcurrent protective device may not clear the overcurrent safely.
The voltage rating is required to be marked on all overcurrent protective device labels.
NEC® 240.60 (A)(2) allows 300V type cartridge fuses to be permitted on single-phase
line-to-neutral circuits supplied from 3-phase, 4 wire, solidly grounded neutral source
where the line-to-neutral voltage does not exceed 300V. This allows 300V cartridge fuses
to be used on single-phase 277V lighting circuits.
Per NEC® 240.85, a circuit breaker with a slash rating, such as 480Y/277V, can only be
applied in a solidly grounded wye circuit where the nominal voltage of any conductor to
ground does not exceed the lower of the two values and the nominal voltage between any
two conductors does not exceed the higher value.
Thus, a 480Y/277V circuit breaker could not be applied on a 480V corner grounded,
because the voltage to ground exceeds 277 volts. It could not be used on 480V resistance
grounded or ungrounded systems because they are not solidly grounded.
Go back to Ratings ↑
2. Ampere Rating
Every overcurrent protective device has a specific ampere rating. In selecting the ampere
rating of the overcurrent protective device, consideration must be given to the type of load
and code requirements. The ampere rating of a fuse or circuit breaker normally should not
exceed the current carrying capacity of the conductors.
For instance, if a conductor is rated to carry 20A, a 20A fuse is the largest that should be
used.
As a general rule, the ampere rating of a fuse or a circuit breaker is selected at 125% of the
continuous load current. Since the conductors are generally selected at 125% of the continuous
load current, the ampacity of the conductors is typically not exceeded.
However, there are some specific circumstances in which the ampere rating is permitted to
be greater than the current carrying capacity of the conductors. A typical example is the
motor circuit; dual-element fuses generally are permitted to be sized up to 175% and an
inverse time circuit breaker up to 250% of the motor full-load amperes.
Nameplate of Square D
Masterpact Circuit Breaker NW08H1 800A, Micrologic 6.0A
NEC® 240.4(B) allows the next higher standard overcurrent protective device rating
(above the ampacity of the conductors being protected) to be used for overcurrent
protective devices 800A or less provided the conductor ampacity does not already
correspond to a standard overcurrent protective device size and if certain other conditions
are met.
NEC® 240.4(C) requires the ampacity of the conductor to be equal to or greater than the
rating of the overcurrent protective device for overcurrent devices rated over 800A.
NEC® 240.4(D) requires the overcurrent protective device shall not exceed 15A for 14
AWG, 20A for 12 AWG, and 30A for 10 AWG copper; or 15A for 12 AWG and 25A for
10 AWG aluminum and copper-clad aluminum after any correction factors for ambient
temperature and number of conductors have been applied.
NEC® 240.6 lists the standard ampere ratings for fuses and inverse time circuit breakers.
Standard amperage sizes are 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125,
150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, 1200, 1600, 2000,
2500, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 6000. Additional standard ampere ratings for fuses are 1, 3, 6,
10 and 601.
The use of non-standard ratings are permitted.
3. Interrupting Rating
NEC® Article 100 defines interrupting rating as: The highest current at rated voltage
that a device is intended to interrupt under standard test conditions.
An overcurrent protective device must be able to withstand the destructive energy of short-
circuit currents. If a fault current exceeds the interrupting rating of the overcurrent protective
device, the device may actually rupture, causing additional damage.
The picture below illustrates how considerable damage can result if the interrupting rating
of a protective device is exceeded by a short-circuit current.
Arc
flash in low voltage switchboard cubicle
Thus, it is important when applying a fuse or circuit breaker to use one which can
physically interrupt the largest potential short-circuit currents.
NEC® 110.9, requires equipment intended to interrupt current at fault levels to have an
interrupting rating sufficient for the current that must be interrupted. This article
emphasizes the difference between clearing fault level currents and clearing operating
currents.
Current interrupting ratingof MCCB and Fuse
Protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers are designed to clear fault currents
and, therefore, must have short-circuit interrupting ratings sufficient for all available fault
levels.
Equipment such as contactors and switches have interrupting ratings for currents at
other than fault levels, such as normal current overloads and locked rotor currents.
3.1 Minimum Interrupting Rating
NEC® 240.60(C) states that the minimum interrupting rating for a branch-circuit cartridge
fuse is 10,000A.
NEC® 240.83(C) states that the minimum interrupting rating for a branch-circuit circuit
breaker is 5,000A. The circuit breaker or fuse must be properly marked if the interrupting
rating exceeds these respective minimum ratings.
These minimum interrupting ratings and markings do not apply to supplemental protective
devices such as glass tube fuses or supplemental protectors.
Modern current-limiting fuses such as Class J, R,T and L have a high interrupting rating
of 200,000A to 300,000A at rated voltage.
Molded case circuit breakers typically come in a variety of interrupting ratings from
10,000A to 200,000A and are dependent upon the voltage rating. Typical incremental
interrupting ratings for a single series of circuit breakers may be 14kA, 25kA, 65kA and
100kA at 480V.
As interrupting rating of circuit breakers increases, so does the cost of the circuit breaker.
Typically the circuit breaker that just meets the required available fault current is selected.
However, this may be insufficient in the future if changes to the electrical system are
made.
Important NEC Requirements //
– 40.60 // covers the general requirements for cartridge type fuses and fuseholders. This
includes the requirements for 300V type fuses, non-interchangeable fuseholders, and fuse
marking.
– 110.9 // requires equipment intended to interrupt current at fault levels to have an

interrupting rating sufficient for the nominal circuit voltage and the current that is available
at the line terminals of the equipment.
– 240.85 // covers the requirements for the application of straight (such as 480V) and slash
rated (such as 480/277V) circuit breakers. Additional consideration of the circuit breakers’
individual pole-interrupting capability for other than solidly grounded wye systems is
indicated.
– 240.4 // requires conductors to be protected against overcurrent in accordance with their

ampacity as specified in 310.15. 240.4(B) typically permits the next standard overcurrent
protective device rating, per 240.6, to be used if the ampacity of a conductor does not
correspond with a standard rating (for overcurrent devices 800 amps or less).
– 240.60 // covers the general requirements for cartridge type fuses and fuseholders. This
includes the requirements for 300V type fuses, non-interchangeable fuseholders, and fuse
marking.
– 240.83 // covers the marking requirements for circuit breakers.
Reference // Electrical Plan Review – Overcurrent Protection and Devices, Short-Circuit

Calculations, Component Protection, Selective Coordination, and other considerations –
Copper Bussmann

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Edvard Csanyi
6 Comments
1.
Craig Nelson
Nov 01, 2019
Excellent article on overcurrent protection! I use this information in safety training

because it is particularly important for people to know that improper fusing,
overcurrent settings, etc. that vary from design requirements when incident energy
has been calculated on original specs can increase arc flash intensity and they may
find themselves inadequately protected. If the calculations haven’t been done, then
they must insure that the protection is appropriate and capable of clearing the fault.
These points are often overlooked in safety training which is why I always make
sure to include them. Again, thank you for excellent information (as usual!).
Reply
2.
Arvind Sharma
Oct 30, 2019
Good work EEP
Reply
3.
greatmanifex
Oct 07, 2015
I like the good job you re doing please keep it up.
Reply
4.
Engr Napoleon
Jul 22, 2015
I want to Know about control
Reply
5.
sinnadurai sripadmanabn
May 15, 2015
There are other aspects as well namely settings – overcurrent, short circuit,
instantaneous current.
Reply
6.
Er.K. K Murty
May 10, 2015
Dear Mr Csany,
I appreciate your enthusiasm & efforts to cover all the fields of Electrical
engineering. I feel O/C condition means continuous Over Current only, that too
relays of O/C start functioning at 1.3 times the set current setting(plug setting
multiplier) & the time taken to operate the O/C relay, MCCB or a fuse depends up
on the characteristics of the item/device used for protection.
As far as CTs are concerned, the continuous current carrying capacity is 1.2 times
the rated current.As far as Voltage rating is concerned ,it has to be little higher than
the rating of the supply voltage,that is about 10% higher to take care for highest
system voltage at supply frequency.
With regards.
Er.K.K.Murty.
Reply
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage
Rating Definitions Applied to Low Voltage

Molded-Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
By Edvard | September, 19th 2014 | 6 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Rating Definitions Applied to Low Voltage Molded-Case Circuit Breaker
(MCCB)
For system protection 600V and below

The molded-case circuit breaker is the “workhorse” for system protection 600V and
below. A circuit breaker is a device designed to open and close by nonautomatic means and
to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself
when properly applied within its rating.
Rating Definitions Applied to Low Voltage Molded-Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
The following terms apply to molded-case circuit breakers:
Voltage – Circuit breakers are designed and marked with the maximum voltage at which
they can be applied. Circuit breaker voltage ratings distinguish between delta-connected,
3-wire systems and wye-connected, 4-wire systems.
As stated in NEC article 240.85, a circuit breaker with a straight voltage rating, such as 240 or 480
V can be used in a circuit in which the nominal voltage between any two conductors does not
exceed the circuit breaker’s voltage rating.
Breakers with slash ratings, such as 120/240 V or 480 Y/277 V, can be applied in a solidly-
grounded circuit where the nominal voltage of any conductor to ground does not exceed the
lower of the two values of the circuit breaker’s voltage rating and the nominal voltage
between any two conductors does not exceed the higher value of the circuit breaker’s
voltage rating.
Frequency – Molded-case circuit breakers are normally suitable for 50Hz or 60Hz. Some
have DC ratings as well.
Continuous current or Rated current – This is the maximum current a circuit breaker can
carry continuously at a given ambient temperature rating without tripping (typically 40˚C).
In accordance with NEC article 210.20 a circuit breaker (or any branch circuit overcurrent
device) should not be loaded to over 80% of its continuous current unless the assembly,
including the circuit breaker and enclosure, is listed for operation at 100% of its rating.
Poles – The number of poles is the number of ganged circuit breaker elements in a single
housing. Circuit breakers are available with one, two, or three poles, and also four poles for
certain applications.
Per NEC article 240.85 a two-pole circuit breaker cannot be used for protecting a 3-phase, corner-
grounded delta circuit unless the circuit breaker is marked 1ø – 3ø to indicate such suitability.
Control voltage – The control voltage rating is the AC or DC voltage designated to be applied to
control devices intended to open or close a circuit breaker. In most cases this only applies to accessories
that are custom-ordered, such as motor operators.
Interrupting rating – This is the highest current at rated voltage that the circuit breaker is
intended to interrupt under standard test conditions.
Short-time or Withstand Rating – This characterizes the circuit-breaker’s ability to withstand

the effects of short-circuit current flow for a stated period. Molded-case circuit breakers
typically do not have a withstand rating, although some newer-design breakers do.
Instantaneous override – A function of an electronic trip circuit breaker that causes the instantaneous
function to operate above a given level of current if the instantaneous function characteristic has been
disabled.
Current Limiting Circuit Breaker – This is a circuit breaker which does not employ a fusible element
and, when operating in its current-limiting range, limits the let-through I2t to a value less than the I2t
of a _-cycle wave of the symmetrical prospective current.
HID – This is a marking that indicates that a circuit breaker has passed additional endurance and
temperature rise tests to assess its ability to be used as the regular switching device for high intensity
discharge lighting. Per NEC 240.80 (D) a circuit breaker which is used as a switch in an HID lighting
circuit must be marked as HID.
HID circuit breakers can also be used as switches in fluorescent lighting circuits.
SWD – This is a marking that indicates that a circuit breaker has passed additional endurance and
temperature rise tests to assess its ability to be used as the regular switching device fluorescent lighting.
Per NEC 240.80 (D) a circuit breaker which is used as a switch in an HID lighting circuit
must be marked as SWD or HID.
Frame – The term Frame is applied to a group of circuit breakers of similar configuration. Frame
size is expressed in amperes and corresponds to the largest ampere rating available in that group.
Thermal-magnetic circuit breaker – This type of circuit breaker contains a thermal element to trip the
circuit breaker for overloads and a faster magnetic instantaneous element to trip the circuit breaker for
short circuits.
On many larger thermal-magnetic circuit breakers the instantaneous element is

adjustable.
Electronic trip circuit breaker – An electronic circuit breaker contains a solid-state adjustable trip unit.
These circuit breakers are extremely flexible in coordination with other devices.
Sensor – An electronic-trip circuit breaker’s sensor is usually an air-core current

transformer (CT) designed specifically to work with that circuit breaker’s trip unit.
The sensor size, in conjunction with the rating plug, determines the electronic-trip circuit
breaker’s continuous current rating.
Rating plug – An electronic trip circuit breaker’s rating plug can vary the circuit breaker’s
continuous current rating as a function of it’s sensor size.
Typical molded-case circuit breakers are shown in Figure 1, where on the left is a thermal-
magnetic circuit breaker, and on the right is an electronic-trip circuit breaker. The thermal-
magnetic circuit breaker is designed for cable connections and the electronic circuit breaker
is designed for bus connections, but neither type is inherently suited for one connection
type over another.
Circuit breakers may be mounted in stand-alone enclosures, in switchboards, or in

panelboards.
Figure 1 –
Molded-Case circuit breakers
Thermal-magnetic circuit breaker time-current characteristic
A typical thermal-magnetic circuit breaker time-current characteristic is shown in figure 2.
Note the two distinct parts of the characteristic curve: The thermal or long-time characteristic is
used for overload protection and the magnetic or instantaneous characteristic is used for short-
circuit protection.
Note also that there is a band of operating times for a given fault current. The lower
boundary represents the lowest possible trip time and the upper boundary represents the
highest possible trip time for a given current.
Figur
e 2 – Thermal magnetic circuit breaker time-current characteristic
Electronic-trip circuit breaker time-current characteristic
The time-current characteristic for an electronic-trip circuit breaker is shown in figure 3.

The characteristic for an electronic trip circuit breaker consists of the long time pickup,
long-time delay, short-time pickup, short time delay, and instantaneous pickup parameters,
all of which are adjustable over a given range.
This adjustability makes the electronic-trip circuit breaker very flexible when
coordinating with other devices. The adjustable parameters for an electronic trip circuit
breaker are features of the trip unit.
In many cases the trip unit is also available without the short-time function.
In catalog data the long-time characteristic is listed as L, the short-time is listed as S, and the
instantaneous as I. Therefore an LSI trip unit has long-time, short-time, and
instantaneous characteristics, whereas an LI trip unit has only the long-time and instantaneous
characteristics.
For circuit breakers that have a short-time rating, the instantaneous feature may be disabled,
enhancing coordination with downstream devices.
Figur
e 3 – Electronic-trip circuit breaker time-current characteristic
If the instantaneous feature has been disabled one must still be cognizant of any
instantaneous override feature the breaker has, which will engage the instantaneous
function above a given level of current even if it has been disabled in order to protect the
circuit breaker from damage.
Coordination
Typical coordination between an electronic and a thermal magnetic circuit breaker is shown
in figure 4 below. Because the time bands do not overlap, these two devices are considered
to be coordinated.
Figur
e 4 – Typical molded-case circuit breaker coordination
A further reduction in the let-through energy for a fault in the region between two
electronic-trip circuit breakers can be accomplished through zone-selective interlocking.
This consists of wiring the two trip units such that if the downstream circuit breaker senses
the fault (typically this will be based upon the short-time pickup) it sends a restraining
signalto the upstream circuit breaker.
The upstream circuit breaker will then continue to time out as specified on its characteristic
curve, tripping if the downstream device does not clear the fault.
However, if the downstream device does not sense the fault and the upstream devices does,
the upstream device will not have the restraining signal from the downstream device and
will trip with no intentional delay.
Example
For example, if zone selective interlocking were present in the system of figure 4 and fault
occurs on bus C circuit breaker B will sense the fault and send a restraining signal to
circuit breaker A. Circuit breaker A is coordinated with circuit breaker B, so circuit breaker
B will trip first.
If circuit breaker B fails to clear the fault, circuit breaker A will time out on its time-current
characteristic per figure 4 and trip. If the fault occurs at bus B, circuit breaker B will
not detect the fault and thus will not send the restraining signal to circuit breaker A. Circuit
breaker A will sense the fault and will trip with no intentional delay, which is faster than
dictated by its time-current characteristic per figure 4.
Care must be used when applying zone-selective interlocking where there are multiple
sources of power and fault currents can flow in either direction through a circuit breaker.
Table 1 shows typical characteristics of molded-case circuit breakers for commercial and
industrial applications. This table is for reference only; when specifying circuit breakers
manufacturer’s actual catalog data should be used.
Number of Interrupting Rating at AC voltage (kA, RMS symmetrical)

Frame Size (A)
Poles 120 V 240 V 277 V 480 V 600 V
1 10 14
100
1 65 65
2, 3 18 14 14
100, 150 2, 3 65 25 18
2, 3 100 65 25
225, 250 2, 3 25 22 22
2, 3 65 25 22
2, 3 100 65 25
2, 3 42 30 22
400, 600 2, 3 65 65 25
2, 3 100 35
3 42 30 22
800, 1000 65 50 25
200 100 65
3 42 30 22
1200 3 65 50 25
3 200 100 65
3 65 50 42
1600, 2000
3 125 100 65
3 100 100 85
3000, 4000
3 200 150 100
Note that the continuous current rating is set by the sensor and rating plug sizes for a given
electronic-trip circuit breaker. This can be smaller than the frame size. As can be seen from
table 1, more than one interrupting rating can be available for a given frame size.
Current-limiting circuit breakers are also available. Coordination between two current-
limiting circuit breakers when they are both operating in the current limiting range is
typically determined by test.
By definition, low voltage molded case circuit breakers are not maintainable devices. Failure of a
component generally requires replacement of the entire circuit breaker unless the circuit breaker
has been specifically designed for maintainability.
Magnetic-only circuit breaker swhich have only magnetic tripping capability are
available. These are often used as short-circuit protection for motor circuits. For this reason
these are often referred to as motor circuit protectors.
Reference: System Protection – Bill Brown, P.E., Square D Engineering Services

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Edvard Csanyi
6 Comments
1.
Asha
Sep 05, 2019
Can I use 24..30VAC/DC rated voltage motor operators of 690VAC MCCB instead
of 220…250VAC/DC motor operators? What makes the difference technically?
Reply
2.
hamid reza
Jun 18, 2017

that is very helpefull uinformation.thankes to my friend
Reply
3.
Adil Zahoor
Jun 24, 2016
what is the difference between reaking and the current rating of a MCCB
Reply
4.
Murtaza Khan
Jan 23, 2015
Can you please design an application for windows phones? I am using a microsoft
windows 8.1 phones and would like to have EEP App .
Reply
5.
ROEL
Nov 06, 2014
very informative and interesting. thank you for this article & i need to read more :)
Reply
6.
Palanga
Oct 05, 2014
Very helpful, easy to understand, makes explaining to trainees a lot easier.
Reply
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Transformers
Dry Transformer Percent Impedance

Definition
By Edvard | October, 3rd 2012 | 10 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Dry Transformer Percent Impedance Definition
Introduction
The percent impedance is the percent voltage required to circulate rated current flow
through one transformer winding when another winding is short-circuited at the
rated voltage tap at rated frequency. %Z is related to the short circuit capacity of the
transformer during short circuit conditions.
Dry Transformer Percent Impedance Definition (on photo dry type transformer by Engineering
company B&S, Ukraine)
For a two winding transformer with a 5% impedance, it would require 5% input voltage

applied on the high voltage winding to draw 100% rated current on the secondary winding
when the secondary winding is short-circuited.
If 100% rated voltage is applied to the high voltage winding, approximately 20X rated
current would flow in the secondary winding when the secondary winding is short-
circuited.
Impedance Levels
Based kVA Minimum Impedance, %
0 – 150 Manufacturer’s standard
151 – 300 4
301 – 600 5
601 – 2,500 6
2,501 – 5,000 6.5
5,001 – 7,500 7.5
7,501 – 10,000 8.5
Above 10,000 9.5
Important Notes
1. The impedance of a two-winding transformer shall not vary from the guaranteed value by
more that ± 7.5%
2. The impedance of a transformer having three or more windings or having zig-zag windings
shall not vary from the guaranteed value by more than ± 10%
3. The impedance of an auto-transformer shall not vary from the guaranteed value by
more than ± 10%
4. The difference of impedances between transformers of the same design shall not
exceed 10% of the guaranteed values
5. Differences of impedance between auto-transformers of the same design shall not
exceed 10% of the guaranteed values
Impedance vs. Percent Impedance
Impedance is defined, in the Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, as “the apparent
resistance of an alternating current circuit or path… the vector sum of the resistance
and reactance of the path”. Impedance may be comprised of resistance, capacitive
reactance and inductive reactance, and is expressed in ohms.
From the perspective of a load, the total input impedance may include the impedance of the
upstream generator, transformer, line reactor and conductors.
The power system impedance is useful for estimating the available short circuit current.
Sample calculations for a three phase transformer rated 500kVA, 4160:480, 60Hz, 6%
impedance:
 Transformer reactance Xt = (kV2/MVA) x %Z/100 = (0.482 / 0.5) x 0.06 = 0.027648 ohms

 Approximate available short circuit current = 480/(1.732 x 0.027648) = 10,023.7 amps
Effective Percent Impedance

Effective impedance is the relative impedance of a reactor or transformer under actual
operating conditions. Since smaller (kVA) loads have higher impedance and thus draw
lower current than larger (kVA) loads, the internal ohms of a reactor or transformer
represent a smaller percentage of the load impedance for a small (kVA) load than for a
large load.
The value in ohms will cause a lower voltage drop when less than rated reactor or
transformer current is flowing. If the load is only one half the rated current, then the voltage
drop across the impedance will be onehalf of the rated voltage drop.
Sample calculations for a three phase transformer rated 500kVA, 4160:480, 60Hz, 6%
impedance:
 Transformer reactance Xt = (kV2/MVA) x %Z/100 = (0.482 / 0.5) x 0.06 = 0.027648 ohms
 Rated secondary current = 500,000 / (480 x 1.732) = 601.4 amps
 Actual Load current = 300 amps
 Voltage drop at actual load = 300 x 1.732 x 0.027648 = 14.36 volts (14.36 / 480 = 0.0299,
or 3% of 480 volts)
 Effective percent impedance = 6% x (300 / 601.4) = 2.99%
Transformer Percentage Impedance (VIDEO)
https://youtu.be/iU0JmFub7xA
https://youtu.be/iU0JmFub7xA
Resource: Substation Comissioning Course – Dry Type Transformer
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10 Comments
1.
Michael Frayne
Sep 10, 2019

How should impedance be measured when additional bus work is provided to
integrate adjacent switchgear in the project? Should the secondary short circuit be as
short as possible or should it include the additional bus?
Reply
2.
Azhar Ali
Aug 10, 2015
Hi, Can you tell me if I want to model this impedance per phase of three phase
transformer, how can I do this. Is this impedance is included in all three phases or
there should be division with something to represent it equivalent in single phase.
Thanks
Reply
3.
RAZZAQUE AHMED
May 10, 2014
I need Genrator impidence formula / calculation

Prefer if any software is available for this.
Reply
4.
apolinar
Mar 09, 2014
can impedance of dry type transformer will be adjusted as per our project
requirement. for example 15kVA dry type transformer manufacturer std. is 3.3 %
and our design requirement is 6.4%.it is possible to increase the impedance?
Reply
Manivannan
Aug 22, 2019
No need 6.4%for this capacity…if more %of impedance affects real

power…better to go with manufacturers standard
Reply
5.
Khairul
Jan 29, 2014
Hi all,
I’ve one question. I’ve done site acceptance test for dry-type transformer that we
just bought from one of the manufacturer. Upon doing the test, one of the test,
leakage reactance was failed where the value is not the same as FAT value.. During
FAT, we got 5.98 where by during SAT we got 7.38. we used doble M5400 to
conduct this test at site. Could you help me to enlighten this problem.
Reply
6.
Than Dai
Jun 15, 2013
My transformer is not OLTC.
Reply
7.
Than Dai
Jun 15, 2013
Dry type is so noisy.I have 2MVA,11/0.415kv.I would like to get secondary voltage
0.4kv.It have -or + 2 tap.If i change ,how could I get disadvantages?
Reply
8.
tigerdon
Oct 03, 2012
OLTC can be implemented for Dry Type Transformers? if not than why? it yes than
how? plz guide
Reply
Edvard
Oct 03, 2012
As far as I know there are dry type transformers with on-load tap changers
available. It’s done with vacuum box-structure with some automatic voltage
controller. OLTC can be controlled on site or from a some remote location.
Reply
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Low Voltage / Medium Voltage / Power Substation
The story of designing the electrical part of

MV/LV power substation
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New MV/LV distribution substation

Designing a new MV/LV distribution substation is somewhat complicated and involves a
lot of factors you must take care of. This technical article will try to present the essential
steps in starting the design process. The beginning is always the hardest part, but once you
learn the principles, it will be much easier for the next substations.
The story of designing the electrical part of MV/LV power substation (photo credit: Elektromont
servis Brno, spol. s r.o.)
Generally, the article is based on two main parts. The first part is dedicated to the
estimation of load you will have in your project (small factory as an example). The second
part in more complicated and involves the various network calculations of short circuit and
protection coordination.
Note that many people should be involved in obtaining all the necessary information for the
project. A good start would be contacting the power supply utility personnel for sizing of
the equipment, calibration of protection devices, the design and verification of the earthing
system regarding the supply. Then, collecting “true” information about loads could be a
painful job, etc.
Ok, let’s dive into estimations and calculations!
Table of contents:
1. Estimate of the power (supplied to a small industrial factory)

2. Calculation of short circuit and coordination of protections
1. Theory behind calculation of the short-circuit current
2. Power supply network
3. Transformer
4. Cables
5. Calculation of the short-circuit current
6. Calculation of the contribution of motors
7. Calculation of the peak current
8. Sizing and coordination of the protections
1. Estimate of the power supplied to a small industrial factory
Let’s take a small industrial plant as an example (Figure 1). Production involves a
stabilized thermal cycle in the furnace for which reason a total black-out is not possible.
The plant is also located in a densely populated area.
Fi
gure 1 – Single line diagram of the factory
The starting point for the design is the estimation of the consumption of the various users.
If in assessing the required power you were to consider the sum of the rated power of all
equipment and users you would get a value that is certainly excessive, for two reasons:
1. Some equipment might not be used at its full power

2. The equipment will not all be work at the same time
This is taken into account with two coefficients: the utilization factor Ku and the
contemporaneity factor Kc.
The ideal would be to have the actual data, as in the case of renovation of an existing installation
for which the load diagrams are available. However, in the case of new projects, the load diagram
is unfortunately not available.
Therefore one has to estimate the actual load by using factors derived statistically on
homogeneous categories of installations as proposed by CEI Guide 99-4, Annex E,
presented below.
Table 1 – Load estimation by using factors derived statistically on homogeneous categories

of installations
Type of environment
Type of Individual Civil buildings Offices, shops, Hotels, hospitals Medium and
system housing units for housing warehouses, high power
departments industrial plants
Lighting 66% of the 75% of the 90% of the 75% of the 90% of the
installed power installed power installed power installed power installed power
Heating 100% of the 100% of the 100% of the 100% of the 100% of the
power of the biggest user + biggest user + biggest user + biggest user +
equipment up to 50% of the 75% of the 80% of the 75% of the
10A + 50% of the remainder remainder second + 60% of remainder
remainder the remainder
Kitchens 100% of the 100% of the – 100% of the –

power of the biggest user + biggest user +
equipment up to 80% of the 80% of the
10A + 30% of the second + 60% of second + 60% of
equipment over the remainder the remainder
10A
permanently
connected
Motors (with – 100% of the 100% of the To be

the exclusion biggest motor + biggest motor + considered on a
of lifts, 80% of the 80% of the case by case
–
elevators, second motor + second motor + basis
cranes, etc.) 60% of the 60% of the
remainder remainder
Water heaters No contemporaneity is allowed
Socket outlets 100% of the 100% of the 100% of the 100% of the 25% of the user
biggest user + biggest user + biggest user + biggest user + installed
25% of the 25% of the 40% of the 75% of the
remainder remainder remainder rooms + 25% of
the remainder
Alternatively you can use table 101 of the Standard EN 61439-2:

Table 2 – Values of assumed loading
Type of load Assumed loading factor
Distribution: 2 and 3 circuits 0.9
Distribution: 10 and more circuits 0.5
Electric actuator 0.2
Motors ≤ 100 kW 0.8
Motors > 100 KW 1.0
In the example provided, the power used on the main LV switchgear is 732 kVA.
Considering the values of the rated power of the transformers available commercially, it
can be assumed that two transformers 400 kVA transformers will be installed. Apparently,
this assumption would be resulting in a more expensive solution than that with only one
800 kVA transformer.
Nevertheless, that can be justified by the need to have a greater continuity of service in
case of failures or maintenance.
In this situation the two transformers are loaded at 92% (732/800=0.92) of their rated power, and
in the case of an outage of one of the two, it will still be possible to provide 55% of the required
power.
The other features of the substation are:
1. The substation is powered by a buried cable

2. The transformers are closed in parallel on the secondary so as to guarantee the power
supply of the LV installation by both of them
3. The size of the internal MV network is less than 400 m
Table 3 – Power consumption per departments

2. Calculation of short circuit and coordination of protections
2.1 Theory behind calculation of the short-circuit current
To deal with the theory of calculation of short-circuit currents we will refer to the Standard
IEC 60909-0 “Short-circuit currents in three-phase AC systems – Part 0: Calculation of
currents”. With reference to the electrical network schematized in Figure 2, a short-circuit
is assumed on the load terminals.
The network can be studied and represented by using the resistance and reactance parameters of
each electrical component. The resistance and reactance values of must be all related to the same
voltage value assumed as a reference for calculating the short-circuit current.
The change from impedance values Z1 referring to a higher voltage (U1) to the values Z2,
referring to a lower voltage (U2), takes place using the transformation ratio K = U1/U2
according to the following relationship:
Figure 2 – Structure of the electrical network taken for calculation of short-circuit
The structure of the electrical network in question can be represented through elements in
series. In this way an equivalent circuit is obtained like that shown in the following Figure
3 which makes it possible to calculate the equivalent impedance seen from the fault point.
Figure 3 –
Equivalent circuit for electrical network
An equivalent voltage source (Ueq) is positioned at the point of the short circuit with the
value:
Ueq = c × Un / √3
The factor “c” depends on the system voltage and takes into account the influence of the
loads and of the variation in mains voltage. The following is the table taken from Standard
IEC 60909-0.
Table 4 – Voltage factor c for the calculation of max. and min. short-circuit currents
Voltage factor c for the calculation of:

Nominal voltage Un Maximum short-circuit currents Minimum short-circuit currents
Cmax(1) Cmin
Low voltage
1.05(3)
100 V to 1000V 0.95
1.10(4)
(IEC 60038, table I)
Medium voltage
> 1kV to 35 kV
(IEC 60038, table III)
1.10 AM 1.00
High voltage(2)
> 35 kV
(IEC 60038, table IV)
Where:
1. Cmax Un should not exceed the highest voltage Um for equipment of power systems.
2. If no nominal voltage is defined CmaxUn = Um or CminUn = 0.90×Um should be applied
3. For low-voltage systems with a tolerance of + 6%, for example systems renamed from 380
V to 400 V
4. For low-voltage systems with a tolerance of + 10%

2.2 Power supply network
In most cases, the installation will be supplied by a medium voltage distribution network,
for which it is quite easy to obtain the value of the supply voltage UnQ and the initial
short-circuit current I”kQ.
On the basis of these data and of a correction coefficient for the change in voltage caused
by the short-circuit it is possible to determine the short-circuit direct impedance of the
network with the following formula:
ZQ = c × UnQ /( √3 × I”kQ)
For the calculation of the network resistance and reactance parameters, if a precise value
for value for RQ is not available, the following approximate formulas can be used:
XQ = 0.995 × ZQ
RQ = 0.1 × XQ
2.3 Transformer
The impedance of the machine can be calculated using the rated parameters of the machine
itself (rated voltage UrT; apparent power SrT; short circuit voltage at the rated current in
percent ukr) using the following formula:
ZT = (ukr / 100%) (UrT2 / SrT)
The resistive component can be determined by knowing the value of the total losses. PkrT
referring to the rated current according to the following relationship:
RT = PkrT / (3 × IrT2)
The reactive component can be determined with the classic relationship:
XT = √(ZT2 – RT2)

2.4 Cables
The impedance value of these connection elements depends on various factors (technical,
constructive, temperature, etc.) that condition the linear resistance R’L and the linear
reactance X’L. These two parameters expressed per unit of length are provided by the
manufacturer of the cable.
Alternatively, reference values can be found in IEC 60909-2. In general, the resistance values are
based on a reference temperature of 20 °C. For different operating temperatures θ the following
formula makes it possible to relate the resistance value to the operating temperature.
R’Lθ = [1 + α (θ – 20)] × R’L20
where α is the temperature coefficient that depends on the type of material (for copper,
aluminum and aluminum alloys 4×10-3 holds true with good approximation). Therefore, in
very simple terms we have:
RL= L × R’L and XL= L × X’L
with L the length of the cable line.
2.5 Calculation of the short-circuit current
The definition of the short-circuit resistance and reactance values of the main elements
forming a circuit allow the short circuit currents in the installation to be calculated.
With reference to Figure 4, with the method of reducing elements in series the following
values are determined:
 The total short-circuit resistance value R = ∑Ri

 The total short-circuit reactance value X = ∑Xi
Once the two preceding parameters are known, it is possible to determine the total short-
circuit direct impedance Z:
Z = √(R2 + X2)
Once the equivalent impedance seen from the fault point has been determined, one can
proceed with the calculation of the symmetrical three-phase initial short-circuit current:
I”k3 = c × Un / √3 Z
Figure 4 – Symmetrical
three-phase initial short-circuit current
The three-phase short circuit is generally considered as the fault which causes the highest
currents (except in particular conditions).
In the absence of rotary machines, or when their action is diminished, it also represents the
permanent short-circuit current and is the value taken as a reference to determine the
breaking capacity of the protection device.
2.6 Calculation of the contribution of motors
In the event of a short circuit, the motor starts to function as a generator and powers the
fault for a limited time corresponding to the time required to eliminate the energy that has
been stored in the magnetic circuit of the motor.
Through an electrical diagram of the motor with its subtransient reactance it is possible to
calculate the numerical value of the motor contribution.
In low voltage, the Standard IEC 60909-0 provides the minimum indications for which the
phenomenon must be taken into account, it will be:
∑IrM < 0.01 × I”k
where:
 ∑IrM represents the sum of the rated currents of the motors connected directly to the
network where the short circuit occurs.
 I”k is the initial three-phase short-circuit current determined without contribution of
motors.
If it has to be taken into account, the impedance of the motors may be calculated using the
formula:
where:
 Urm is the rated voltage of the motor

 IrM is the rated current of the motor
 SrM is the rated apparent power of the motor (S rM = PrM/(ηrM cosφrM)
 ILR/IrM is the ratio between the locked rotor current and the rated current of the motor.
The current ILR is often a value that is difficult to obtain an therefore it is common practice to
consider this value as a multiple of the rated current of the motor. The typical values of the ratio
ILR/IrM vary from 4 to 6.
Finally, for groups of low voltage motors connected via cables we can, with good
approximation, use the relationship:
RM/XM = 0.42 with XM = 0.922 ZM
2.7 Calculation of the peak current
The short circuit current I”k can be considered to consist of two components:
1. A symmetrical component is with sinusoidal wave form and in fact symmetrical in relation
to the horizontal time axis.
2. A unidirectional component iu with exponential trend due to the presence of an inductive
component.
This component is characterized by a time constant τ= L/R (“R” indicates the resistance
and “L” indicates the inductance of the circuit upstream of the failure point) and is
extinguished after 3-6 times τ.
During the transitional period, the unidirectional component makes the short-circuit
current asymmetric, characterized by a maximum value, referred to as the peak value,
which is higher than what it would be with a purely sinusoidal magnitude.
In general we can say that, considering the effective value of the symmetrical component of
the short-circuit current Ik, the value of the first peak current may vary from:
√2 I”k to 2√2 I”k
After the transitional period, the short-circuit current becomes practically symmetrical. An
example of the current trend is shown in the following Figure 5.
Figure 5 –
Symmetrical component of short-circuit current
The Standard IEC 60909-0 provides useful indications for calculating the peak current. In
particular, it indicates the following relationship:
ip = k × √2 × I”k
where the value of k can be evaluated with the following approximate formula:
k = 1.02 + 0.98 × e-3R/X
or through the following charts that show the value of “k” as a function of the parameter
“R/X” or “X/R” (see Figure 6).
Figure 6 –
Parameter “k” for calculating short-circuit peak current
2.8 Sizing and coordination of the protections

Knowledge of certain parameters is fundamental for sizing the installation. Calculations
and the study of protection coordination has been published earlier in several other
technical articles, so this won’t be covered here.
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/selective-coordination-between-lv-circuit-breakers
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-guides/electrical-
engineering/overcurrent-coordination
Please refer to the following articles:
Sources:
1. Technical guide The MV/LV transformer substations (passive users) by ABB

2. Schneider Electric Low voltage expert guides no. 5 – Coordination of LV protection devices
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engineer.
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Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Shashi
Jan 16, 2020
Awesome Writing! Have been always a great fan of your great articles.
Reply
2.
Sandesh Choudhari
Jan 16, 2020
Amazing
Reply
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Properly engineered and installed selective

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Home / Technical Articles / Properly engineered and installed selective coordination between LV
circuit breakers
Time-Current Characteristic Curves

It’s extremely important to work on selective coordination of circuit breakers in the design
phase of a system. After switchboards, distribution panels, MCCs, lighting switchboards,
etc. are installed, there typically is little that can be done to retroactively “fix” a system that
is not selectively coordinated.
Properly engineered and installed selective coordination between LV circuit breakers (photo
credit: enerprom.si)
While it’s very important, it is not enough to select circuit breakers based solely on their
ability to carry the system load current and interrupt the maximum fault current at their
respective points of application.
It is important to note that the type of overcurrent protective devices and ratings (or
settings) selected determine if a system is selectively coordinated.
A properly engineered and installed system will allow only the nearest upstream overcurrent
protective device to open for both overloads and all types of short-circuits, leaving the remainder
of the system undisturbed and preserving continuity of service. Isolation of a faulted circuit from
the remainder of the installation is critical in today’s modern electrical systems.
Power blackouts cannot be tolerated.
Contents:
1. Circuit Breaker Curves

1. Overload Region
2. Instantaneous Region
2. Achieving Selective Coordination with Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
1. Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
2. Interpreting Circuit Breaker Curves for Selective Coordination
3. Analysis for branch circuit fault
4. Analysis for feeder circuit fault
5. Conclusion for coordination analysis
When using molded case circuit breakers of this type, there are three basic curve
considerations that must be understood (see Figure 1). These are overload region,
instantaneous region with unlatching and interrupting rating.
1.1 Overload Region
Overloads typically can be tolerated by the circuit components for relatively longer times
than faults and therefore, the opening times are in the range of seconds and minutes.
As can be seen, the overload region has a tolerance band, which means the breaker should
open within that area for a particular overload current.
Figure 1a –
Instantaneous Region
1.2 Instantaneous Region
A circuit breaker will open as quickly as possible. The instantaneous trip (IT) setting
indicates the multiple of the full load rating at which the circuit breaker starts to operate in
its instantaneous region.
Circuit breakers with instantaneous trips either have (1) fixed instantaneous trip settings or (2)
adjustable instantaneous trip settings.
The instantaneous region is represented in Figure 1, and for this example, is shown to be
adjustable from 5× to 10× the breaker amp rating.
When the breaker senses an overcurrent in the instantaneous region, it releases the latch
which holds the contacts closed (unlatches). Unlatching permits the contact parting process
to start.
The unlatching time is represented by the curve labeled “average unlatching times for
instantaneous tripping” (this is the continuation of the instantaneous trip curve below 0.01
second). This is important when evaluating corrdination of line side breakers to load side
breakers.
1 – Typical Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic Curve
The manufacturer of the circuit breaker in Figure 1 also published a table of unlatching
times for various currents (upper right). Unlatching frees or releases the spring loaded
contacts to start the process of parting.
After unlatching, the overcurrent is not cleared until the breaker contacts are mechanically
separated and the arc is extinguished (represented in Figure 1 as the maximum interrupting
time).
Consequently, there is a range of time from unlatching to interruption as is indicated by the

band between the unlatching time curve and the maximum interrupting time curve.
This range of time affects the ability of circuit breakers with instantaneous trips to
selectively coordinate when the overcurrent magnitude is in the instantaneous trip
range.
Two instantaneous trip settings for a 400A breaker are shown in Figure 1.
The instantaneous trip region, drawn with the solid line, represents an IT = 5x, or five times 400A
= 2000A. At this setting, the circuit breaker will trip instantaneously on currents of approximately
2000A or more. The ± 25% band represents the area in which it is uncertain whether the overload
trip or the instantaneous trip will operate to clear the overcurrent.
The dashed portion represents the same 400A breaker with an IT = 10x, or 10 times 400A
= 4000A. At this setting the overload trip will operate up to approximately 4000 amps
(±10%).
Overcurrents greater than 4000A (±10%) would be sensed by the instantaneous setting. The
±25% and ±10% band mentioned in this paragraph represents a tolerance. This tolerance
can vary by circuit breaker manufacturer and type.
Figure 0 – Eaton MCCB 400 Amp Four Pole
Many of the lower amp rated circuit breakers (100A and 150A frame CBs) have non-
adjustable or fixed instantaneous trip settings. For larger molded case, insulated case and
power breakers the instantaneous trip setting can usually be adjusted by an external dial.
The IT of a circuit breaker is typically set at its lowest setting when shipped from the
factory.
Note that most published circuit breaker time-current curves show the vertical time axis
from 0.01 second up to about 100 or 1000 seconds. The published curves do not normally
provide the instantaneous unlatching characteristic.
However, if a circuit breaker has an instantaneous trip, it has unlatching times usually less
than 0.01 second.
Some circuit breakers have short time-delay trip settings (STD). These will be discussed later in
this section. The short time-delay trip option can be used in conjunction with (1) an instantaneous
trip settings or (2) without instantaneous trip settings.
Typically, molded case circuit breakers and insulated case circuit breakers that have short
time-delay settings have an instantaneous trip override. This means at some fault current
level, the instantaneous trip operates to protect the circuit breaker.
Low voltage power circuit breakers can be specified with a short time-delay setting which
does not inherently incorporate an instantaneous trip override.
1.3 Interrupting Rating

The interrupting rating is represented on the drawing by a vertical line at the right end of
the curve. The interrupting rating for circuit breakers varies based on the voltage level.
See the interrupting rating table in Figure 1 which lists the interrupting ratings for this
specific circuit breaker.
For coordination purposes, the vertical line is often drawn at the fault current level in lieu of the
interrupting rating (if the interrupting rating is greater than the available short-circuit current).
However, if the fault current is above the interrupting rating, a misapplication and violation of
NEC® 110.9 is evident.
In Figure 1, the circuit breaker interrupting rating at 480 volts is 30,000 amps.
2. Achieving Selective Coordination with LV Circuit Breakers
To achieve selective coordination with low voltage circuit breakers, the general rule is that
no overlap of time-current curves (including the unlatching time) is permitted up to the
available short-circuit current.
The ability of circuit breakers to achieve coordination depends upon the type of circuit
breakers selected; amp ratings, settings and options of the circuit breakers, and the
available short-circuit currents.
The type of circuit breaker selected could be one of three types:
1. Circuit breakers with instantaneous trips;

2. Circuit breakers with short time-delay but incorporating instantaneous overrides; or
3. Circuit breakers with short time-delays (no instantaneous override).
In the following paragraphs, various alternative circuit breaker schemes will be discussed in
relation to assessing for selective coordination.
2.1 Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
Figure 2 illustrates a 90A circuit breaker and an upstream 400A circuit breaker having an
instantaneous trip setting of 5× (5 times 400A = 2000A).
The minimum instantaneous trip current for the 400A circuit breaker could be as low as
2000A times 0.75 = 1500A (± 25% band). If a fault above 1500A occurs on the loadside
of the 90A breaker, both breakers could open. The 90A breaker may unlatch before the
400A breaker.
However, before the 90A breaker can part its contacts and clear the fault current, the 400
amp breaker could have unlatched and started the irreversible contact parting process.
Assume a 4000A short-circuit exists on the loadside of the 90A circuit breaker.
The sequence of events would be as follows:
1. The 90A breaker will unlatch (Point A) and free the breaker mechanism to start the
contact parting process.
2. The 400A breaker will unlatch (Point B) and it, too, would begin the contact parting
process. Once a breaker unlatches, it will open. At the unlatching point, the process is
irreversible. It is similar to pulling a trigger on a gun.
3. At Point C, the 90A breaker will have completely interrupted the fault current.
4. At Point D, the 400A breaker also will have opened, which unnecessarily disrupts power to
all other loads.
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More Information
Properly engineered and installed selective

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Home / Technical Articles / Properly engineered and installed selective coordination
between LV circuit breakers
Time-Current Characteristic Curves

It’s extremely important to work on selective coordination of circuit breakers in the design
phase of a system. After switchboards, distribution panels, MCCs, lighting switchboards,
etc. are installed, there typically is little that can be done to retroactively “fix” a system that
is not selectively coordinated.
Properly engineered and installed selective coordination between LV circuit breakers
(photo credit: enerprom.si)
While it’s very important, it is not enough to select circuit breakers based solely on their
ability to carry the system load current and interrupt the maximum fault current at their
respective points of application.
It is important to note that the type of overcurrent protective devices and ratings (or
settings) selected determine if a system is selectively coordinated.
A properly engineered and installed system will allow only the nearest upstream
overcurrent protective device to open for both overloads and all types of short-circuits,
leaving the remainder of the system undisturbed and preserving continuity of service.
Isolation of a faulted circuit from the remainder of the installation is critical in today’s
modern electrical systems.
Power blackouts cannot be tolerated.
Contents:

1. Overload Region
2. Instantaneous Region
2. Achieving Selective Coordination with Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
1. Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
2. Interpreting Circuit Breaker Curves for Selective Coordination
3. Analysis for branch circuit fault
4. Analysis for feeder circuit fault
5. Conclusion for coordination analysis
When using molded case circuit breakers of this type, there are three basic curve
considerations that must be understood (see Figure 1). These are overload region,
instantaneous region with unlatching and interrupting rating.
1.1 Overload Region
Overloads typically can be tolerated by the circuit components for relatively longer times
than faults and therefore, the opening times are in the range of seconds and minutes.
As can be seen, the overload region has a tolerance band, which means the breaker should
open within that area for a particular overload current.
Figure 1a –
Instantaneous Region
1.2 Instantaneous Region
A circuit breaker will open as quickly as possible. The instantaneous trip (IT) setting
indicates the multiple of the full load rating at which the circuit breaker starts to operate in
its instantaneous region.
Circuit breakers with instantaneous trips either have (1) fixed instantaneous trip settings
or (2) adjustable instantaneous trip settings.
The instantaneous region is represented in Figure 1, and for this example, is shown to be
adjustable from 5× to 10× the breaker amp rating.
When the breaker senses an overcurrent in the instantaneous region, it releases the latch
which holds the contacts closed (unlatches). Unlatching permits the contact parting process
to start.
The unlatching time is represented by the curve labeled “average unlatching times for
instantaneous tripping” (this is the continuation of the instantaneous trip curve below 0.01
second). This is important when evaluating corrdination of line side breakers to load side
breakers.
e 1 – Typical Circuit Breaker Time-Current Characteristic Curve
The manufacturer of the circuit breaker in Figure 1 also published a table of unlatching
times for various currents (upper right). Unlatching frees or releases the spring loaded
contacts to start the process of parting.
After unlatching, the overcurrent is not cleared until the breaker contacts are mechanically
separated and the arc is extinguished (represented in Figure 1 as the maximum interrupting
time).
Consequently, there is a range of time from unlatching to interruption as is indicated by the

band between the unlatching time curve and the maximum interrupting time curve.
This range of time affects the ability of circuit breakers with instantaneous trips to
selectively coordinate when the overcurrent magnitude is in the instantaneous trip
range.
Two instantaneous trip settings for a 400A breaker are shown in Figure 1.
The instantaneous trip region, drawn with the solid line, represents an IT = 5x, or five
times 400A = 2000A. At this setting, the circuit breaker will trip instantaneously on
currents of approximately 2000A or more. The ± 25% band represents the area in which it
is uncertain whether the overload trip or the instantaneous trip will operate to clear the
overcurrent.
The dashed portion represents the same 400A breaker with an IT = 10x, or 10 times 400A
= 4000A. At this setting the overload trip will operate up to approximately 4000 amps
(±10%).
Overcurrents greater than 4000A (±10%) would be sensed by the instantaneous setting. The
±25% and ±10% band mentioned in this paragraph represents a tolerance. This tolerance
can vary by circuit breaker manufacturer and type.
Figure 0 – Eaton MCCB 400 Amp Four Pole
Many of the lower amp rated circuit breakers (100A and 150A frame CBs) have non-
adjustable or fixed instantaneous trip settings. For larger molded case, insulated case and
power breakers the instantaneous trip setting can usually be adjusted by an external dial.
The IT of a circuit breaker is typically set at its lowest setting when shipped from the
factory.
Note that most published circuit breaker time-current curves show the vertical time axis
from 0.01 second up to about 100 or 1000 seconds. The published curves do not normally
provide the instantaneous unlatching characteristic.
However, if a circuit breaker has an instantaneous trip, it has unlatching times usually less
than 0.01 second.
Some circuit breakers have short time-delay trip settings (STD). These will be discussed
later in this section. The short time-delay trip option can be used in conjunction with (1) an
instantaneous trip settings or (2) without instantaneous trip settings.
Typically, molded case circuit breakers and insulated case circuit breakers that have short
time-delay settings have an instantaneous trip override. This means at some fault current
level, the instantaneous trip operates to protect the circuit breaker.
Low voltage power circuit breakers can be specified with a short time-delay setting which
does not inherently incorporate an instantaneous trip override.
1.3 Interrupting Rating

The interrupting rating is represented on the drawing by a vertical line at the right end of
the curve. The interrupting rating for circuit breakers varies based on the voltage level.
See the interrupting rating table in Figure 1 which lists the interrupting ratings for this
specific circuit breaker.
For coordination purposes, the vertical line is often drawn at the fault current level in lieu
of the interrupting rating (if the interrupting rating is greater than the available short-circuit
current). However, if the fault current is above the interrupting rating, a misapplication and
violation of NEC® 110.9 is evident.
In Figure 1, the circuit breaker interrupting rating at 480 volts is 30,000 amps.
2. Achieving Selective Coordination with LV Circuit Breakers
To achieve selective coordination with low voltage circuit breakers, the general rule is that
no overlap of time-current curves (including the unlatching time) is permitted up to the
available short-circuit current.
The ability of circuit breakers to achieve coordination depends upon the type of circuit
breakers selected; amp ratings, settings and options of the circuit breakers, and the
available short-circuit currents.
The type of circuit breaker selected could be one of three types:
1. Circuit breakers with instantaneous trips;

2. Circuit breakers with short time-delay but incorporating instantaneous overrides; or
3. Circuit breakers with short time-delays (no instantaneous override).
In the following paragraphs, various alternative circuit breaker schemes will be discussed in
relation to assessing for selective coordination.
2.1 Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
Figure 2 illustrates a 90A circuit breaker and an upstream 400A circuit breaker having an
instantaneous trip setting of 5× (5 times 400A = 2000A).
The minimum instantaneous trip current for the 400A circuit breaker could be as low as
2000A times 0.75 = 1500A (± 25% band). If a fault above 1500A occurs on the loadside
of the 90A breaker, both breakers could open. The 90A breaker may unlatch before the
400A breaker.
However, before the 90A breaker can part its contacts and clear the fault current, the 400
amp breaker could have unlatched and started the irreversible contact parting process.
Assume a 4000A short-circuit exists on the loadside of the 90A circuit breaker.
The sequence of events would be as follows:
1. The 90A breaker will unlatch (Point A) and free the breaker mechanism to start the
contact parting process.
2. The 400A breaker will unlatch (Point B) and it, too, would begin the contact
parting process. Once a breaker unlatches, it will open. At the unlatching point, the
process is irreversible. It is similar to pulling a trigger on a gun.
3. At Point C, the 90A breaker will have completely interrupted the fault current.
4. At Point D, the 400A breaker also will have opened, which unnecessarily disrupts
power to all other loads.
Figure 2 – Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
These two specific circuit breakers with the settings as stated are coordinated for any
overcurrent up to approximately 1500A.
However, this is a non-selective system where fault currents are above 1,500A, causing a
blackout to all the loads fed by the 400A breaker.
As mentioned previously, this is typical for molded case circuit breakers due to the
instantaneous trip and band of operation on medium to high fault conditions. In addition,
this can affect other larger upstream circuit breakers depending upon the size and the
instantaneous setting of the circuit breakers upstream and the magnitude of the fault
current.
Circuit breaker manufacturers provide Coordination Tables which show circuit breakers of
specific types and ampere ratings coordinating to fault values greater than the crossing
point where two circuit breaker time-current curves intersect.
The norm in the industry is to display circuit breaker curves for times from 0.01 second to
about 100 or 1000 seconds. So typically the circuit breaker curves are not shown with the
unlatching curves as in Figure 2.
The following Figure 3 illustrates a 400A (IT = 7×) circuit breaker feeding a 100A
circuit breaker.
However, this curve, which is the industry norm, does not show the circuit breaker
characteristics below 0.01 second. For coordination analysis, the interpretation of this curve
is that these two circuit breakers are coordinated for overcurrents less than approximately
2100A (arrow on Figure 3).
For overcurrents greater than 2100A, these two circuit breakers, with these settings, would
not be considered coordinated.
Figure 3 –
Coordination analysis of two circuit breakers 400A and 100A
The following is an excerpt from IEEE 1015-2006 “Blue Book” Applying Low-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Used in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, page 145 5.5.3 Series
MCCBs:
Selective coordination is limited to currents below the instantaneous pickup of the

lineside circuit breaker. For any fault downstream of the loadside MCCB having a current
greater than the instantaneous pickup of the lineside MCCB, both circuit breakers trip, and
power is interrupted to unfaulted circuits fed by the lineside circuit breaker.

2.2 Interpreting Circuit Breaker Curves for Selective Coordination
Figure 4 is the single-line diagram that will be used for the next couple of examples. It has
three molded case circuit breakers in series:
1. 1200A main,
2. 400A feeder with
3. the 100A branch circuit.
The other circuit breakers on the one-line diagram supply other circuits and loads. The fault
current path from the power source is depicted by the red arrows/lines on the one-line
diagram.
Figure 4 – Interpreting Circuit

Breaker Curves for Selective Coordination
For the coordination analysis, faults on both the branch circuit and feeder must be analyzed.
When the curves of two circuit breakers cross over in their instantaneous trip region, then
the drawing indicates that the two circuit breakers do not coordinate for fault currents
greater than this cross over point.
For instance, interpreting the curves for the 100A circuit breaker and the 400A circuit
breaker. Their curves intersect in the instantaneous region starting at approximately 3600A.
The 1200A circuit breaker curve intersects the 100A and 400A circuit breaker curves at
approximately 6500A.
Figure 5 –
Coordination analysis of three molded-case circuit breakers 100A, 400A and 1200A
2.3 Analysis for branch circuit fault
For a branch circuit fault current less than 3600A on the loadside of the 100A circuit
breaker, the 400A and 1200A circuit breakers will be coordinated with the 100A circuit
breaker.
If the fault current is greater than 3600A, then the 400A feeder circuit breaker may
unnecessarily open and there is a lack of coordination.
If the branch circuit fault is greater than 6500A, then the 1200A main circuit breaker
may unnecessarily open, which is a lack of coordination between the 100A, 400A and
1200A circuit breakers.
The reason is, for a fault of greater than 6500A, all three of these circuit breakers are in
their instantaneous trip region. Both the 400A and 1200A circuit breakers can unlatch
before the 100A circuit breaker clears the fault current.
2.4 Analysis for feeder circuit fault
For any feeder fault less than 6500 amps on the loadside of the 400A circuit breaker, the
400A and 1200A circuit breakers will be coordinated.
For feeder faults greater than 6500A, the 1200A circuit breaker is not coordinated with the
400A feeder circuit breaker.
2.5 Conclusion for Figures 4 and 5 coordination analysis
If the maximum available short-circuit current at the 100A branch circuit is less than 3600A
and the maximum available short-circuit current at the 400A feeder circuit is less than
6500A, then the circuit path (100A, 400A, and 1200A) is selectively coordinated.
If the maximum available short-circuit current exceeds either of these values, the circuit
path is not selectively coordinated.
Figure 6 –
Lack of coordination between circuit breakers
How does this affect the electrical system?
Look at the single-line diagram in Figure 6. For any fault current greater than
approximately 6500A on the loadside of the 100A circuit breaker, the 1200A and 400A
circuit breakers open as well as the 100A circuit breaker.
The yellow shading indicates that all three circuit breakers open – branch circuit, feeder and
main. In addition, all the loads fed by the other circuit breakers, denoted by the hash
shading, are blacked out unnecessarily. This is due to the lack of coordination between
the 100A, 400A and 1200A circuit breakers.
shading, are blacked out unnecessarily.
This is due to the lack of coordination between the 100A, 400A and 1200A circuit
breakers.
Source: Selecting Protective Devices by Eaton
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More Information
Edvard Csanyi
commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
6 Comments
1.
Hocine Meng Fodil
May 01, 2019
As my idustrial experience the best way to protect a particular equipement is to use

the differential protection but in some situations as you have presented this situation
i can say may be failed and nececitate too much cumbersome when ever the wiring
is far from the equipement under question. thank you. else this aproach is also well
suited when dealing in some situations. and nececitate some inspection. every times.
if it is necessary.
Reply
2.
Ghanshyam
Apr 16, 2019
As said by Jhan above explanation is really excellent, but then what is correct
selection in above case? What would be correct selection of MCCB to avoid
unnecessary black out of non faulty area? It can be understood, If it is explained in
detail.
Here what happens what is wrong is explained, but what is correct is not explained.
It will be easy to understand what is correct and how should be the correct selection,
if it is explained.
Reply
3.
Timo Keskitalo
Apr 11, 2019
So you say that all discrimination tables are a hoax? In short, ABB coordination
tables show no problem with 100 A and 400 A devices. I don’t work at ABB.
I have understood that the frame size of supply side MCCB affects on the current or
speed of instantaneous tripping (the area that you say is not normally shown). So
that it is possible to get full selectivity or up to a certain point. Provided that the
tripping curves on longer times are setted correctly.
E.g. ABB coordination tables show no problem with a load side T2 MCCB 160 A
magnetic and supply side T5 MCCB 320 A magnetic, when the frame is 400 A.
Both can be electrical up to 100 A load side.
In fact, should be that a T2 160 A frame with 100 magnetic relay and T4 250 A
frame with 250 magnetic or 160 A electronic relay should be discriminated. Or e.g.
S290 100 A D-curve MCB with T4 250 A relay up to MCB 15kA capability, and so
on.
Like already mentioned, the I2t-curves should also be checked. I don’t remember
them, I should use some software.
Reply
4.
Mohamed Kasim Thakir
Apr 11, 2019
To avoid unwanted tripping of between upstream and downstream MCCB/MCB for

the high fault region. Please make Energy discrimination between them as either
totally or partially.
Reply
5.
Winai Namsurin
Apr 11, 2019
Hi Edvard,
Could you please suggest, in term of design and selection when we need to detect
earth fault in medium voltage system, how about criteria when we have to detect
earth fault between 3I0 by 3 CT in each phase and sum CT
Thank you.
Winai Namsurin
Reply
6.
Jhan Pérez
Apr 11, 2019
Excellent explanation, colleague Csanyi, but I would like to explain the solution
with the same case, example: increasing the capacity of short circuit in 400A and
1.200A MCCB, is one and other is placing limiting fuses with 400A and 1.200A
MCCB.
Reply
Leave a Comment
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Email address *
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Figure 2 – Two Instantaneous Trip Circuit Breakers
These two specific circuit breakers with the settings as stated are coordinated for any
overcurrent up to approximately 1500A.
However, this is a non-selective system where fault currents are above 1,500A, causing a
blackout to all the loads fed by the 400A breaker.
As mentioned previously, this is typical for molded case circuit breakers due to the instantaneous
trip and band of operation on medium to high fault conditions. In addition, this can affect other
larger upstream circuit breakers depending upon the size and the instantaneous setting of the
circuit breakers upstream and the magnitude of the fault current.
Circuit breaker manufacturers provide Coordination Tables which show circuit breakers of
specific types and ampere ratings coordinating to fault values greater than the crossing
point where two circuit breaker time-current curves intersect.
The norm in the industry is to display circuit breaker curves for times from 0.01 second to
about 100 or 1000 seconds. So typically the circuit breaker curves are not shown with the
unlatching curves as in Figure 2.
The following Figure 3 illustrates a 400A (IT = 7×) circuit breaker feeding a 100A
circuit breaker.
However, this curve, which is the industry norm, does not show the circuit breaker
characteristics below 0.01 second. For coordination analysis, the interpretation of this curve
is that these two circuit breakers are coordinated for overcurrents less than approximately
2100A (arrow on Figure 3).
For overcurrents greater than 2100A, these two circuit breakers, with these settings, would
not be considered coordinated.
Figure 3 –
Coordination analysis of two circuit breakers 400A and 100A
The following is an excerpt from IEEE 1015-2006 “Blue Book” Applying Low-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Used in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, page 145 5.5.3 Series
MCCBs:
Selective coordination is limited to currents below the instantaneous pickup of the

lineside circuit breaker. For any fault downstream of the loadside MCCB having a current
greater than the instantaneous pickup of the lineside MCCB, both circuit breakers trip, and
power is interrupted to unfaulted circuits fed by the lineside circuit breaker.

2.2 Interpreting Circuit Breaker Curves for Selective Coordination
Figure 4 is the single-line diagram that will be used for the next couple of examples. It has
three molded case circuit breakers in series:
1. 1200A main,
2. 400A feeder with
3. the 100A branch circuit.
The other circuit breakers on the one-line diagram supply other circuits and loads. The fault
current path from the power source is depicted by the red arrows/lines on the one-line
diagram.
Figure 4 – Interpreting Circuit Breaker

Curves for Selective Coordination
For the coordination analysis, faults on both the branch circuit and feeder must be analyzed.
When the curves of two circuit breakers cross over in their instantaneous trip region, then the
drawing indicates that the two circuit breakers do not coordinate for fault currents greater than
this cross over point.
For instance, interpreting the curves for the 100A circuit breaker and the 400A circuit
breaker. Their curves intersect in the instantaneous region starting at approximately 3600A.
The 1200A circuit breaker curve intersects the 100A and 400A circuit breaker curves at
approximately 6500A.
Figure 5 –
Coordination analysis of three molded-case circuit breakers 100A, 400A and 1200A
2.3 Analysis for branch circuit fault
For a branch circuit fault current less than 3600A on the loadside of the 100A circuit
breaker, the 400A and 1200A circuit breakers will be coordinated with the 100A circuit
breaker.
If the fault current is greater than 3600A, then the 400A feeder circuit breaker may
unnecessarily open and there is a lack of coordination.
If the branch circuit fault is greater than 6500A, then the 1200A main circuit breaker
may unnecessarily open, which is a lack of coordination between the 100A, 400A and
The reason is, for a fault of greater than 6500A, all three of these circuit breakers are in
their instantaneous trip region. Both the 400A and 1200A circuit breakers can unlatch
before the 100A circuit breaker clears the fault current.
2.4 Analysis for feeder circuit fault
For any feeder fault less than 6500 amps on the loadside of the 400A circuit breaker, the
400A and 1200A circuit breakers will be coordinated.
For feeder faults greater than 6500A, the 1200A circuit breaker is not coordinated with the
400A feeder circuit breaker.
2.5 Conclusion for Figures 4 and 5 coordination analysis
If the maximum available short-circuit current at the 100A branch circuit is less than 3600A
and the maximum available short-circuit current at the 400A feeder circuit is less than
6500A, then the circuit path (100A, 400A, and 1200A) is selectively coordinated.
If the maximum available short-circuit current exceeds either of these values, the circuit
path is not selectively coordinated.
Figure 6 – Lack
of coordination between circuit breakers
The yellow shading indicates that all three circuit breakers open – branch circuit, feeder and main.
In addition, all the loads fed by the other circuit breakers, denoted by the hash shading, are
blacked out unnecessarily. This is due to the lack of coordination between the 100A, 400A and
shading, are blacked out unnecessarily.
This is due to the lack of coordination between the 100A, 400A and 1200A circuit
breakers.
Source: Selecting Protective Devices by Eaton
Premium Membership
engineer.
More Information
Edvard Csanyi
6 Comments
1.
Hocine Meng Fodil
May 01, 2019
As my idustrial experience the best way to protect a particular equipement is to use

the differential protection but in some situations as you have presented this situation
i can say may be failed and nececitate too much cumbersome when ever the wiring
is far from the equipement under question. thank you. else this aproach is also well
suited when dealing in some situations. and nececitate some inspection. every times.
if it is necessary.
Reply
2.
Ghanshyam
Apr 16, 2019
As said by Jhan above explanation is really excellent, but then what is correct
selection in above case? What would be correct selection of MCCB to avoid
unnecessary black out of non faulty area? It can be understood, If it is explained in
detail.
Here what happens what is wrong is explained, but what is correct is not explained.
It will be easy to understand what is correct and how should be the correct selection,
if it is explained.
Reply
3.
Timo Keskitalo
Apr 11, 2019
So you say that all discrimination tables are a hoax? In short, ABB coordination
tables show no problem with 100 A and 400 A devices. I don’t work at ABB.
I have understood that the frame size of supply side MCCB affects on the current or
speed of instantaneous tripping (the area that you say is not normally shown). So
that it is possible to get full selectivity or up to a certain point. Provided that the
tripping curves on longer times are setted correctly.
E.g. ABB coordination tables show no problem with a load side T2 MCCB 160 A
magnetic and supply side T5 MCCB 320 A magnetic, when the frame is 400 A.
Both can be electrical up to 100 A load side.
In fact, should be that a T2 160 A frame with 100 magnetic relay and T4 250 A
frame with 250 magnetic or 160 A electronic relay should be discriminated. Or e.g.
S290 100 A D-curve MCB with T4 250 A relay up to MCB 15kA capability, and so
on.
Like already mentioned, the I2t-curves should also be checked. I don’t remember
them, I should use some software.
Reply
4.
Mohamed Kasim Thakir
Apr 11, 2019
To avoid unwanted tripping of between upstream and downstream MCCB/MCB for

the high fault region. Please make Energy discrimination between them as either
totally or partially.
Reply
5.
Winai Namsurin
Apr 11, 2019
Hi Edvard,
Could you please suggest, in term of design and selection when we need to detect
earth fault in medium voltage system, how about criteria when we have to detect
earth fault between 3I0 by 3 CT in each phase and sum CT
Thank you.
Winai Namsurin
Reply
6.
Jhan Pérez
Apr 11, 2019
Excellent explanation, colleague Csanyi, but I would like to explain the solution
with the same case, example: increasing the capacity of short circuit in 400A and
1.200A MCCB, is one and other is placing limiting fuses with 400A and 1.200A
MCCB.
Reply
Leave a Comment
Your real name *
Email address *
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Cables / High Voltage / Power Substation
The problem of induced voltages in control

cables in high voltage substations
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Home / Technical Articles / The problem of induced voltages in control cables in high voltage
substations
Conductors close to one another

Cabling in power substation is very important due to the fact that they are the longest parts
of a system and therefore act as efficient antennas that pickup and or radiate noise. In HV
substations, there are different kinds of conductors close to one another, such as high
voltage buses, CTs, VTs, carrier couplers, bushing, control cables, substation ground
conductors, and equipment ground connections.
The problem of induced voltages in control cables
The control cables are used to carry potential transformer outputs, current transformer
outputs, circuit breaker control signals, relaying, and other communication signals.
Increasingly, electronic equipment is used in switchyards and control houses.
The induced voltage produced inside a substation can couple into low voltage control
cables and electronic equipment unless it is suitably protected. Parallel conductors exhibit
both mutual inductance and capacitance.
Since the power conductors carry relatively large currents and operate at higher voltages as
compared to control cables, power frequency voltages may appear on the control cables through
this coupling and cause considerable noise problems.
In addition, if care is not taken to ground the system properly, ground currents at these
frequencies may be coupled with the instrumentation and control system resistively,
capacitively, or inductively, producing nuisance trips.
This technical article presents the induced voltages in the control cables due to switching
and lightning surges. In the presence of shunt capacitor banks in the substation, the
magnitude and frequency of the switching surges increase.
Table of contents:
1. Sources of induced voltages

1. Resistive coupling
2. Capacitive coupling
3. Inductive Coupling
4. Switching transients due to circuit breaker operations
5. Lightning Transients
2. Acceptable induced voltages
1. Example of 230kV and 115kV substations
1. Sources of induced voltages

1.1 Resistive coupling
Resistive coupling is noise transmitted electrically through a common ground impedance

path. Substation should not use common ground impedance path for MV/HV cables and
control/signal cables.
Isolation transformers should be used in power substations to reduce the effects of

resistive/galvanic coupling especially transformers with an earthed shield separating the primary
winding from the secondary winding.
Isolation transformers may also have to be provided to guard against rises in substation

ground potential due to earth faults.
Figure 1 – Using Isolation transformer for pilot wire arrangement
1.2 Capacitive coupling
As the name suggests, capacitive coupling is the coupling of noise currents via stray
capacitance. From basic circuit theory we know that capacitance (C) is related to area (A)
and distance (d) in the following manner:
C = εA/d
That is to say, capacitance increases as area is increased, and decreases as distance is

increased. The easiest thing to do then is to keep the cables separated from one another.
Generally only small attenuation is gained by spacing the conductors at a distance greater
than 40 times their diameter.
The electrostatic coupling between the power system conductor and the control cable can
produce voltage induction at the supply frequency. An example capacitance coupling between a
power conductor and control cable is shown in Figure 2.
The capacitance acts as a voltage divider. During transient switching operations, there
will be induced currents in the control cable, given by the following equation:
i = C × dV/dt
Increased distance between the power conductor and the control cable can reduce the
induced voltage in the control cable.
Fi
gure 2 – Capacitive coupling between a power conductor and control cable
1.3 Inductive Coupling
The presence of a power conductor close to a control cable can produce inductive coupling
between the two. The current through the power conductor produces magnetic flux as
shown in Figure 3. If a control cable is present in the magnetic field, then there will be
induced voltage at the power frequency.
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on the mutual coupling between the
conductors and the current through the conductor. The induced voltage in the control cable
is given by:
e (control cable) = M × di/dt

where:
 M is the mutual inductance between the power conductor and the control cable and
 i is the current through the conductor.
The electric field is proportional to the charge per unit length r on the bus and is inversely
proportional to the shortest distance r between the field point on the bus given by:
E = ρ / 2πεsr
ρ = CVph
C = 1 / (Zs × c)
Figure 3 – Inductive coupling

between the power conductor and the control cable
Where:
 c = Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s

 C = Capacitance of the bus
 Vph = Voltage per phase
 Zs = Surge impedance, Ω/phase
Re-arranging the above equations:
E = (377 × Vph) / 2πZsh
where
η = √(μ0/ε0) = 1/ε0c = 377 Ω
The radius r is equal to the bus height h. The vertical electric field is doubled upon
reflection from the ground. For 1.0 per unit switching transients, the electric field is given
by:
E = (377 × Vph) / πZsh
1.3.1 Example
Calculate the electric field at a distance of 8 m from the phase conductor of a 230 kV
system. Assume a surge impedance of 350 Ω/phase.
Solution
 h = 8 m,
 Zs = 350 Ω/phase
 System line-to-line voltage = 230 kV
 Phase voltage (230 kV/1.732) = 132.8 kV
E = (377 Ω) (132.8 kV) / π (350 Ω) (8 m) = 5.7 kV/m
The transient induced voltages in the control cables are due to circuit breaker switching operations
and to the traveling waves produced by the lightning strike. The transient current amplitudes
depend on the surge impedance of the conductor and the peak instantaneous phase-to-ground
system voltage.
1.4 Switching transients due to circuit breaker operations
The moving contacts of the circuit breakers not only allow multiple breakdowns of the
insulating medium between the components of the high voltage system, but also allow the
breakdown potentials to exceed the system operating voltage due to trapped charges.
The oscillation frequencies may vary from the nominal supply frequency to several kHz.
When control cables are present, there will be induced voltages due to mutual coupling.
https://youtu.be/Kh1sGOFaZ3E

1.5 Lightning Transients
Lightning strikes can also cause arcing in substation equipment and produce transients.
When control cables are laid in parallel to the power line conductors transmitting such
transients there will be induced voltages.
In a substation, the induced voltages in the control cables may be due to conducted
coupling, radiated coupling such as electrostatic coupling, or inductive coupling.
The induced voltage through the control cables can cause damage to electronic equipment.
Figure 4 – Spectral characteristic of indirect lightning disturbance effect
2. Acceptable induced voltages

The acceptable induced voltages in control cables are adopted from IEC 61000-4-4 due to
fast electrical transients. The following four levels of environmental conditions are
identified:
 Level 1 – Well protected

 Level 2 – Protected
 Level 3 – Typical industrial
 Level 4 – Severe industrial
Table 1 – Severity and Acceptable Induced Voltage Levels
On signal and
On power supply
Level control cable
Voc kV Isc A Voc kV Isc A

1 0.5 10 0.25 5
2 1.0 20 0.50 10
3 2.0 40 1.00 20
4 4.0 80 2.00 40
The acceptable peak amplitudes for various severity levels are presented in Table 1. The
open circuit voltage for each severity level for both the power supplies and data lines are
given in Table 1.
The short-circuit values are estimated by dividing the open circuit voltage by 50 Ω source
impedance. This value represents the worst-case voltage seen by the surge suppression
element.
A typical 230 kV substation is situated with open busbars and other equipment, which can be
identified as a level 4 severity. The corresponding acceptable peak-to-peak open circuit voltage
during switching operations is 4 kV.
The acceptable induced open circuit voltage in data lines is 2 kV.
2.1 Example of 230kV and 115kV substations
The 230 kV and the 115 kV substation used in this study is operated with the entire cross-
bays closed. The substation uses a one and a half circuit breaker scheme with double bus
system. The 60 MVAR capacitor bank is connected to the 230 kV system.
The specifications of the capacitor bank are:
 Nominal system voltage = 230 kV

 Maximum system voltage = 253 kV (+10%)
 Rating of capacitor bank at 230 kV = 60 MVAR
 Frequency = 60 Hz
 Connection = Grounded wye
2.1.1 Circuit Breaker for Capacitance Switching

Figure 5 – 230 kV and 115 kV substations and capacitor location
 Maximum voltage = 242 kV

 Interrupting current = 40 kA
 Continuous current = 3,000 A
 BIL level= 1,050 kV
 Bus diameter = 12.5 cm
 Diameter of the control cable = 0.8 cm
 Diameter of the shield = 0.3 cm
The 230 kV and 115 kV circuit breakers along with the 60 MVAR capacitor banks are
shown in Figure 5. The electromagnetic interference was suspected to be responsible for
equipment failure or nuisance tripping in the other 115 kV power factor capacitor
installation project within the utility.
A study was performed to identify the related issues and apply suitable mitigation
measures. The induced voltages in the control cables can emanate in a substation due to the
switching operations (energizing, de-energizing, reclosing, fault clearing, backup fault
clearing) and lightning strikes.
Sources:
 Power System Capacitors by Ramasamy Natarajan

 Cahier technique no. 149; EMC: electromagnetic compatibility by Schneider Electric
 EMC- What’s all the Noise about by By Craig Dunne NHP Electrical Engineering Products
Pty Ltd Development Engineer
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Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Konkan Saikia
Jan 16, 2020
Articles, documents are very good and useful
Reply
2.
Gamal S. Ateya
Jan 14, 2020
I want to have membership in your portal but it is little expensive to me

if available give some discount to make it easier for me and others to subscribe
Best regards
Reply
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Safety
Why earth leakage protection is necessary

in low voltage installations
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Home / Technical Articles / Why earth leakage protection is necessary in low voltage installations
When earth fault is too low…

We all should know that low voltage circuit breakers and fuses operate in the event of
excess current arising from overload conditions and faults. As the statistics say, the most
common fault type in LV installations is an earth fault, but… We’ve often seen the cases
that the current flowing due to earth faults is too low to operate the overcurrent protection
devices.
Why earth leakage protection is necessary in LV installations
It’s important to note that the overcurrent protective device will not operate in the event of
somebody making direct contact with a live conductor. Why? because the current which
flows through the body to earth will be too low to operate the devices but will often be high
enough to use fatal electric shocks.
These two problems can be obviated by the use of earth leakage protection devices.
You should note that there are two generic types of device used for earth leakage detection: those
that are voltage-operated and those that are current-operated.
The voltage-operated devices are no longer used but, for completeness, they consisted of a
coil connected in series in the earthing conductor or between the metalwork of the
installation and an auxiliary earth electrode. The device sensed a voltage rise in the
metalwork with respect to earth and, when this occurred, tripped the circuit breaker.
The current-operated devices work on a dffferent principle, as illustrated in Figure 1 for a
single-phase system. When the circuits are fault-free the current flowing in the phase
conductor (Iph) will be the same as the current flowing in the neutral (In).
If there is an earth fault, some current (Ief) will flow back to the source via the earth path,
creating an imbalance in the current flowing through the phase and neutral.
Figure 1 – Single-phase RCD in

simple circuit
It is this imbalance that is measured, usually by passing the phase and neutral conductors
through a core balance transformer. Any current imbalance produces a resultant magnetic
flux which is picked up by the sensing coil and which, if it reaches a predetermined level,
will cause the trip coil to operate.
The current imbalance needed to operate the device varies according to the application.
However, when the RCD is provided for protection against electric shock, it should have a rated
residual operating current (in. the current imbalance that muses the device to operate) not
exceeding 30 mA and an operating time not exceeding 40 ms when the residual operating current
is 150 mA.
Most consumer units nowadays incorporate a split in the busbars, with an integral RCD
providing earth leakage protection on circuits to socket outlets. The devices are not
restricted to single-phase systems.
Figure 2 illustrates a three-phase RCD connected into the supply from a three-phase
distribution board to a motor. In this particular case, the RCD may be set to operate at a
leakage current of perhaps 500 mA since it is providing protection against indirect contact.
Note that the RCD is provided in addition to overcurrent protection devices such as
miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and moulded case circuit breakers (MCCB). There are
devices, known as residual current breaker with overcurrent device (RCBO) which
combine the RCD and MCB functions.
Neither is the technique of earth leakage detection restricted to low voltage systems.
Three-phase RCD
The technique is employed on high voltage systems although the are balance method is not
the only one used. For example, another way to detect earth fault current is to monitor the
amount of current that flows in the earthing conductor at the point of supply, using a
current transformer. If the amount of current exceeds a particular value, a circuit breaker
will operate to cut off the supply.
Every residual current circuit breaker on low voltage supplies has a test button which, when
pressed, creates an imbalance in the phase and neutral conductors passing through the
transformer. This allows the tripping mechanism to be tested, although it does not provide a test
of the magnitude of the residual operating current or the tripping time – proprietary test
equipment is available for this purpose.
It is very important that the test button is used periodically to confirm the RCD’s
serviceability because RCDs are sensitive devices and it is not uncommon for them to fail
to danger; i.e. they fail in a way that means the contacts are closed but the device will not
operate on demand.
This failure characteristic means that an RCD should not be relied on as the sole means of
protecting against injury from direct contact. Another reason for this is that, for the RCD to
operate in the event of direct contact, current of at least 30 mA must flow through the
‘victim’.
This amount of current is large enough to muse muscular contraction so, whereas it will
almost is prevent electrical injury effects such as ventricular fibrillation in most cases, it
may not prevent injury arising from the muscular contraction — such as falling off a ladder
or being thrown against a wall.
https://youtu.be/JTkuoMplER8
Since the Electricity at Work Regulations aim to prevent injury, and since an RCD may not
prevent an injury in the event of direct contact, its use as the sole means of protection
against direct contact injury would be unlikely to satisfy the law. Having said that, the
device’s value in providing supplementary protection against injury should not be
underestimated.
There are some instances where the use of an RCD should be considered to be
obligatory. These include:
1.
1. In socket outlet circuits in TT installations;
2. In socket outlet circuits where it is foreseeable that the socket will be used to
power outdoor equipment;
3. In situations where there is an increased risk due, for example, to the presence of
water. This would include the power supplies to power washers;
4. Where 240 V hand tools and power tools are being used. Especially in work
environments such as construction sites and workshops,
1. In test areas where earth-referenced conductors may be exposed.
Many circuits and appliances generate leakage currents to earth through, for example, radio
frequency fitters. This means that in larger systems there can be quite a substantial amount of
earth leakage current flowing through the protective conductors under normal operating
conditions.
In these types of installations, a 30 mA RCD installed at the origin can be subject to nuisance
tripping, so RCDs should be installed closer to the loads.
If RCDs are installed in series, discrimination between them can be achieved by building
time delays into the RCDs, with the delay highest in those RCDs closest to the point of
supply.
https://youtu.be/JTkuoMplER8
Source: Electrical safety and the Law by Ken Oldham Smith
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engineer.
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Edvard Csanyi
7 Comments
1.
Deochandra Kumar
Dec 31, 2019
Which types of disturbances in system when Neutral to earth voltage high or

variable
Reply
2.
Ali
Dec 27, 2019
Is it safe to switch on 2000kva transformer with 1010kva generator.qt is repeated to

inrush current
Reply
3.
Leslie
Dec 26, 2019
Very educational article. Keep it up
Reply
4.
QAMAR-UL-HAQ
Dec 26, 2019
I need more of these on anything electrical engineering

Pls send me more write up on Earthing/grounding, importants.
Importants of Thunder arrestors.
Please tell me what is RCD
Reply
5.
Kamilu Nurudeen Adebola
Dec 25, 2019
Nice article. Well understand, however can you please distinguish between an earth
leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) and RCD since an rcd can also be used for earth
fault protection.
Reply
6.
Okufuwa Lukeman Temitope
Dec 25, 2019
I need more of these writeups on anything electrical engineering
Reply
7.
Ambrose
Dec 25, 2019
Pls send me more write up on Earthing/grounding, importants.

Importants of Thunder arrestors.
Reply
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Essential fundamentals of harmonics

distortion for future power quality experts

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Home / Technical Articles / Essential fundamentals of harmonics distortion for future
power quality experts
When loads were linear only…

If you take a look at the past, you must notice that power system was much cleaner and
straightforward. Most loads were primarily linear in nature. Linear loads draw the full sine
wave of electric current at its 50 or 60 cycle (Hz) fundamental frequency. The switching of
such loads was smooth, and harmonics disease didn’t spread yet.
Harmonics Distortion
Well, that has changed a lot in the last fifteen years. Power quality has got a significant
meaning. Nowadays, harmonics distortion is a regular occurrence in the power system. To
be able to better understand the problem of harmonic-distorted networks in the operation of
various electrical devices, we will try to explain the real issues and briefly present the
solutions.
It’s important to understand that measurements to obtain a detailed evaluation of the on

site-situation are essential for the planning of remedial measures for the reduction of
perturbations (power quality distortions).
Before diving into details, I would like to add that one of the most promising and highly
paid jobs in the electrical engineering industry is undoubtedly an expert in power quality.
Table of contents:

2. Harmonic Issues
1. Drives and rectifiers (including three-phase UPS loads)
2. Computers/switch-mode power supplies
3. Fluorescent lighting
4. Welding/arcing loads
5. System solutions

Figure 1 shows nice balance single-phase, linear loads. As the figure shows, little or no
current flows in the neutral conductor when the loads are linear and balanced.
The advent of nonlinear electronic loads, where the AC voltage is converted to a DC

voltage, altered the way power was traditionally drawn from a normal AC sine wave.
During the AC to DC conversion, power electronic devices are switched on during a
fraction of each 1/2 cycle causing voltage and current to be drawn in pulses to obtain the
required DC output.
This deviation of voltage and current from the normal sine wave results in harmonics.
It is important to note that the current distortion caused by loads such as rectifiers or switch
mode power supplies causes the voltage distortion. That voltage distortion is caused by
distorted currents flowing through an impedance.
The amount of voltage distortion depends on:
1. System impedance
2. Amount of distorted current
Devices that can cause harmonic disturbances include rectifiers, thrusters and switching
power supplies, all of which are nonlinear. Further, the proliferation of electronic
equipment such as computers, UPS systems, variable speed drives, programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), and the like: nonlinear loads have become a significant part of many
installations.
Figure 1 – Balanced Neutral Current Equals Zero
Other types of harmonic-producing loads include arcing devices (such as arc furnaces,
welders and fluorescent lighting).
Nonlinear load currents vary widely from a sinusoidal wave shape; often they are
discontinuous pulses. This means that nonlinear loads are extremely high in harmonic
content.
Triplen harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, 15th,… harmonics. Further, triplen harmonics are
the most damaging to an electrical system because these harmonics on the A-phase, B-
phase and C-phase are in sequence with each other. Meaning, the triplen harmonics present
on the three phases add together in the neutral, as shown in Figure 2, rather than cancel
each other out, as shown in Figure 1.
Odd non-triplen harmonics are classified as “positive sequence” or “negative sequence”

and are the 1st, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.
Figure 2 – Single-Phase Loads with Triplen Harmonics
In general, as the order of a harmonic gets higher, its amplitude becomes smaller as a
percentage of the fundamental frequency.
2. Harmonic Issues
Harmonic currents may cause system losses that over burden the distribution system. This
electrical overloading may contribute to preventing an existing electrical distribution
system from serving additional future loads.
In general, harmonics present on a distribution system can have the following

detrimental effects:
1. Overheating of transformers and rotating equipment
2. Increased hysteresis losses
3. Decreased kVA capacity
4. Overloading of neutral
5. Unacceptable neutral-to-ground voltages
6. Distorted voltage and current waveforms
7. Failed capacitor banks
8. Breakers and fuses tripping
9. Double sized neutrals to defy the negative effects of triplen harmonics
In transformers, generators and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) systems, harmonics

cause overheating and failure at loads below their ratings because the harmonic currents
cause greater heating than standard 60 Hz current. This results from increased eddy current
losses, hysteresis losses in the iron cores, and conductor skin effects of the windings.
In addition, the harmonic currents acting on the impedance of the source cause harmonics
in the source voltage, which is then applied to other loads such as motors, causing them to
overheat.
The harmonics also complicate the application of capacitors for power factor
correction. If, at a given harmonic frequency, the capacitive impedance equals the system
reactive impedance, the harmonic voltage and current can reach dangerous magnitudes
At the same time, the harmonics create problems in the application of power factor
correction capacitors, they lower the actual power factor.
The rotating meters used by the utilities for watt-hour and various measurements do not
detect the distortion component caused by the harmonics. Rectifiers with diode front ends
and large DC side capacitor banks have displacement power factor of 90% to 95%.
Figure 3 – The most typical harmonic waveforms (1st – fundamental, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) –
photo credit: Greg Poole; Industrial Tests, Inc., Rocklin, CA, USA
More recent electronic meters are capable of metering the true kVA hours taken by the
circuit.
Single-phase power supplies for computer and fixture ballasts are rich in third harmonics
and their odd multiples. Even with the phase currents perfectly balanced, the harmonic
currents in the neutral can total 173% of the phase current. This has resulted in overheated
neutrals.
The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) recommends that neutrals in the
supply to electronic equipment be oversized to at least 173% of the ampacity of the phase
conductors to prevent problems. ITIC also recommends derating transformers, loading
them to no more than 50% to 70% of their nameplate kVA, based on a rule-of-thumb
calculation, to compensate for harmonic heating effects.
In spite of all the concerns they cause, nonlinear loads will continue to
increase. Therefore, the systems that supply them will have to be designed so that their
adverse effects are greatly reduced.
Table 1 shows the typical harmonic orders from a variety of harmonic generating sources.
Table 1 – Source and Typical Harmonics
Source Typical Harmonics*

6-pulse rectifier 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…
Switch-mode power supply 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13…
Fluorescent lights 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13…
Arcing devices 2, 3, 4, 5, 7…
Transformer energization 2, 3, 4
* Generally, magnitude decreases as harmonic order increases.

Standard IEEE 519 indicates the limits of current distortion allowed at the PCC (Point of
Common Coupling) point on the system where the current distortion is calculated. This
standard is more focused on harmonic limits on the system over time. It now clearly
indicates that the PCC is the point of connection to the utility.
The standard now primarily addresses the harmonic limits of the supply voltage from the
utility or cogenerators.
Table 2 – Low-Voltage System Classification and Distortion Limits for 480 V Systems
Class C AN DF
Special application* 10 16,400 3%
General system 5 22,800 5%
Dedicated system 5 36,500 10%
* Special systems are those where the rate of change of voltage of the notch might
mistrigger an event.
 AN is a measurement of notch characteristics measured in volt-microseconds,

 C is the impedance ratio of total impedance to impedance at common point in
system.
 DF is distortion factor.
Table 3 – Utility or Cogenerator Supply Voltage Harmonic Limits
Voltage Range 2.3-69 kV 69-138 kV >138 kV

Maximum individual harmonic 3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
Total harmonic distortion 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
Percentages are (Vh/V1)×100 for each harmonic and:
It is important for the system designer to know the harmonic content of the utility’s supply
voltage because it will affect the harmonic distortion of the system.
Table 4 – Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120–69,000 V)
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL

Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC/IL <11 11≤h<17 17≤h<23 23≤h<35 35≤h TDD
<20* 4 2 1.5 0.6 0.3 5
20<50 7 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8
50<100 10 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12
100<1000 12 5.5 5.0 2.0 1 15
>1000 15 7 6.0 2.5 1.4 20
* All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless
of actual ISC/IL where:
 ISC = Maximum short-circuit current at PCC.

 IL = Maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC.
 TDD = Total Demand Distortion.
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above. Current distortions
that result in a DC offset, e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed.
When evaluating current distortion, it is important to understand the difference between

THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and TDD (Total Demand Distortion).
THD is the measured distortion on the actual magnitude of current flowing at a given
instant. This could be referred to as a “sine wave quality factor” as it is a measure of the
amount of distortion at that given time, for that given magnitude of current. It can be
measured with a simple harmonic current metering device.
Current THD is not utilized anywhere in the IEEE 519 standard. Instead, the IEEE 519
standard sets limits based on TDD, or Total Demand Distortion. TDD is a calculated value
based on the amount of harmonic distortion related to the full load capacity of the electrical
system. The formula for calculating TDD is as follows:
The numerator of the formula is the square root of the sum of the current harmonics
squared. This value is divided by IL, which is the full load capacity of the system. From
this, you can see that even heavily distorted currents (i.e., high current THD) that are only a
small fraction of the capacity of the system will result in a low TDD.

In spite of all the concerns nonlinear loads cause, these loads will continue to increase.
Therefore, the application of nonlinear loads such as variable frequency drives (VFDs) and
the systems that supply them will require further scrutiny by the design professional. The
use of “Clean Power” multi-pulse VFDs has become a common approach so adverse
harmonic effects are greatly reduced.
Tables below depicts many harmonic solutions along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
Drives and rectifiers (includes three-phase UPS loads)
Table 5 – Harmonic solutions for drives and rectifiers (incl. 3-phase UPS loads)

Line reactors  Inexpensive  May require additional
 For 6-pulse standard compensation
drive/rectifier, can reduce
harmonic current distortion
from 80% down to about
35–40%
K-rated/drive  Offers series reactance  No advantage over reactors

isolation (similar to line reactors) and for reducing harmonics
transformer provides isolation for some unless in pairs for shifting
transients phases
DC choke  Slightly better than AC line  Not always an option for

reactors for 5th and 7th drives
harmonics  Less protection for input
semiconductors
12-pulse convertor  85% reduction versus  Cost difference approaches

standard 6-pulse drives 18-pulse drive and blocking
filters, which guarantee
IEEE 519 compliance
Harmonic  Substantial (50–80%)  Harmonic cancellation

mitigating reduction in harmonics highly dependent on load
transformers/phas when used in tandem balance
e shifting  Must have even multiples
of matched loads
Tuned filters  Bus connected-  Requires allocation analysis

accommodates load  Sized only to the
diversity requirements of that system;
 Provides PF correction must be resized if system
changes
Broadband filters  Makes 6-pulse into the  Higher cost

equivalent of 18-pulse  Requires one filter per drive
18-pulse converter  Excellent harmonic control  High cost

for drives above 100 hp
 IEEE 519 compliant
 No issues when run from
generator sources
Active filters  Handles load/harmonic  High cost

diversity
 Complete solution up to
50th harmonic
Active front end  Excellent harmonic control  High cost

 Four quadrant (regen)  High complexity
capability  Can have system stability
issues when run from
generator source
Computers/switch-mode power supplies
Table 6 – Harmonic solutions for computers/switch-mode power supplies

Neutral blocking  Eliminates the 3rd harmonic  High cost
filter from load  May increase voltage
 Relieves system capacity distortion
 Possible energy savings

harmonics
 Reduces voltage “flat-
topping”
Oversized  Tolerate harmonics rather  Upstream and downstream

neutral/derated than correct equipment fully rated for
transformer  Typically least expensive harmonics

transformer than correct harmonics
Fluorescent lighting
Table 7 – Harmonic solutions for fluorescent lighting

harmonics
 Reduces voltage “flat-
topping”

transformer than correct them harmonics
Low distortion  Reduce harmonics at the  Additional cost and

ballasts source typically more expensive
than “system” solutions
Welding/arcing loads
Table 8 – Harmonic solutions for welding/arcing loads

Active filters  Fast response and  High cost
broadband harmonic
correction
 Reduces voltage flicker
Tuned filters  SCR controlled tuned filters  SCR controlled units are
simulates an active filter high cost but fixed filters are
response reasonable
System solutions
Table 9 – Harmonic system solutions

Tuned filters  Provides PF correction  System analysis required to
 Lower cost compared to verify application. Must be
other systems resized if system changes
Harmonic  Excellent choice for new  No PF correction benefit

mitigating design or upgrade
transformers
Active filters  Ideal solution and handles  Highest cost
system diversity
Source: Power Distribution Systems by Eaton
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Edvard Csanyi
6 Comments
1.
eko priyono
Jan 16, 2020
Thank you for explanation about THD
Reply
2.
Foluso Omolewa
Jan 06, 2020
Thanks for the simple way the write up was presented.
Reply
3.
Deepika
Jan 02, 2020
Thank you for this well structured article with lucid explanation.
Reply
4.
Gonzalo
Jan 02, 2020
Very nice article. Just one comment. IL is defined as the full load capacity of the
electrical system in the article but it should be stated that IL is the “full load
capacity at 60 Hz of the electrical system”. IL as defined by IEEE 519 is a 60 Hz
full load current and doest not include harmonics.
Reply
5.
Abdul Rahman
Dec 31, 2019
Very well structured and easy to understand, a comprehensive explanation of PQ👍.
Reply
6.
Devashish Shukla
Dec 30, 2019
Knowledge full article, I gained more knowledge by these types of electrical

engineering articles. I would like to inform you that please continue writing these
types of articles.
Thanks
Reply
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14 disturbance types that mess up power

quality and 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal
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Home / Technical Articles / 14 disturbance types that mess up power quality and 50/60 Hz
sinusoidal signal
The quality of the electrical energy

The quality of the electrical energy seems to be the very popular nowadays. It may be
affected either by events that occur on the distribution systems (switching, lightning, etc.)
or by the use made of the electricity when for example certain load create significant
variations in the current consumption (switching on) or alter the waveform (harmonics).
14
disturbance types that mess up power quality and 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal
The quality of the electricity supply is the subject of a European standard, EN 50160, which
stipulates the permissible limits of fourteen values or phenomena characterizing or
affecting the 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal. Based on a statistical approach, it is designed to
ensure a certain level of quality during normal operation.
Table of contents:
1. Signal frequency
2. Amplitude of the supply voltage
3. Slow voltage variations
4. Fast supply voltage variations
5. Flicker severity
6. Voltage dips
7. Short voltage interruptions
8. Long voltage breaks
9. Temporary overvoltages
10. Transient (or pulse) overvoltages
11. Voltage unbalance
12. Harmonic voltages
13. Interharmonic voltages
14. Information signals transmitted on the system
1. Signal frequency
The nominal voltage frequency is 50 Hz with a tolerance of ±1% (i.e. 49.5 to 50.5 Hz) for
99.5% of each one-year period and +4 to -6% (i.e. 47 to 52 Hz) for the whole period.
Figure 1 –
Example of recording showing frequency drift and signal distortions
This type of fluctuation is virtually nonexistent on public distribution systems in

industrialized countries. In installations supplied by standalone sources (generator sets,
inverters, etc.), different tolerance limits can be set, or regulation devices may even be
necessary.
Figure 2 – Frequency
and period
The same applies to systems that are not interconnected (for example, islands) where wider
tolerances are permitted: ±2% for 99.5% of each week and ±15% for 100% of the time.

The supply voltage represents the rms value measured at the delivery point. It is measured
at a given moment and averaged over a time interval (typically 10 minutes).
The nominal voltage Un which characterises the system can be distinguished from the stated
voltage Uc which would result from an agreement on values that are different from those in
standard EN 50160.
The standard voltage for low voltage public systems in Europe is:
 230 V between phases and neutral (400 V between phases) for three phase systems with
neutral
 230 V between phases for three phase systems without neutral
Figu
re 3 – Example of recording showing amplitude variations of the supply voltage
Under normal operating conditions, the following slow voltage fluctuations are permitted
over a period of one week: ±10% of the reference value (230 or 400 V), i.e. 207 to 253 V
or 360 to 440 V for 95% of measurements, and -15% to +10% for 100% of
measurements, i.e. 195 to 253 V and 340 to 440 V.
The supply voltage of the system can fluctuate daily, weekly or seasonally as a result of
significant variations in load in the system. Voltage regulation devices installed in
transformer substations can limit these variations.
In addition, high power receivers such as welding stations, large motors, furnaces and other
energy-intensive installations may cause local voltage drops while they are in operation.
Figu
re 4 – Example of recording showing slow voltage variations
Power limits are generally set for motors supplied by a public distribution system. The
solution may therefore be to increase the power of the source (reduction of its impedance
and increase in its short-circuit power) or compensate for the reactive energy connected
with one device in particular that is causing disturbance.
These variations, which come mainly from currents drawn by high loads, should not
exceed 5 to 10% of the nominal voltage. Recordings show that momentary reductions of
30% are totally possible when receivers such as motors or transformers are switched on.
These variations are non-periodic and occur at random moments. When fast voltage variations
become cyclical, this is referred to as flicker, with reference to light variations which can be
annoying above a certain level.
5. Flicker severity
The intensity of the annoyance caused by flicker is defined by a UIE-CIE (International

Union for Electricity Applications – International Commission on Illumination)
measurement method.
It is evaluated as follows:
 Short term severity (Pst) measured over a period of ten minutes

 Long term severity (Plt) calculated based on a sequence of 12 P st values over a two-hour
period, according to the following formula:
Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week period, it is recommended that the
long term flicker severity level Plt associated with voltage fluctuations is less than or
equal to 1 for 95% of the time.
Fi
gure 5 – Example of recording showing ficker severity variations
6. Voltage dips
These can be due to faults occurring at users’ installations, but they often result from
troubles on the public distribution system. The numbers of these vary considerably
according to local conditions, and they generally only last up to one second.
Most voltage dips last less than 1 second with a depth of less then 60%. In other words, the
residual voltage remains greater than 40%. There is a voltage dip as soon as the rms value of one
of the voltages, measured separately on each phase, falls below a set threshold.
Standard EN 50160 does not specify the number, duration or depth of voltage dips. This
characteristic could form the subject of a contractual agreement.
Figure 6 –
Example of recording of a voltage dip
Short interruptions or ‘micro-breaks’ refer to when the value of the signal drops to 0 V or
less than 1% of the nominal voltage. These generally last less than a second, although a
break of 1 minute may still be considered as being short.
Micro-breaks and voltage dips are phenomena that are often random and unpredictable, and
they may occur irregularly over time. It may be important to define contractually the
maximum duration and threshold for a voltage dip to be considered as being a micro-break
(for example a voltage < 40% of Un for less than 600 ms).
In most cases, only recordings can enable a decision on the accuracy of the phenomena to
be made with certainty.
Figure 7 –
Example of recording of a short voltage interruption
ITIC curves
Electronic and computing equipment is sensitive to voltage variations. the first installations,
affected by apparently random faults, were historically the source of most Power Quality
problems.
The creation of the information technology industry council curve (ITIC curve), has
enabled a template to be defined, within which a voltage fault (dip or overvoltage) can
be acceptable or unacceptable. Plotting the duration of an event as a function of the
voltage in relation to the nominal supply voltage, these curves define the limits within
which the device should continue to operate with no interruption or loss of data.
Figure 8 – ITIC curves
These values are not quantified as they depend on totally chance elements. The frequency
with which they occur is very variable and is dependent on the architecture of the
distribution system or the exposure to climatic hazards.
Under normal operating conditions, the annual frequency of voltage interruptions of more
than three minutes may be less than 10 or can reach as many as 50, depending on the
region.
Figure 9 – Example of recording of a long voltage break
This type of fault can occur both on the distribution system and on the user’s installation. It
can be devastating as the voltage supplied may reach a level that is dangerous for
equipment.
The main risk is there being a phase-to-phase instead of a phase-neutral voltage if, for example,
the neutral fails. Faults on the high voltage system (fallen line) can also generate overvoltages at
the low voltage end.
Standard EN 50-160 does not set limits for these overvoltages. But on this point, it is
essential, for the safety of people and installations, to choose equipment sized according to
the standards (harmonized with IEC 60064-1) and tested for withstand to lightning
impulses.
Insulation coordination in low voltage systems with regard to temporary overvoltages
Requirements of standard iec 60064-1:
 Sturdy basic insulation and supplementary insulation must withstand the following
temporary overvoltages:
o Short duration temporary overvoltages, amplitude Un + 1200 V for t < 5s
o Long duration temporary overvoltages, amplitude Un + 250 V for t > 5s
(Un is the supply system nominal phase-neutral voltage to earth)
 Reinforced insulation must withstand values equal to double the overvoltage values.
These phenomena are very variable. They are mainly due to lighting and switching on the
system. Their rise time ranges from a few microseconds to a few milliseconds, so their
frequency range is very wide, from a few kHz to several hundred kHz.
Protection against overvoltages requires the use of protection devices such as voltage surge
protectors and the installation of equipment that is appropriate for its location in the
installation.
Figure 10 – Typical switching

overvoltage wave
Recording of overvoltage due to lightning strike
Lightning striking the system triggers overvoltages which are carried right to the users
despite protection devices installed by the distributor. Unlike overhead systems,
underground systems largely attenuate the shock wave.
Figure 11
– Recording of overvoltage due to lightning strike
Voltage unbalance is caused by high power single phase loads. It causes negative current
components which can trigger braking torques and temperature rises in rotating machines.
It is advisable to divide the loads over the three phases as much as possible and to protect
installations using appropriate detectors.
Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week period, 95% of the rms values of
the negative sequence component of the supply voltage, averaged over ten minutes, must be
between 0% and 2% of the positive sequence component.
Figure 12 – Example of recording of voltage unbalance
In some regions where parts of system users’ installations have single phase connections or
are connected between two phases, the unbalance can reach 3% at the three phase point of
supply. If τi is the instantaneous unbalance value, the average rate τνm is defined by the
equation:
where T = 10 minutes
Standard EN 50-160 only stipulates limits based on the negative sequence components of
the voltage. Satisfactory approximations can be made using conventional measurements
enabling the unbalance ratio between negative and positive components to be ascertained.
where U12 + U23 + U31 are the three phase-phase voltages.

Using symmetrical components
The symmetrical system corresponds to all the components (impedances, emf, back emf
and loads) assumed to be symmetrical, i.e. identical on each phase. this must not be
confused with balancing, which concerns the equality of the currents and voltages.
An unbalanced symmetrical three phase system can be expressed as three balanced three phase
systems (fortescue method). this division can be carried out using three methods: positive,
negative, zero sequence (homopolar).
If there is a fault, overvoltage or short circuit affecting only one of the phases (which is the
most common situation), the system becomes non-symmetrical and can then only be
described by a real system, with separate V and I for each phase, representing the part
concerned.
Figure 13 – Symmetrical components

When the characteristics of a distribution system are described, the harmonic distortion of
the distributed voltage(s) is an important factor with regard to operating problems
(sensitivity of electronic equipment) and reliability problems (ageing by heating of
windings and conductors, breakdown of insulation of capacitors) that this type of
disturbance can cause.
But it is important to know that the source of harmonic voltages is in the first place harmonic
currents. These currents can disturb equipment locally but above all they perniciously increase the
level of distortion of the distributed voltage across the whole installation and for other users via
the public distribution system.
Harmonic currents are generated by devices whose supply consumes non-sinusoidal

currents. Electronic, computer and office equipment, some lighting fittings, industrial
welding equipment, inverters, power converters and numerous machines are the main
causes.
Like harmonic currents, harmonic voltages can be broken down into sinusoidal
voltages than can be described:
 Individually, according to their relative amplitude (Uh) in relation to the fundamental

voltage Un, where h represents the harmonic order
 As a whole, i.e. according to the value of the total harmonic distortion THD, calculated
using the following formula:
Figure 14 – Example of recording of harmonic voltages
Under normal operating conditions 95% of the rms values of each harmonic voltage
averaged over ten minutes and measured over a week must not exceed the values given in
the table below.
Maximum harmonic distortion at the point of supply, expressed as a percentage of the

fundamental voltage U1 according to IEC 61000-2-2.
Table 1 – Maximum harmonic distortion at the point of supply, expressed as a percentage

of the fundamental voltage U1 according to IEC 61000-2-2
Odd-order harmonics
Even-order harmonics
Not multiples of 3 Multiples of 3
Relative Relative Relative

Order h Order h Order h
voltage (Un) voltage (Un) voltage (Un)
5 6% 3 5% 2 2%
7 5% 9 1.5% 4 1%
11 3.5% 15 0.5% 6…24 0.5%
13 3% 21 0.5% – –
17 2% – – – –
19 1.5% – – – –
23 1.5% – – – –
25 1.5% – – – –
In addition, total harmonic distortion of the voltage supplied (including all harmonics up to
order 40) must not exceed 8% of the fundamental voltage (order 1).
To limit the harmonics, it may initially be necessary to revise the structure of the
installation:
 Increase the cross-section of the neutral conductor

 Regroup the polluting loads (if necessary with source separation)
 Use of transformers with special windings (coupling of the 3rd order harmonic and its
multiples on the neutral)
 Connection of sensitive equipment away from the polluting loads
 Connection of polluting loads to the source with the lowest impedance and as far
upstream as possible. It is also necessary to check that the capacitor banks for
compensating the power factor cannot start resonating (possible use of anti-harmonic
inductances connected in series).
 The TN-C neutral earthing system must be avoided.
13. InterharmonIc voltages
This phenomenon refers to the frequencies located between the harmonics. These are
caused by frequency inverters, uninterruptible power supplies, controlled rotating machines
or arc devices. Their interaction can cause flicker phenomena, but it is above all with regard
to information signals transmitted on the system that they must be identified and controlled.
In some countries, the public distribution system may be used by the distributor to transmit
signals. The voltage value of the signals transmitted on the medium voltage distribution
system (1 to 35 kV), averaged over 3s, must not exceed the values shown by the curve
below over a period equal to 99% of one day.
Figure
15 – Information signals transmitted on the system
The system is used by the distributor to transmit information signals which are
superimposed over the voltage supplied in order to transmit information to users’
installations. However, the system must not be used to transmit information signals from
private installations.
The frequencies of these signals vary from tens of hertz to several kilohertz, according to
their function:
1. Centralised remote control signals: superimposed sinusoidal voltage in the 110 Hz to 3000
Hz range
2. Power line carrier signals: superimposed sinusoidal voltage in the 3 kHz to 148.5 kHz
range
3. Wave marking signals: short-time pulses (transients) superimposed at selected moments
in the voltage wave.
Example of network of analysers

There are many network analyzers that can can be used to obtain full readings for the
electrical characteristics of networks, store them and transmit them remotely for use.
The choice of reactive power compensation or conditioning solutions will then be totally
appropriate.
Figure 16 – Example of a network of analyzers installed as well in the electrical substations as in

the consumer locations
Fig
ure 17 – Example of implementation for the analysis of a local and public energy distribution
system
Source: Electrical energy supply by Legrand
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2 Comments
1.
Tushar Mogre
Jan 07, 2020
The Article is certainly Good and informative. The way the PQ phenomenon affects
the connected supply system components with every different PQ type of issue is
still an missing information at large. Even today, the standards specified in these
areas are inadequate and needs to address every issue separately with in depth
analysis.
Reply
2.
Chinmaya Behera
Jan 06, 2020
Definition of Power quality can change depending upon geographical area and
weather conditions. It’s seems that there may be other power quality problems we
encounters in our day to day life but, we couldn’t recognize or name them because
we could not relate faults with the occurrences. A lots of research are required to
understand the power quality issues. To mitigate PQ issues we need to make our
machineries PQ ride through capabilities…
We should encourage this type of documents.
Reply
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Energy Generation / Protection
Backup fault protection for generators in

case of a failure at the generation station

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Home / Technical Articles / Backup fault protection for generators in case of a failure at the
generation station
The purpose of generator backup protection

It is a common practice to use the differential relay as primary fault protection for the
generator. Backup fault protection is also highly recommended to protect the generator
from the effects of faults that are not cleared because of failures within the normal
protection scheme. The backup relaying is automatically applied to provide protection in
the event of a failure at the generation station, on the transmission system, or both.
Backup fault protection for generators in case of a failure at the generation station
Specific generating station failures would include the failure of the generator or Generator
Step Up (GSU) transformer differential scheme. On the transmission system, failures would
include the line protection relay scheme or the failure of a line breaker to interrupt.
Table of contents:
1. Implementation of backup fault protection

2. Standard overcurrent relays
3. Voltage-dependent relays
4. Voltage supervised overcurrent relays
1. Voltage-controlled and voltage-restrained relays
2. Application options and fault sensitivity
5. Other distance relay applications
1. Implementation of backup fault protection

Figure 1 shows the sample system generator. Backup protection is provided by distance
relays (Device 21) or voltage supervised overcurrent relays (Device 51V). These relays can
be connected to CTs at the neutral end of the generator or they can be connected to CTs at
the generator terminals.
The neutral end configuration is preferred because this connection will allow the relaying to
provide protection when the unit is off line. Terminal connected relays will not see internal
generator faults for this condition, because there is no relay current.
If the scheme is intended to provide backup protection for both generating station and
system faults, the backup relays should initiate a unit shutdown. This entails tripping the
breaker on the high-voltage side of the GSU, the generator field breaker, the auxiliary
transformer breakers and initiating a prime mover shutdown.
If the station configuration included a generator breaker it would be tripped instead of the
high-voltage breaker.
When relays are applied solely to backup transmission line relaying, only the GSU
transformer or generator breaker need be tripped. This would allow a faster resynchronizing
after the failure has been isolated. This assumes the unit can withstand the effects of the full
load rejection that will occur when the outlet breaker opens.
If the unit cannot withstand this transient, a unit shutdown must be initiated.
Figure 1 – Generator online protection scheme
Go back to Contents Table ↑
2. Standard Overcurrent Relays

Standard overcurrent relays are not recommended for backup protection of a generator. The
backup relay must be capable of detecting the minimum generator fault current. This
minimum current is the sustained current following a three-phase fault assuming no initial
load on the generator and assuming the manual voltage regulator in service.
If the automatic voltage regulator where service, it would respond to the fault-induced low
terminal voltage and boost the field current, thus increasing the fault current. The
assumption of no initial load on the generator defines the minimum field current to drive
the fault.
Typically, a generator’s synchronous reactance, which controls the value of the sustained
fault current, is greater than unity. If the generator is unloaded and at rated terminal
voltage (Et = 1.0) prior to the fault, the sustained short-circuit current will be 1/Xd which
will be less than full load current. In the case of the sample system generator Xd = 1.48 and
the resulting sustained three-phase fault current would be 0.67 pu or 67% of full load
current.
A standard overcurrent relay must be set above load and could not detect the minimum
sustained fault current. Tripping would be dependent on rapid relay operation before the
fault current decays below the relay’s pickup setting.
Figure 2 plots the decaying current for the minimum fault condition on the sample system
generator vs. an overcurrent relay set to carry full load. The figure shows that the relay
must be set with a very short time delay (Time Dial = 1/4) to intersect the current plot to
assure tripping.
This fast tripping is undesirable, because it would preclude coordination with system
relays and could cause misoperation during system disturbances that do not require
protective action.
Figure 2 – Fault clearing
with overcurrent relay
3. Voltage-Dependent relays
The problems associated with standard overcurrent protection can be overcome if fault
detection is based on current and voltage. At full load, the generator terminal voltage
will be near rated voltage. Under sustained three-phase fault conditions, the internal
generator impedance will increase to the synchronous value and the terminal voltage will
decrease sharply.
Both distance relays and voltage supervised overcurrent relays use the voltage degradation
to differentiate between load current and a sustained fault current condition. Because
of this design, these backup relays are supervised by a potential failure detection element,
device 60. This element blocks tripping in the event of an open phase or blown fuse in the
potential circuit.
Without this blocking feature, these instrument circuit malfunctions would trip the fully
loaded unit.
The decision to use a 21 or a 51 V function as backup protection is normally dependent on

the type of phase protection applied on the transmission or distribution system to
which the generator is connected.
Distance backup protection is chosen if phase distance relaying is applied on the

transmission system. A 51 V function is chosen if overcurrent relays are used for phase
protection on the connected system. These choices are made to facilitate relay coordination.
4. Voltage Supervised Overcurrent Relays

4.1 Voltage-controlled And Voltage-restrained Relays
There are two kinds of voltage-supervised overcurrent relays used in generator backup
applications. The voltage-restrained overcurrent relay is normally set 125–175% of full
load current. The relay uses voltage input from the generator terminals to bias the
overcurrent setpoint.
At rated voltage, a current equal to the setpoint is required to actuate the relay. As input
voltage decreases, presumably
due to a short circuit, the overcurrent setpoint also decreases. Typically a current equal to
25% of the setpoint is require to operate the relay at zero volts input.
Figure 3 is a typical pickup characteristic for a voltage-restrained relay.
The voltage-controlled relay is set below full load with sufficient margin to detect the
minimum fault current. The relay includes an undervoltage element that senses generator
terminal voltage. If the voltage is above the undervoltage element setting, the overcurrent
unit is not functional.
When voltage is depressed by a fault, the undervoltage element drops out, allowing the
relay to operate as a standard overcurrent relay in accordance with its pickup and time
delay settings.
Figure 3 –
Voltage-restrained overcurrent relay characteristic
The voltage-restrained relay is more difficult to apply because operating time is a function
of both current and voltage.
The voltage-restrained relay has two adjustable setpoints, a voltage-dependent minimum

pickup current, and a time delay setting. The voltage-controlled relay has a voltage-
independent current pickup setting, a time delay setting, and an undervoltage drop out
setting.
4.2 Application Options and Fault Sensitivity
Voltage-supervised overcurrent relays allow many input options. The 51 V function

comprises three single-phase units. The current and voltage connections are not
standardized. Phase-to-neutral or phase-to-phase voltages can be applied in conjunction
with line or delta currents.
There is also the option of voltage-controlled or voltage-restrained relays.

5. Distance Relays
The term distance relays refers to a general class of relays that measure circuit impedance.
The relay distinguishes between fault current and load current in a manner similar to the
51 V functions. The voltage applied to the distance relay tends to restrain operation, while
current promotes operation.
Both phase and ground distance relays are applied on the transmission system. Unique relay
designs are required for phase and ground fault protection.
There are many different algorithms used in these relays, but in all cases the common goal
is to measure the positive sequence impedance from the relay to the fault. When full
fault protection is provided by distance relaying, six elements are required, phase elements
A–B, B–C, C–A and ground elements A–G, B–G, and C–G.
Phase distance relays are applied at generators for system backup protection. Ground
distance relays are not applied. Most generators are grounded through impedance to limit
the ground fault current. Specialized ground fault protection schemes are required.
When a generator is solidly grounded and connected to a distribution system directly or

through a wye-wye transformer, overcurrent ground relays provide superior fault sensitivity
and economy when compared to ground distance relays. Overcurrent ground relaying is
applicable because generator ground faults do not decay to values less than full load current
and ground overcurrent relays are not subject to setting limitations due to load current.
Likewise, when a generator is connected to a system through a delta-wye grounded

transformer, backup ground protection is usually provided by a time overcurrent ground
relay connected in the transformer neutral.
https://youtu.be/8E6yQZ5WMnc
For example, SEL-700G protection relay offers three choices for system backup protection.
You can select one or more of the available elements:
 Distance (DC),
 Voltage Restraint (V), or
 Voltage Controlled (C) Overcurrent elements.
Modern protective relays provide four zones of phase step distance protection. Functions
are positive sequence voltage polarized mho characteristics. The reach of the three forward
looking zones can be compensated for a delta-wye transformer.
Zone 4 is reversed and disregards any transformer between the relay and the fault in the
forward direction. Zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 each include independent timers for phase step
distance protection.
Out-of-step blocking monitors swing condition and blocks tripping. Out-of-step tripping
logic is provided with a choice of two or three mho type characteristics with adjustable
shapes.
Forward and reverse share a common maximum reach angle. Loss of synchronism or a
power swing between two areas of the power system is detected by measuring the positive
sequence impedance seen by the relay over a period of time as the power swing develops.
Figure 4 – Generator
protection relay SEL-700 functionalscheme

5.1 Other Distance Relay Applications
Other applications of the 21 function are also possible. Phase distance relaying can be
connected to CTs at the generator terminals with the 21 function connected to look into the
generator instead of the system. This relay can be applied without a time delay to provide
fast backup clearing for generator faults when connected to the system.
Many generator protection microprocessor packages include two phase distance relay
functions. One zone can be implemented with a short reach and a short time delay sufficient
to coordinate with high-speed bus and line relaying plus breaker failure time if applicable.
The second zone is then set to see into the transmission system with a delay sufficient to
coordinate with zone 2 line relaying and applicable breaker failure time.
This scheme can provides 0.3 sec clearing for high current faults in the vicinity of the
generator as opposed to the single zone scheme that would require a delay of about a
second to coordinate with zone 2 and breaker failure relaying.
Sources:
1. Protective relaying for power generation systems by Donald Reimert

2. SEL-700G Generator Protection Relay by SEL
3. LPS-O System backup for generators and transmission lines by GE
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Electric Motor / Energy Generation / Protection
The art of designing the auxiliary system

of a power plant
By Edvard | February, 24th 2020 | 1 comment | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / The art of designing the auxiliary system of a power plant
Auxiliary system design

Power plant auxiliary system is usually pretty complicated and consists of dozen of motors,
transformers, capacitor banks, variable frequency drives, PLCs, and other electrical
devices. Therefore, protection relaying cannot be simple, and it requires special attention
for each component of a power and control system as well as coordination between them.
The art of designing the auxiliary system of
a power plant
This technical article will shed some light on how an auxiliary system should be designed
in order to sustain the main production facilities in power plants. Special attention is given
to the protection coordination of motors, transformers, and other devices from the point of
view of the normal and emergency operation of the entire plant.
Faulted electrical equipment MUST be removed from service as fast as possible. For many
electrical faults or abnormal events within the plant this may require that the generator be
removed from the system, the excitation system tripped, the turbine valves closed and the
boiler fires extinguished. Often this is not acceptable.
However, it is necessary that vital services such as bearing oil pumps, instrument air compressors,
exhaust and purging fans, etc. be maintained even though the unit has been tripped and is in the
process of being shut down.
In addition, the auxiliary system must be configured to allow the unit to return to service as
soon as possible.
Table of contents:
 Auxiliary system of a unit-connected generator

o Which type of circuit breaker?
o Phase fault protection (51)
o Never underestimate ground fault protection
o Bus transfer schemes (alternative source)
o Generator breaker (needed or not?)
Auxiliary system of a unit-connected generator
A portion of a typical auxiliary system of a unit-connected generator is shown in Figure 1

below.
The 4 kV auxiliary bus is fed directly from the 20 kV generator leads or from the startup
transformer and is the source for the major motors. As unit sizes increase, the auxiliary load
increases proportionately, requiring higher rated transformers and higher rated, higher
voltage motors. This has resulted in higher bus voltages, such as 6.9 kV and 13 kV.
Phase fault currents also increased, requiring switchgear with higher interrupting capacity.
In sizing the switchgear there are two contradictory factors that must be considered. The
impedance of standard transformers increases as their ratings increase.
Since the normal and short-circuit currents are also increasing, there is a greater voltage
drop between the auxiliary bus and the motor.
Figure 1 – Single line diagram of a typical power plant

auxiliary system with unit-connected generator
Normal design practice is to maintain at least 85 % voltage at the motor terminals

during motor starting. If the standard transformer impedance is specified to be at a lower
value to reduce the voltage drop and maintain the 85 % voltage criterion, the interrupting
current will increase requiring larger rated switchgear
If the transformer impedance is raised to reduce the fault current, and hence the interrupting
capacity requirement of the switchgear, the voltage drop will be too high.
The art of designing the auxiliary system must take all of these factors into account.
Transformers can be specified with special impedances at a greater cost. The auxiliary
system can be designed with several bus sections thus reducing the transformer rating for
each section.
Current-limiting reactors can be used either as separate devices or incorporated in the

switchgear.
In addition to the 4 kV (or higher) bus, a lower voltage auxiliary bus system is used to feed
the dozens or hundreds of smaller motors, heating and lighting loads that are present in the
plant. The nominal voltage rating of this lower voltage bus system can be 600 or 240 V.
The lower voltage buses are energized from the higher voltage bus as shown in Figure 1.
Automatic throw-over schemes between the several bus sections or between the generator step-
up (GSU) and startup transformer are used in the event of a 4 kV bus fault or failure of a 20 kV/4
kV or 4 kV/600 V transformer. In addition, manual throw-over provides flexibility for maintenance
without removing the generator from service.
The circuit breakers used on the lower voltage buses are included in the metal-enclosed
switchgear and are covered in ANSI standards C37.20-1 and C37.20-3. They may not be
draw-out type necessarily, don’t have CTs and may be mounted in motor control centers.
Circuit breakers may be air type or molded case breakers with limited interrupting capacity.
Protection is provided by series trip coils or thermal elements.
Which type of circuit breaker?
There are many circuit breaker designs depending upon the particular application:
1. Oil circuit breakers

2. Air circuit breakers
3. Vacuum circuit breakers
4. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers
Vacuum circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a gap of less than 13 mm (0.5 in) because
there are no constituents in the vacuum that can be ionized to support the arc. Sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers extinguish the arc using one of two methods: the
puffer design blows the arc out with a small amount of gas blasted in a restricted arc space;
the rotating arc design uses the electromagnetic effect to rotate the arc through SF6 that
cools and extinguishes it.
Nowadays, vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers are more commonly used. More about which
one and where to apply, you can learn here. These circuit breakers are mainly drawout type,
allowing the breaker to be removed for maintenance.
Figu
re 2 – ABB UniGear ZS1 vacuum circuit breakers (VCB) – photo credit: slaters-electricals.com
Figure 3 – Medium
voltage draw-out vacuum circuit breaker, type VD4 – photo credit: slaters-electricals.com
Buses rated above 2400 V use metal-clad switchgear as defined in ANSI standard C37.20-
2. The switchgear compartment contains the CTs, auxiliary contacts and, usually, the relays
and meters.
Phase fault protection (51)
The phase overcurrent relays (51A and 51B) on the secondary of the unit auxiliary and
startup transformers provide bus protection and backup relaying for individual motor
protection and switchgear.
Figure 1 indicates the general arrangement of the buses and loads and shows the protection
of the 2000 hp motor and the 7500 hp motor.
Ideally, the backup overcurrent relays 51A and 51B should have pickup settings greater than the
highest motor protection relay, and time delays longer than the longest starting time. These
settings may be so high, or the times so long, that the protection is not acceptable and
modifications or compromises are required as discussed below.
If the relays are also the primary bus protective relays, the settings may be so high that
there may not be enough bus fault current to provide sufficient margin to ensure pickup for
the minimum bus fault.
Figure 4 – Phase overcurrent relays (51A and 51B)

on the secondary of the unit auxiliary and startup transformers as a bus protection and backup
relaying for individual motor protection and switchgear
Even if coordination is theoretically possible, the required time delay may be too long to be
acceptable. Some compromises are possible. Since the largest motors will probably have
differential protection, the backup function could consider coordinating with the
overcurrent relays of the smaller motors with an associated reduction in pickup.
Assuming that the differential relays are always operative, coordination with the larger motors is
not a problem since the differential protection is instantaneous. Coordination would be lost if the
differential relays fail to clear a fault and the time-delay overcurrent relays must do it. This is
usually an acceptable risk.
A bus differential relay could be used to provide primary protection and the overcurrent
relays provide backup protection for motor relay or switchgear failures. The time delay may
then be acceptable. The pickup setting must still recognize the magnitude of starting current
of the largest motor.
If it cannot be set above this value, an interlock must be provided which will block the
backup relay.
Figure 5 – Overcurrent backup and bus
differential protection scheme
The overcurrent backup relay will see the total current supplied to the bus, whereas the
differential relay only sees the difference between supply current and load current as
discussed previously. The relay settings for overcurrent backup protections are somewhat
difficult and usually employ an instantaneous and timed component.
After all, the objective is that breakers X and Y should clear the fault before the backup
protection operates to trip the main supply breaker S.
Never underestimate ground fault protection
The importance of ground fault protection cannot be overemphasized. Ground is considered

to be involved in 75–85 % of all faults. In addition, phase overcurrent may often reflect a
temporary process overloading, while ground current is almost invariably an indication of a
fault.
Auxiliary systems may be either delta- or wye-connected. A delta system is normally operated
ungrounded and is allowed to remain in service when the first ground indication appears. It is
generally assumed that the first ground can be isolated and corrected before a second ground
occurs.
It is not uncommon for systems of 600 V and less to be delta-connected. Medium-voltage
systems (5 kV to 15 kV) are generally operated in wye, with a neutral resistor to limit the
ground current to some definite value.
The resistor has a time-related capability, e.g. 10 s, at the maximum ground current and it is
a function of the ground protective system to remove all faults within this time constraint.
Figure 6 – 2.0 Ω neutral resistors

in the auxiliary and startup transformers
In Figure 6, ground faults on the 4 kV system are limited by the 2.0 Ω neutral resistors in
the auxiliary and startup transformers. The magnitude of the maximum fault current is
the lineto-ground voltage divided by the 2.0 Ω resistor. The nominal voltage of the bus is 4
kV but its normal operating voltage is 4160 V.
Therefore, the maximum ground current is 4160/(√3 × 2) or 1200 A.
Coordination must, of course, begin at the load. If the motor ground overcurrent protection
is provided by the toroidal CT shown in Figure 7 there is no coordination problem.
Figure 7 – Current transformers in
relay protection applications (photo credit: merko.ee)
These can have a ratio of 50:5 resulting in a relay current of 120 A. Set an instantaneous
relay at 5.0 A. If a residual ground relay is used as shown in Figure 8, the maximum ground
fault through the CTs on breakers A and B is 1200/600 = 2.0 A. Set the time-delay ground
overcurrent relays at 0.5 A and 15–30 cycles.
The motor relays trip the associated feeder breaker, 51A and 51B trip the 4 kV main
breakers and the neutral relays 51N trip their associated primary breakers.
Figure 8 – Residually connected

ground relay

Bus transfer schemes (alternative source)
It is common practice to provide a bus transfer scheme to transfer the auxiliary bus to an
alternative source in the event of the loss of the primary source. In power plants, the
purpose of this alternative source is not to maintain normal operation but to provide a
startup source, to act as a spare in the event an auxiliary transformer fails and to provide for
orderly and safe shutdown.
In industrial plants, the alternative source might have a different purpose, such as to provide
flexibility in production or supply some facilities from the utility and others from a local
generator.
The transfer scheme must consider several factors. A manual, live transfer is performed by the
operator while both the normal and startup sources are still energized. If the two sources can be
out of synchronism, it will be necessary to include synchronizing equipment.
Some schemes monitor this residual voltage and allow closing to the alternative source only
after this voltage has been significantly reduced.
Figure 9 – A
typical unit to station switchboard bus transfer scheme

Generator breaker (needed or not?)
Figure 10 shows a generator breaker as an alternative facility. This is common for

generators that are connected to a common bus, such as in a hydro plant. With the advent of
the unit system, however, this configuration has not been used as often. The unit system
requires that the boiler, turbine, generator and GSU transformer be operated as a single
entity and the loss of any one element requires that all of them be removed from service.
The generator breaker is then unnecessary. In addition, as the unit sizes increased, the
interrupting capability of a generator breaker became technically difficult. A 1300 MW generator
can contribute as much as 100 000 A to a fault at the generator voltage level, e.g. on the bus
feeding the auxiliary transformers.
Not only is such a breaker extremely costly, it must be placed between the generator and
the step-up transformer, which adds considerable length to the building. This introduces
costs to every segment of the construction and installation.
Figure 10 – Generator breaker as an alternative

facility
Nevertheless, the generator breaker has can be extremely useful. Its most important
advantage is the fact that, for a fault on the generator or auxiliary buses, without a generator
breaker to remove the generator contribution from the fault, the generator will continue to
feed the fault until the generator field decays. This can take as much as 7–10 s.
During this time the energy in the fault will result in extensive physical damage to all of the
connected equipment and greatly increases the possibility of fire.
Referring to Figure 1, without a generator breaker, startup is accomplished by energizing the

auxiliary buses through the 800 kV breaker F, the startup transformer and 4 kV breaker B.
Synchronizing is done through 800 kV breaker E. In the event of a unit trip, the unit is removed
from the system by opening breaker E and the auxiliary bus is transferred to the startup
transformer by opening 4 kV breaker A and closing breaker B. Breaker F is operated normally
closed.
If the startup transformer is connected to some other system, then breaker B must be
closed with synchronizing relays. If a generator breaker is provided, at startup the generator
breaker is open and the auxiliary buses are fed through the GSU transformer and 4 kV
breaker A.
Sources:
 Power System Relaying by Stanley H. Horowitz, Arun G. Phadke (purchase the hardcover
from Amazon)
 Science and Reactor Fundamentals – Electrical | CNSC Technical Training Group
 Switchgears book by BHEL – Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
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1.
Khaled abdo
Feb 24, 2020
I need understanding directional over current & directional earth fault
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The zone selective interlocking logic of

protection relays
By Edvard | August, 27th 2018 | 4 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / The zone selective interlocking logic of protection relays
CB tripping time reduction

This function significantly reduces the tripping time of the circuit breakers closest to the
source. It can be used for zone selective interlocking (ZSI) in closed ring networks.
The zone selective interlocking logic of protection relays (photo credit: bakkersliedrecht.com)
It applies to the phase overcurrent 50/51, directional phase overcurrent 67, ground fault
50N/51N and directional ground fault 67N protection functions, definite time and IDMT.
Protection relay logic usually includes two logic groups.
Each group includes:
1. Logic thresholds: protection units that send blocking signals (BSIG) and may be prevented
from tripping by the reception of blocking signals.
2. Time-based thresholds: protection units that may not be prevented from tripping by
blocking signals and do not send blocking signals. They are used as backup for the logic
thresholds.
When a fault occurs:
1. The logic thresholds detecting the fault send blocking signals upstream
2. The logic thresholds detecting the fault send a tripping command if they are not blocked
by blocking signals
3. The time-based (backup) thresholds detecting the fault send a tripping command
The logic and time-based threshold assignments of the protection units depend on the type of
application and the parameter setting of the logic inputs/outputs.
The first logic group is active if one of the following two conditions is met:
1. Blocking reception 1 is assigned to a logic input Ixxx, except for motors which do not have
this input.
2. Blocking send 1 is assigned to an output Oxxx. (O102 by default for SEPAM relay).
SEP
AM Series 80 – Breaker AC Control (Typical)
When the second logic group is present in the application, it is active under one of the
following two conditions:
1. Blocking reception 2 is assigned to a logic input Ixxx

2. Blocking send 2 is assigned to an output Oxxx (O103 by default).
Relay software (in this case Schneider Electric’s software for SEPAM relays serie) usually
indicates the type of threshold, logic or time-based, according to the input/output
parameter setting.
Zo
ne selective interlocking relay – Principle wiring
In case of SEPAM relay, assigning protection devices to the two zone selective
interlocking (ZSI) groups is fixed and cannot be modified. When ZSI is used, it is
important to ensure that the measurement origin and logic group to which the unit is
assigned are in accordance.
By default, the same logic group has the same measurement origin. When several
origins are possible, the main channels Ia, Ib, Ic and Ir are assigned by default to the first
group and the additional channels I’a, I’b, I’c, I’r to the second.
The duration of blocking signals lasts as long as it takes to clear the fault. If protection relay
issues a tripping command, the blocking signals are interrupted after a time delay that takes
into account the breaking device operating time and the protection unit reset time.
This system guarantees safety in downgraded operating situations (faulty wiring or

switchgear).
ZSI time saving
vs time-based coordination
Pilot Wire Test
Use the output relay test function in the protection relay software (for SEPAM – software
SFT2841) to test the pilot wires that carry interlocks between breaker/relay functions.
Examples
1. Radial distribution with use of time-based discrimination
(T: protection setting time. As an approximation for definite time curves, this is assumed
to be equal to the protection tripping time).
Radial distribution with use of time-
based discrimination
The upstream protection units are typically delayed by 0.3 s to give the downstream
protection units time to trip. When there are many levels of discrimination, the fault
clearing time at the source is long.
In this example, if the fault clearing time for the protection unit furthest downstream is Xs
= 0.2 s, the fault clearing time at the source is T = Xs + 0.9 s = 1.1 s.
2. Radial distribution with use of zone selective interlocking
(T: protection setting time. As an approximation for definite time curves, this is assumed
to be equal to the protection tripping time).
Radial distribution with
use of zone selective interlocking
When a fault appears, the protection units that detect it block the upstream protection units.
The protection unit furthest downstream trips since it is not blocked by another
protection unit.
The delays are to be set in accordance with the device to be protected.
In this example, if the fault clearing time for the protection device furthest downstream is
Xs = 0.2 s, the fault clearing time at the source is T = Xs – 0.1 s = 0.1 s.
Reference // Sepam series 80 protective relays – Instruction Bulletin
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4 Comments
1.
Gyanendra Kumar sahu
Aug 28, 2018
Very useful…
Thanks….
Reply
2.
Mohamed Abdelatty
Aug 27, 2018

much thanks
we need to planing the small project for PFC on 10 KV with 2.2 MVAR to improve
the the PF from 0.92 to 0.96
with considered the Max Active Power is 8 MW.
please if you can offering the the Technically/commercial that it will be good
WBR
Eng Mohamed Abd elatty
00201004602668 Mohamed.abdelatty@scc-eg.com
Reply
3.
Kip Edgley
Aug 27, 2018
I would love to become a paying member. But I refuse to be extorted into

participating with PayPal. This is just a non-starter for me due to fraud against me
through their company. I won, they lost, but I will NEVER associate with them
again and you shouldn’t either. All I want to do is pay with a CC, and join, but you
won’t let me without PayPal. Why?
Reply
4.
V Dattatreyulu
Aug 27, 2018
Useful information for me
Reply
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Maintenance / Medium Voltage / Power Substation
Should you choose fixed or withdrawable

medium voltage switchgear?
By Edvard | August, 22nd 2016 | 1 comment | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Should you choose fixed or withdrawable medium voltage switchgear?
Fixed or withdrawable medium voltage switchgear?

How to make the right choice between fixed or withdrawable medium voltage
switchgear when selecting a new equipment for power substation? The following
evaluation procedure should be conducted: Find out how important the additional aspects
are.
Should you choose fixed or withdrawable medium voltage switchgear? (on photo: Eaton's Power
Xpert UX withdrawable medium voltage switchgear at Tata Steel)
Weigh up the financial implications and compare this to the additional total cost for a
withdrawable system.
If none of the additional aspects are important (additional financial value at minimum) the balance
will tilt to a fixed execution. But if one or more of the additional aspects are worth sufficient, it
could be that a withdrawable system is to be preferred.
Additional aspects that influence the finial decision
When evaluating cost prior to purchase of a new medium voltage switchgear there are few
very important aspects that should influence the finial decision. At the end of this article,
let’s share the final thoughts about this important topic.
Fixed and withdrawable cubicle
These aspects are less easy to pin point as they are not simply yes or no decisions.
Important aspects like:
1. Operational friendliness
2. Risk reduction
3. Visual separation to reduce risk
4. Skilled operators
5. Site culture
6. Maintenance
7. Process control and
8. Environment
1. Operational friendliness
Medium voltage switchgear should have a user friendly interface. It should be clear, easy,
smooth to operate, and good looking. Even though the operators will not directly mention
this as an important factor it will certainly be evaluated on a less conscience level.
Most important, is that the operation of the switchgear allows for the switching protocol,
that is used on the site were it will be installed. For example – some sites will only allow
for a cable voltage testing on an installation with a closed door.
https://youtu.be/xIQiF6IszjA
Go back to additional aspects ↑
2. Risk reduction
Safety is reducing risk to an acceptable level. The risks of medium voltage switchgear
are only partly reduced by requiring a switchgear that conforms to all relevant IEC norms
as mentioned under design safety. These IEC requirements do ensure that the switchgear is
safe in its design, but a part of the risk occurs during the use of the switchgear.
The user will need to take appropriate measures to reduce the risk to the level they require – By
giving the proper training and applying a proper working protocol.
As indicated in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1 – Medium voltage switchgear risk

reduction
To be able to reduce the risks to an acceptable level, the switchgear needs to accommodate

any further safety requirements that are needed. These additional requirements can be
different per situation.
One of these risk-reducing measures can be the requirement to be able to insert and

withdraw a breaker with a close door. A relevant demand since accidents have occurred
during insertion of the circuit breaker. Unfortunately the IEC norms as mentioned under
design safety only indicate that the “transfer of withdrawable parts” should not reduce
the protection level.
However a cleare test for this situation is not required. Some medium voltage switchgear even
provide the possibility to maneuver the breaker via remote operated facility.
Another risk-reducing measure can be the requirement to be able to apply cable earthing
simply and safely. The possibilities of reducing the risks to an acceptable level, needs to be
evaluated, considering the organization available.
https://youtu.be/jGsddaba5hU
3. Visual separation to reduce risk
Some users will require a visual separation to be able to reduce the risk. The main
advantage of a withdrawable system, is that a clear visual separation of the
switching device can be realized.
At some sites it is mandatory to remove the breaker, close and lock the door, before mechanical
maintenance can be performed on downstream equipment. In this way, the mechanically skilled
maintenance worker can control his own safety.
In earlier days there were configurations with one withdrawable breaker and two positions
to connect it. As an alternative for switching one breaker off and the other one on. The
whole breaker was moved from one position to another. For instance to choose between
two supplies.
This practice insured a safe interlock and it saved money.
https://youtu.be/tMcdMR_enTs
Reducing risk by using a withdrawable system for visual separation is a contradiction. It is

visually clear that the
downstream equipment is voltage free if the breaker is removed from the system.
But the act of making the visual separation has raised the level of risk?
Certainly compared by the operation of an disconnecting switch in a fixed execution. IEC

norms, as mentioned under design safety, do not define “visual separation” but it is
clear about giving fail-safe indication of the status of switching devices. Such as an
disconnecting switch that is used in a fixed execution.
4. Skilled operator
There is a culture change going on, with the medium voltage switchgear operators, moving
from dedicated switchgear operators to all-round troubleshooters. Up to 20-30 years ago
the operator for a medium voltage switchgear was a trained specialized operator.
This operators sole task was to perform the switching operations of “his” network.
Many organizations are now requiring operators to also carry out non-operators

tasks. Even non-operators are asked to perform operators duties.
The design of modern switchgear are no longer “operator sensitive” and require less skill to be
operated safely. The increased number of operation by less skilled operators requires that the
“ease of operation” needs to be evaluated taking the available operation crew in to consideration.
5. Site culture
Each production plant or company have there own site culture. Often a bundling of
knowledge, experience and best-practice for there particular use. Although this site culture
varies from site to site there are some similarities with in petrochemical industry sites:
Low voltage motor control centers have withdrawable motor startes and high voltage
installations are based on fixed breakers.
Medium voltage is less strict. Often sites are standardized on withdrawable installations

but if gas filled installations are used it is fully accepted to use a fixed mounted breaker.
But other sites will only opt for withdrawable breakers. It is an evaluation
between reliability and quick access for maintenance.
https://youtu.be/KksJ9gc-eTs
6. Maintenance of MV switchgear
Circuit breakers are mechanical devices, they will fail. It is important to know when they
will fail. The most preferable moment of failing of the medium voltage switchgear is after
its expected life time. But in those cases were the failure is expected with in the life
time, preventive maintenance is required.
To perform maintenance the breaker involved need to be disconnected from the supply. The
increasing demand on the availability of the supply makes it hard to organize a planed
outage. With a withdrawable system it is possible to perform the maintenance on a breaker
with a minimized effect on the total switchgear.
https://youtu.be/SyEdO5iHTT0
To maximize the advantages of this practice, all parts that need maintenance need to be on

the removable part, including those that are likely to fail.
Some withdrawable switchgear have only a withdrawable breaker, leaving other

parts behind, such as: voltage transformers, current transformers, protection-relays,
earthing-devices, etc.
For maintenance on the fixed part of the main contacts, the withdrawable medium voltage
switchgear needs to be de-energized. Similar to the work on an disconnecting switch on
fixed medium voltage switchgear.
Required disconnecting frequency
An other maintenance point to take into account is the required disconnecting frequency,
how often will the isolated situation be required. The allowed number of maneuvers of a
withdrawable breaker is significantly less than the allowed number of open and close of
a disconnecting switch in the fixed execution.
Table 1 indicates the need for de-energizing the total medium voltage switchgear when
performing maintenance activities. Both for fixed and withdrawable executions.
Table 1 – Need for de-energizing the medium voltage switchgear during maintenance

activities
Maintenance activity
Fixed Withdrawable
Inspection / Replace on
Busbar total total
Withdrawable main contacts NA total
Disconnecting switch total NA
Breaker total (*) not
Earthing switch total not
Shutters NA total
Gliders NA total
Mechanical interlocks on fixed part total total

Mechanical interlocks on withdrawable part NA total
* some smart solutions provide possibility for changing breakers without de-energizing.
When comparing fixed to withdrawable, the (still) mandatory maintenance and the down
time it will cause needs to be weighed against the advantages that are gained, when the
down time can be reduced.
7. Process control
Petroleum and Chemical Industry systems are controlled by a centralized process

control. The centralized process control is connected to all devices within the process and
in many cases the medium voltage switchgear needs to be connected to it as well.
The costs for centralized process control, are normally related to the number of I/O
points. The number of I/O points determine in the hardware required. And number of I/O
points establishes the amount of programming hours that are
applicable.
Centralized process control primary task is to control the process and requires only basic
information from the medium voltage switchgear. Information like statuses: on, off, isolated,
earthed, test, withdrawn and fault.
Sometimes even measurements are required to indicate the load. Withdrawable systems
have more switching statuses that can be communicated to the centralized process
control, and therefore there number of I/O points can be higher. Fixed switchgear do have
less switch statuses, and therefore less to connect to a centralized process control. Maybe
not the main consideration, but certainly an aspect that can be unexpectedly costly to
implement.
https://youtu.be/2QQwxsZuYWw
On the other hand, a withdrawable switchgear provides a test position, that allows the
centralized process control to operate the breaker external from the switchgear. Providing
the possibility to test all signals without effecting the energy flow on the site.
Most likely this is only an advantage during start up of a new system!

8. Environment
Increasingly users have to consider the environmental impact of equipment, both during

manufacture and service, as well as after its life time. In respect to the design, of a medium
voltage switchgear, the vision “the least number of components, the better” applies.
Because every part must be manufactured and therefore it has an impact on the

environment. Furthermore the materials
used, need to be selected carefully. They need to be safe for personnel and the environment
– not just during use, but at the end of service life too! So that they can be completely
recycled at the end of it’s life without any problem.
https://youtu.be/JZueXc4WklA
Another environmental aspect is the energy losses in the medium voltage switchgear

itself.
The primary changeover points are mainly responsible for the energy losses in the medium
voltage switchgear itself. A design that uses primary change-over points with optimal
surface contacts will reduce the energy losses over these points.
Final thoughts
The title question was: Withdrawable switchgear past or future? The answer is clearly that
the need for withdrawable systems is still there. Withdrawable medium voltage switchgear
and fixed medium voltage switchgear do both have their applications possibilities.
Therefore all major switchgear manufacturers do have both executions!
Within the Petroleum and Chemical Industry there is a belief that withdrawable medium
voltage switchgear, will be easier to maintain and repair. In return this can result in reduced
downtime.
However current medium voltage breakers require less maintenance and are less likely to fail.
Furthermore is it really worth adding additional parts to a switchgear to make it withdrawable?
Many users of withdrawable medium voltage switchgear indicate that this is needed for
personal safety. Visual separation for maintenance on downstream equipment. Is a
withdrawable breaker wagon the best (safest) way to visualize a separation?

Reference // Fixed or withdrawable MV switchgear? – EATON (Martijn Imming, Herrie
Engbersen)
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One Comment
1.
Amin Mustangin
Jul 04, 2018
Is a withdrawable breaker wagon the best (safest) way to visualize a separation?

Yes, it is
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Cables / Energy and Power / Protection
The art of determining the right cross-

section of low voltage conductors
By Edvard | March, 16th 2020 | 3 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / The art of determining the right cross-section of low voltage
conductors
Maximum current-carrying capacity

To be clear at the beginning of this article, determining the cross-section of conductors and
cables is, for sure, not the most exciting part of electrical design. There are much more
challenging and more exciting parts than staring at endless conductor tables. However, this
part has to be done professionally the same way as all other parts of a design. So, take your
glasses (if you wear one), get some coffee, and let’s start.
The art of determining the right cross-section of low voltage conductors
The determination of the cross-section of the conductors is based on knowledge of the

maximum current-carrying capacity of the wiring system, which is itself determined based
on the conductors and their operating conditions. Standard IEC 60364-5-52 determines the
current values according to the basic operating principles for installations and safety of
people. The main elements are given below.
The table of current-carrying capacities can be used to directly determine the cross-section
of the conductors according to:
1. Type of conductor
2. Reference method (installation method)
3. The theoretical current-carrying capacity Iz (Izth)
Izth is calculated by applying all the correction factors (f) to the operating current value
(IB). The factors f are determined according to the installation method, grouping,
temperature, etc.
IB = Izth× f giving Izth = IB / f
Figure 1 –
Determining the cross-section using the table of current-carrying capacities
This whole process of determining the right cross-section of low voltage conductors is
explained through the following steps.
Table of contents:
1. Characteristics of the conductors

2. Wiring systems: Installation methods
1. Anex 1 – “Installation groups” according to the type of cable
3. Groups of circuits
4. Ambient temperature
5. Risks of explosion
6. Parallel conductors
7. Global correction factor
1. Example of determining a three-phase circuit
8. Cross-section of the neutral conductor
1. Examples: Application of reduction factors for harmonic currents
1. Characteristics of the conductors

The following information is taken into consideration:
1. The type of core: copper or aluminium.

2. The type of insulation, which defines the maximum permissible temperature during
operation, XLPE or EPR for insulation that can withstand 90 °C and PVC for
insulation that can withstand 70 °C
Table 1 – Max. operating temperatures according to the type of insulation
Type of insulation Maximum temperature (1) °C

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Conductor: 70
Cross-linked polyethylene (XlPE) and
Conductor: 90 (1)
ethylene-propylene (EPr) Conductor
Mineral (with or without PVC sheath, and
Sheath: 70
accessible)
Mineral (without sheath, accessible and not
Sheath: 105 (2)
in contact with combustible materials)
(1)
If a conductor operates at a temperature greater than 70°C, it is advisable to check that
the equipment connected to this conductor is suitable for the final temperature of the
connection.
(2)
Higher operating temperatures may be permitted for certain types of insulation,
depending on the type of cable, its ends, the environmental conditions and other external
influences.
2. Wiring systems: Installation methods

The standard defines a number of installation methods which represent the various
installation conditions. In the following tables, they are divided into groups and defined by
the letters A to G which determine how to read the table of the current-carrying capacities
in conductors (see Anex 1)
If several installation methods are used along the length of the wiring system, the methods
for which the thermal dissipation conditions are the least favourable must be chosen.
There is no explicit provision in the standard on the determination of the cross-section of
conductors inside low voltage distribution boards. However standard IEC 60439-1 defines
the currents (used for the temperature rise tests) for PVC insulated copper conductors.
Table 2 – Installation group according to the type of cable
Cable type
Installation group Insulated Single-core Multi-core
conductors cables cables
(A1) in a thermally insulated wall • •
(A1) in conduit in a thermally insulated wall • •
(A1-A2) in a thermally insulated wall •
(B1-B2) in conduit on a wooden wall • • •
(C) On a wooden wall • •
(C) fixed on a wooden wall • •
(D) in ducts in the ground • •
(E) in free air •
(F) in free air •
(G) Spaced in free air •
For detailed view of each of installation group please refer to Anex 1 below.
3. Groups of circuits
The tables giving the installation methods also refer to specific tables to be used to
determine the correction factors connected with the group of circuits and conduits.
Table 3 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one
multi-core cable to be used with current-carrying capacities
Table 3 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-
core cable to be used with current-carrying capacities
These factors are applicable to uniform groups of cables, equally loaded. Where horizontal
clearances between adjacent cables exceeds twice their overall diameter, no reduction
factor need be applied.
The same factors are applied to:
 Groups of two or three single-core cables;

 Multi-core cables
If a system consists of both two-core and three-core cables, the total number of cables is
taken as the number of circuits, and the corresponding factor is applied to the tables for two
loaded conductors for the two-core cables, and to the tables for three loaded conductors for
the three-core cables.
If a group consists of n single-core cables it may either be considered as n/2 circuits of two
loaded conductors or n/3 circuits of three loaded conductors. The values given have been
averaged over the range of conductor sizes and types of installation included in tables, the
overall accuracy of tabulated values is within 5%.
For some installations and for other methods not provided for in the above table, it may be
appropriate to use factors calculated for specific cases.
Table 4 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit, cables laid directly in
the ground installation method D – single-core or multi-core cables
Table 4 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit, cables laid directly in the
ground installation method D – single-core or multi-core cables
Values given apply to an installation depth of 0,7 m and a soil thermal resistivity of 2,5
Km/W. They are average values for the range of cable sizes and types quoted for tables.
The process of averaging, together with rounding off, can result in some cases in errors up
to ±10%.
Where more precise values are required they may be calculated by methods given in IEC
60287-2-1.
Figur
e 2 – Grouping circuits together results in a reduction of the current-carrying capacity
(application of a correction factor)
Table 5 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit, cables laid in ducts in
the ground installation method D multi-core cables in single-way ducts
T
able 5 – Multi-core cables in single-way ducts
Ta
ble 5 – Single-core cables in single-way ducts
Values given apply to an installation depth of 0,7 m and a soil thermal resistivity of 2,5
Km/W. They are average values for the range of cable sizes and types quoted for tables.
The process of averaging, together with rounding off, can result in some cases in errors up
to ±10 %.
60287.
Table 6 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one multi-core cable to be applied
to reference ratings for multi-core cables in free air – method of installation E
Tabl
e 6 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one multi-core cable to be applied to
reference ratings for multi-core cables in free air – method of installation E
(1)
Values are given for vertical spacings between trays of 300 mm and at least 20 mm
between trays and wall. For closer spacing the factors should be reduced.
(2)
Values are given for horizontal spacing between trays of 225 mm with trays mounted
back to back. For closer spacing the factors should be reduced
Table 7 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables (1)
to be applied to reference rating for one circuit of single-core cables in free air –
method of installation F
Table 7 – Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables (1) to
be applied to reference rating for one circuit of single-core cables in free air – method of
installation F
(1)
factors are given for single layers of cables (or trefoil groups) as shown in the table and
do not apply when cables are installed in more than one layer touching each other. Values
for such installations may be significantly lower and must be determined by an appropriate
method.
(2)
Values are given for vertical spacings between trays of 300 mm. for closer spacing the
factors should be reduced.
(4)
Values are given for horizontal spacing between trays of 225 mm with trays mounted
back to back and at least 20 mm between the tray and any wall. for closer spacing the
factors should be reduced.
(5)
for circuits having more than one cable in parallel per phase, each three phase set of
conductors should be considered as a circuit for the purpose of this table.
Go back to Content Table ↑v
4. Ambient temperature
The ambient temperature has a direct influence on the sizing of the conductors. The
temperature to be taken into account is that of the air around the cables (open air
installation), and that of the ground for buried cables.
The following tables, taken from standard IEC 60364-5-52, can be used to determine the
correction factor to be applied for temperatures ranging from 10 to 80 °C. The basic
temperature in air is given at 30 °C and that of the ground at 20 °C for all these tables.
The ambient temperature around cables must not be confused with that taken into account
for the protection devices, which is the internal temperature of the distribution swithboard
in which these protection devices are installed.
Table 8 – Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 °C to be applied to
the current-carrying capacities for cables in the air (1).
Table 8 – Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 °C to be applied to
the current-carrying capacities for cables in the air
For higher ambient temperatures you should consult manufacturer.
Table 9 – Table correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20°C
to be applied to the current-carrying capacities for cables in ducts in the ground
Table 9 – Table correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20°C to be
applied to the current-carrying capacities for cables in ducts in the ground
Table 10 – Table correction factor for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal
resistivities other than 2,5 K.m/W to be applied to the current-carrying capacities for
reference method D
Table 10 – Table correction factor for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities
other than 2,5 K.m/W to be applied to the current-carrying capacities for reference method
D
The correction factors given have been averaged over the range of conductor sizes and
types of installation considered in tables. The overall accuracy of correction factors is
within ±5%. The correction factors are applicable to cables drawn into burried ducts; for
cables laid direct in the ground the correction factors for thermal resistivities less than 2,5
K.m/W will be higher.
60287. The correction factors are applicable to ducts buried at depths of up to 0,8 m.
5. Risks of explosion
In installations where there is a risk of explosion (presence, processing or storage of
materials which are explosive or have a low flash point, including the presence of explosive
dust), wiring systems must include appropriate mechanical protection and the current-
carrying capacity will be subject to a reduction factor.
The description and installation rules are given in standard IEC 60079.
Interesting reading:
6. Parallel conductors
As long as the arrangement of the conductors complies with the grouping rules, the current-
carrying capacity of the wiring system can be considered as being equal to the sum of the
current-carrying capacities of each conductor to which the correction factors connected
with the group of conductors are applied.
Figur
e 3 – Parallel conductors and cables (photo credit: nktphotonics.com)
7. Global correction factor

When all the specific correction factors are known, it is possible to determine the global
correction factor (f), which is equal to the product of all the specific factors. The
procedure then consists of calculating the theoretical current-carrying capacity Izth of the
wiring system:
Izth = IB / f
Knowing Izth then enables reference to be made to the tables for the current-carrying
capacities for determining the necessary cross-section.
Read from the column corresponding to the type of conductor and the reference method.
Then simply choose in the table the current-carrying capacity value immediately above the
Izth value to find the cross-section.
A tolerance of 5% on the value of iz is generally permitted. for example, an operating
current IB of 140 A would lead to the selection of a 35 mm2 cross-section with a current-
carrying capacity of 169 A. Applying this tolerance enables a smaller cross-section of 25
mm2 to be chosen, which can then withstand a current of 145 A (138 + 0.5% = 145 A).
Table 11 – Current-carrying capacities in amperes
Table 11 – Current-carrying capacities in amperes
Where (1)
 PVC 2: PVC insulation, 2 loaded conductors
 PVC 3: PVC insulation, 3 loaded conductors
 PR 2: XLPE or EPR insulation, 2 loaded conductors
 PR 3: XLPE or EPR insulation, 3 loaded conductors.
Use PVC 2 or PR 2 for single phase or two-phase circuits and PVC 3 or PR 3 for three-
phase circuits.
7.1 Example
Determining a three-phase circuit constituting the link between a main distribution

board and a secondary distribution board.
Hypotheses
 The estimation of the loads has enabled the operating current of the conductors to be
calculated: IB = 600 A
 The wiring system consists of single-core copper cables with PR insulation
 The conductors are installed touching one another in perforated cable ducting
 Preference is given to install the cables in parallel to limit the unit cross-section to
150 mm2
Solution
Installing single-core cables in a perforated cable tray corresponds to reference method F
Table 12 – Extract from the installation methods table

If a single conductor per phase is sufficient, no correction need be applied. If two
conductors per phase are necessary, a reduction factor of 0.88 must be applied.
Table 13 – Extract from the table giving the correction factors for groups
The theoretical value Izth will therefore be determined by: Izth = IB/F = 600/0.88 = 682 A
i.e. 341 A per conductor.
Table 14 – Reading from the table of current-carrying capacities
For a PR 3 conductor in reference method f and a current-carrying capacity of 382 A

(value immediately above 341 A) the table gives a cross-section of 120 mm2.
8. Cross-section of the neutral conductor

In principle, the neutral must be the same cross-section as the phase conductor in all
single phase circuits. In three-phase circuits with a cross-section greater than 16 mm2 (25
mm2 alumin.), the cross-section of the neutral can be reduced to cross-section/2.
However this reduction is not permitted if:
 The loads are not in practice balanced

 The third harmonic content is greater than 15 %.
If this content is greater than 33 %, the cross-section of the live conductors of multi-core
cables is chosen by increasing current IB. Standard IEC 60364-5-52 gives a table showing
the correction factors according to the THD (Total Harmonic Distortion), followed by an
example of determining the current-carrying capacity of the cable.
Table 15 – Table reduction factors for harmonics currents in 4-core and 5-core cables
Table 15 – Table reduction factors for harmonics currents in four-core and five-core cables
(IEC 60364-5-52)
8.1 Examples
Application of reduction factors for harmonic currents (IEC 60352-5-52)
Consider a three-phase circuit with a design load of 39 A to be installed using four-core

PVC insulated cable clipped to a wall, installation method C. A 6 mm2 cable with copper
conductors has a current-carrying capacity of 41 A and hence is suitable if harmonics are
not present in the circuit.
If 20 % third harmonic is present, then a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied and the
design load becomes: 39/0,86 = 45 A. For this load a 10 mm2 cable is necessary.
If 40 % third harmonic is present, the cable size selection is based on the neutral current
which is: 39×0,4×3 = 46,8 A, and a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied, leading to a design
load of: 46,8/0,86 = 54,4 A. For this load a 10 mm2 cable is suitable.
If 50% third harmonic is present, the cable size is again selected on the basis of the
neutral current, which is: 39×0,5×3 = 58,5 A. In this case the rating factor is 1 and a 16
mm2 cable is required.
All the above cable selections are based on the current-carrying capacity of the cable;
voltage drop and other aspects of design have not been considered.
Anex 1 – “Installation groups” according to the type of cabl

Anex 1 – “Installation groups” according to the type of cable
Sources:
 Legrand
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3 Comments
1.
mahmud sardar
Mar 16, 2020

What about short circuit carrying capacity effect in selection of LV cable , by mean
suppose if i select a cable sized 120mm2 but as per the short circuit current the per
mm current is higher than the acceptable limit then i must modify my selection .
Reply
2.
Claudio Costa
Mar 16, 2020
Good reading. Excel spreadsheets are common practice to size cables in offshore
projects. They include voltage drop calculations and short circuit withstand capacity
in addition to the cable current carrying capacity. Major Class Societies provide
temperature-based cable current rating charts, which go into the excel spreadsheets
program, along with the derating factors.
Reply
3.
Genghiz Khan
Mar 16, 2020
Hello Edvard,
This is a very good article with an explanation and examples.
I wish you to do much more…articles similar to this.
Reply
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Electric Motor / Power Substation / Protection
Protection Of Industrial Power Supply

Systems (Fuses, MCCBs and Overcurrent
Relays Settings)
By Edvard | January, 2nd 2018 | 7 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Protection Of Industrial Power Supply Systems (Fuses, MCCBs and
Overcurrent Relays Settings)
Examples Of Power Supply Protection

As industrial operations processes and plants have become more complex and extensive,
the requirement for improved reliability of electrical power supplies has also increased. The
potential costs of outage time following a failure of the power supply to a plant have risen
dramatically as well.
Protection And Control Of Industrial Power Supply Systems (Relay Schemes And Settings) - on
photo MiCOM protection relays
The protection and control of industrial power supply systems must be given careful
attention. Many of the techniques that have been evolved for EHV power systems may be
applied to lower voltage systems also, but typically on a reduced scale.
However, industrial systems have many special problems that have warranted individual
attention and the development of specific solutions.
Many industrial plants have their own generation installed. Sometimes it is for emergency use
only, feeding a limited number of busbars and with limited capacity. This arrangement is often
adopted to ensure safe shutdown of process plant and personnel safety.
In other plants, the nature of the process allows production of a substantial quantity of
electricity, perhaps allowing export of any surplus to the public supply system – at either at
sub-transmission or distribution voltage levels. Plants that run generation in parallel with
the public supply distribution network are often referred to as co-generation or embedded
generation.
In this technical article, the following examples of protection & control of industrial
power supply systems are considered:
1. Fuse Co-ordination
2. Grading of Fuses / MCCBs / Overcurrent Relays
a. Determination of relay current setting
b. Relay characteristic and time multiplier selection
3. Protection of a Dual-Fed Substation
a. General considerations
b. Motor protection relay settings
c. Relay B settings
d. Relays C settings
e. Comments on grading
1. Fuse Co-ordination
An example of the application of fuses is based on the arrangement in Figure 1(a). This
shows an unsatisfactory scheme with commonly encountered shortcomings.
It can be seen that fuses B, C and D will discriminate with fuse A, but the 400A sub-
circuit fuse E may not discriminate, with the 500A sub-circuit fuse D at higher levels
of fault current.
Figure 1(a) – Fuse

protection: effect of layout on discrimination – Incorrect layout giving rise to problems in
discrimination
The solution, shown in Figure 1(b), is to feed the 400A circuit E direct from the busbars.
The sub-circuit fuse D may now have its rating reduced from 500A to a value, of say 100A,
appropriate to the remaining sub-circuit.
This arrangement now provides a discriminating fuse distribution scheme satisfactory

for an industrial system.
Figure 1(b) – Fuse

protection: effect of layout on discrimination – Incorrect layout and discrimination
However, there are industrial applications where discrimination is a secondary factor. In the
application shown in Figure 2, a contactor having a fault rating of 20kA controls the load in
one sub-circuit.
A fuse rating of 630A is selected for the minor fuse in the contactor circuit to give
protection within the through-fault capacity of the contactor.
Figure 2 – Example of back-up
protection
The major fuse of 800A is chosen, as the minimum rating that is greater than the total load
current on the switchboard. Discrimination between the two fuses is not obtained, as the
pre-arcing I2t of the 800A fuse is less than the total I2t of the 630A fuse.
Therefore, the major fuse will blow as well as the minor one, for most faults, so that all other
loads fed from the switchboard will be lost.
This may be acceptable in some cases. In most cases, however, loss of the complete
switchboard for a fault on a single outgoing circuit will not be acceptable, and the design
will have to be revised.
2. Grading of Fuses / MCCBs / Overcurrent Relays
An example of an application involving a moulded case circuit breaker, fuse and a

protection relay is shown in Figure 3.
A 1MVA 3.3kV/400V transformer feeds the LV board via a circuit breaker, which is
equipped with an Alstom MiCOM P14x numerical relay having a setting range of 8-
400% of rated current and fed from 2000/1A CTs.
Figure 3 –
Network diagram for protection co-ordination example – fuse / MCCB / relay
Discrimination is required between the relay and both the fuse and MCCB up to the 40kA
fault rating of the board. To begin with, the time/current characteristics of both the 400A
fuse and the MCCB are plotted in Figure 18.19.
2a. Determination of relay current setting
The relay current setting chosen must not be less than the full load current level and must
have enough margin to allow the relay to reset with full load current flowing.
The latter may be determined from the transformer rating:
With the CT ratio of 2000/1A and a relay reset ratio of 95% of the nominal current setting, a
current setting of at least 80% would be satisfactory, to avoid tripping and/or failure to reset
with the transformer carrying full load current.
However, choice of a value at the lower end of this current setting range would move the
relay characteristic towards that of the MCCB and discrimination may be lost at low fault
currents.
It is therefore prudent to select initially a relay current setting of 100%.
2b. Relay characteristic and time multiplier selection
An EI characteristic is selected for the relay to ensure discrimination with the fuse.
From Figure 4, it may be seen that at the fault level of 40kA the fuse will operate in less
than 0.01s and the MCCB operates in approximately 0.014s. Using a fixed grading margin
of 0.4s, the required relay operating time becomes 0.4 + 0.014 = 0.414s.
With a CT ratio of 2000/1A, a relay current setting of 100%, and a relay TMS setting (Time
Multiplier Setting) of 1.0, the extremely inverse curve gives a relay operating time of 0.2s at a fault
current of 40kA. This is too fast to give adequate discrimination and indicates that the EI curve is
too severe for this application. Turning to the VI relay characteristic, the relay operation time is
found to be 0.71s at a TMS of 1.0.
To obtain the required relay operating time of 0.414s:
TMS setting = 0.414 / 0.71 = 0.583
Use a TMS of 0.6, nearest available setting.
The use of a different form of inverse time characteristic makes it advisable to check
discrimination at the lower current levels also at this stage. At a fault current of 4kA, the
relay will operate in 8.1s, which does not give discrimination with the MCCB. A relay
operation time of 8.3s is required.
To overcome this, the relay characteristic needs to be moved away from the MCCB
characteristic, a change that may be achieved by using a TMS of 0.625. The revised
relay characteristic is also shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 –
Grading curves for Fuse / MCCB / relay grading example
3. Protection of a Dual-Fed Substation
As an example of how numerical protection relays can be used in an industrial system,

consider the typical large industrial substation of Figure 5 below. Two 1.6MVA, 11/0.4kV
transformers feeding a busbar whose bus-section CB is normally open.
The LV system is solidly earthed. The largest outgoing feeder is to a motor rated 160kW,
193kVA, and a starting current of 7 x FLC.
F
igure 5 – Relay grading example for dual-fed switchboard
The transformer impedance is to IEC standards. The LV switchgear and busbars are fault
rated at 50kA rms. To simplify the analysis, only the phase-fault LV protection is
considered.
3a. General considerations
Analysis of many substations configured as in Figure 5 above shows that the maximum
fault level and feeder load current is obtained with the bus-section circuit breaker closed
and one of the infeeding CBs open. This applies so long as the switchboard has a
significant amount of motor load.
The contribution of motor load to the fault level at the switchboard is usually larger than that
from a single infeeding transformer, as the transformer restricts the amount of fault current
infeed from the primary side.
The three-phase break fault level at the switchboard under these conditions is assumed to be
40kA rms.
Relays C1 and C2 are not required to have directional characteristics (read more about
it below) as all three circuit breakers are only closed momentarily during transfer from a
single infeeding transformer to two infeeding transformers configuration.
This transfer is normally an automated sequence, and the chance of a fault occurring during
the short period (of the order of 1s) when all three CBs are closed is taken to be negligibly
small. Similarly, although this configuration gives the largest fault level at the switchboard,
it is not considered from either a switchboard fault rating or protection viewpoint.
It is assumed that modern numerical relays are used. For simplicity, a fixed grading
margin of 0.3s is used.
Application of Directional Relays
If non-unit, non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders having a single generating
source, any faults that might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings
used, isolate both lines and completely disconnect the power supply.
With this type of system configuration, it is necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving
end and to grade them with the non-directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct
discriminative operation of the relays during line faults.
This is done by setting the directional relays R’1 and R’2 in Figure 6 with their directional
elements looking into the protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings
than relays R1 and R2.
The usual practice is to set relays R’1 and R’2 to 50% of the normal full load of the
protected circuit and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that the continuous
thermal rating of the relays of twice rated current is not exceeded.
Figure 6 –
Directional relays applied to parallel feeders
3b. Motor protection relay settings
From the motor characteristics given, the overcurrent relay settings (Relay A) can be
found using the following guidelines:
Thermal element
 Current setting: 300A

 Time constant: 20 mins
Instantaneous element
 Current setting: 2.32kA

These are the only settings relevant to the upstream relays.
3c. Relay B settings
Relay B settings are derived from consideration of the loading and fault levels with the
bus-section breaker between busbars A1 and A2 closed. No information is given about
the load split between the two busbars, but it can be assumed in the absence of definitive
information that each busbar is capable of supplying the total load of 1.6MVA.
With fixed tap transformers, the bus voltage may fall to 95% of nominal under these
conditions, leading to a load current of 2430A.
The IDMT current setting must be greater than this, to avoid relay operation on
normal load currents and (ideally) with aggregate starting/re-acceleration currents.
If the entire load on the busbar was motor load, an aggregate starting current in excess of
13kA would occur, but a current setting of this order would be excessively high and lead to
grading problems further upstream.
It is unlikely that the entire load is motor load (though this does occur, especially where a
supply voltage of 690V is chosen for motors – an increasingly common practice) or that
all motors are started simultaneously (but simultaneous re-acceleration may well occur).
What is essential is that relay B does not issue a trip command under these
circumstances – i.e. the relay current/time characteristic is in excess of the current/time
characteristic of the worst-case starting/re-acceleration condition.
It is therefore assumed that 50% of the total bus load is motor load, with an average
starting current of 600% of full load current (= 6930A), and that re-acceleration takes 3s.
A current setting of 3000A is therefore initially used.
The SI characteristic is used for grading the relay, as co-ordination with fuses is not
required. The TMS is required to be set to grade with the thermal protection of relay A
under ‘cold’ conditions, as this gives the longest operation time of Relay A, and the re-
acceleration conditions. A TMS value of 0.41 is found to provide satisfactory grading,
being dictated by the motor starting/re-acceleration transient. Adjustment of both current
and TMS settings may be required depending on the exact re-acceleration conditions.
Note that lower current and TMS settings could be used if motor starting/re-acceleration
did not need to be considered.
The high-set setting needs to be above the full load current and motor starting/re-
acceleration transient current, but less than the fault current by a suitable margin.
A setting of 12.5kA is initially selected. A time delay of 0.3s has to used to ensure grading
with relay A at high fault current levels. Both relays A and B may see a current in excess of
25kA for faults on the cable side of the CB feeding the 160kW motor.
The relay curves are shown in Figure 6 below:
Figure 6 – Grading of relays A and B
3d. Relays C settings
The setting of the IDMT element of relays C1 and C2 has to be suitable for protecting the
busbar while grading with relay B. The limiting condition is grading with relay B, as this
gives the longest operation time for relays C.
The current setting has to be above that for relay B to achieve full co-ordination, and a
value of 3250A is suitable. The TMS setting using the SI characteristic is chosen to grade
with that of relay B at a current of 12.5kA (relay B instantaneous setting), and is found to
be 0.45.
The high-set element must grade with that of relay B, so a time delay of 0.62sec is required.
The current setting must be higher than that of relay B, so use a value of 15kA.
The final relay grading curves and settings are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 – Final relay grading curves
3e. Comments on grading

While the above grading may appear satisfactory, the protection on the primary side of the
transformer has not been considered.
IDMT protection at this point will have to grade with relays C and with the through-fault
short-time withstand curves of the transformer and cabling. This may result in excessively
long operation times. Even if the operation time at the 11kV level is satisfactory, there is
probably a Utility infeed to consider, which will involve a further set of relays and another
stage of time grading, and the fault clearance time at the Utility infeed will almost certainly
be excessive.
One solution is to accept a total loss of supply to the 0.4kV bus under conditions of a single
infeed and bus section CB closed.
This is achieved by setting relays C such that grading with relay B does not occur at all
current levels, or omitting relay B from the protection scheme. The argument for this is that
network operation policy is to ensure loss of supply to both sections of the switchboard
does not occur for single contingencies.
As single infeed operation is not normal, a contingency (whether fault or maintenance) has
already occurred, so that a further fault causing total loss of supply to the switchboard
through tripping of one of relays B is a second contingency. Total loss of supply is
therefore acceptable. The alternative is to accept a lack of discrimination at some point on
the system.
Another solution is to employ partial differential protection to remove the need for Relay
A, but this is seldom used. The strategy adopted will depend on the individual
circumstances.
Reference // Network protection & automation guide by Alstom Grid
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7 Comments
1.
Madhusudhan Gajanan Pathak
Jul 29, 2019
Thanks for the article, it’s Excellent
Reply
2.
Madhusudhan Gajanan Pathak
Jul 29, 2019
Thanks for the article,iwant to speak about fuse discrimination 100A fuse
discriminate against 160A etc…
Reply
3.
Ian Bitterlin
May 05, 2019
Your text does not match the diagrams. A 400A fuse needs at least a fuse above it of
640A rating, better 800A. It would be dangerous to leave the article in this state.
Reply
4.
David Renshaw
Jan 03, 2018
Edvard,
One further comment about fuse discrimination (or selectivity in American
terminology): A manufacturer will typically state that a ratio of 1.6:1 is adequate to
provide discrimination (e.g. a 100A fuse will discriminate against a 160A one), and
will supply “I-squared t” figures that support this. But this assumes that both fuses
are from the same manufacturer. In practice the designer can’t guarantee that a
replacement fuse -even of the correct current rating- will come from the same firm.
Therefore 2:1 would be a safer minimum ratio to ensure discrimination.
Reply
5.
David Renshaw
Jan 03, 2018
Edvard,
Thanks for the article. One glitch: In section 1 (fuse discrimination), Fig. 1a is
actually a correct layout for proper discrimination but Fig. 1b would *not*
discriminate (i.e with 500A and 400A fuses in series). This is in conflict with the
wording, which describes scheme 1a as unsatisfactory & 1b as OK.
Regards, David.
Reply
6.
BOUJNAH Khaled
Jan 02, 2018
très intéressant merci
Reply
7.
reza tousipanah
Jan 02, 2018
Would you please tell me the corona inception and extinction voltage calculation
and test procedure with and without corona ring and related table for those voltages
in 63,132,230 and 400 kv power line.
Your kind attention and prompt reply will be appreciated.
Best regards : Reza Tousipanah
Reply
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14 disturbance types that mess up power

quality and 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal

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Home / Technical Articles / 14 disturbance types that mess up power quality and 50/60 Hz
sinusoidal signal
The quality of the electrical energy

The quality of the electrical energy seems to be the very popular nowadays. It may be
affected either by events that occur on the distribution systems (switching, lightning, etc.)
or by the use made of the electricity when for example certain load create significant
variations in the current consumption (switching on) or alter the waveform (harmonics).
14 disturbance types that mess up power quality and 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal
The quality of the electricity supply is the subject of a European standard, EN 50160, which
stipulates the permissible limits of fourteen values or phenomena characterizing or
affecting the 50/60 Hz sinusoidal signal. Based on a statistical approach, it is designed to
ensure a certain level of quality during normal operation.
Table of contents:
1. Signal frequency
5. Flicker severity
6. Voltage dips
13. Interharmonic voltages
1. Signal frequency
The nominal voltage frequency is 50 Hz with a tolerance of ±1% (i.e. 49.5 to 50.5 Hz) for
99.5% of each one-year period and +4 to -6% (i.e. 47 to 52 Hz) for the whole period.
Figur
e 1 – Example of recording showing frequency drift and signal distortions
This type of fluctuation is virtually nonexistent on public distribution systems in

industrialized countries. In installations supplied by standalone sources (generator sets,
inverters, etc.), different tolerance limits can be set, or regulation devices may even be
necessary.
Figure 2 – Frequency
and period
The same applies to systems that are not interconnected (for example, islands) where wider
tolerances are permitted: ±2% for 99.5% of each week and ±15% for 100% of the time.

The supply voltage represents the rms value measured at the delivery point. It is measured
at a given moment and averaged over a time interval (typically 10 minutes).
The nominal voltage Un which characterises the system can be distinguished from the
stated voltage Uc which would result from an agreement on values that are different from
those in standard EN 50160.
The standard voltage for low voltage public systems in Europe is:
 230 V between phases and neutral (400 V between phases) for three phase systems
with neutral
 230 V between phases for three phase systems without neutral
Figure 3 – Example of recording showing amplitude variations of the supply voltage
Under normal operating conditions, the following slow voltage fluctuations are permitted
over a period of one week: ±10% of the reference value (230 or 400 V), i.e. 207 to 253 V
or 360 to 440 V for 95% of measurements, and -15% to +10% for 100% of
measurements, i.e. 195 to 253 V and 340 to 440 V.
The supply voltage of the system can fluctuate daily, weekly or seasonally as a result of
significant variations in load in the system. Voltage regulation devices installed in
transformer substations can limit these variations.
In addition, high power receivers such as welding stations, large motors, furnaces and other
energy-intensive installations may cause local voltage drops while they are in operation.
Figure 4 – Example of recording showing slow voltage variations
Power limits are generally set for motors supplied by a public distribution system. The
solution may therefore be to increase the power of the source (reduction of its impedance
and increase in its short-circuit power) or compensate for the reactive energy connected
with one device in particular that is causing disturbance.

These variations, which come mainly from currents drawn by high loads, should not
exceed 5 to 10% of the nominal voltage. Recordings show that momentary reductions of
30% are totally possible when receivers such as motors or transformers are switched on.
These variations are non-periodic and occur at random moments. When fast voltage
variations become cyclical, this is referred to as flicker, with reference to light variations
which can be annoying above a certain level.
5. Flicker severity
The intensity of the annoyance caused by flicker is defined by a UIE-CIE (International

Union for Electricity Applications – International Commission on Illumination)
measurement method.
It is evaluated as follows:
 Short term severity (Pst) measured over a period of ten minutes

 Long term severity (Plt) calculated based on a sequence of 12 Pst values over a two-
hour period, according to the following formula:
Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week period, it is recommended that the
long term flicker severity level Plt associated with voltage fluctuations is less than or
equal to 1 for 95% of the time.
Figure 5 – Example of recording showing ficker severity variations
6. Voltage dips
These can be due to faults occurring at users’ installations, but they often result from
troubles on the public distribution system. The numbers of these vary considerably
according to local conditions, and they generally only last up to one second.
Most voltage dips last less than 1 second with a depth of less then 60%. In other words,
the residual voltage remains greater than 40%. There is a voltage dip as soon as the rms
value of one of the voltages, measured separately on each phase, falls below a set threshold.
Standard EN 50160 does not specify the number, duration or depth of voltage dips. This
characteristic could form the subject of a contractual agreement.
Figure 6 – Example of recording of a voltage dip
Short interruptions or ‘micro-breaks’ refer to when the value of the signal drops to 0 V or
less than 1% of the nominal voltage. These generally last less than a second, although a
break of 1 minute may still be considered as being short.
Micro-breaks and voltage dips are phenomena that are often random and unpredictable, and
they may occur irregularly over time. It may be important to define contractually the
maximum duration and threshold for a voltage dip to be considered as being a micro-break
(for example a voltage < 40% of Un for less than 600 ms).
In most cases, only recordings can enable a decision on the accuracy of the phenomena to
be made with certainty.
Figur
e 7 – Example of recording of a short voltage interruption
ITIC curves
Electronic and computing equipment is sensitive to voltage variations. the first installations,
affected by apparently random faults, were historically the source of most Power Quality
problems.
The creation of the information technology industry council curve (ITIC curve), has
enabled a template to be defined, within which a voltage fault (dip or overvoltage) can
be acceptable or unacceptable. Plotting the duration of an event as a function of the
voltage in relation to the nominal supply voltage, these curves define the limits within
which the device should continue to operate with no interruption or loss of data.
Figure 8 – ITIC curves
These values are not quantified as they depend on totally chance elements. The frequency
with which they occur is very variable and is dependent on the architecture of the
distribution system or the exposure to climatic hazards.
Under normal operating conditions, the annual frequency of voltage interruptions of more
than three minutes may be less than 10 or can reach as many as 50, depending on the
region.
Fig
ure 9 – Example of recording of a long voltage break
This type of fault can occur both on the distribution system and on the user’s installation. It
can be devastating as the voltage supplied may reach a level that is dangerous for
equipment.
The main risk is there being a phase-to-phase instead of a phase-neutral voltage if, for
example, the neutral fails. Faults on the high voltage system (fallen line) can also generate
overvoltages at the low voltage end.
Standard EN 50-160 does not set limits for these overvoltages. But on this point, it is
essential, for the safety of people and installations, to choose equipment sized according to
the standards (harmonized with IEC 60064-1) and tested for withstand to lightning
impulses.
Insulation coordination in low voltage systems with regard to temporary overvoltages
Requirements of standard iec 60064-1:
 Sturdy basic insulation and supplementary insulation must withstand the following
temporary overvoltages:
o Short duration temporary overvoltages, amplitude Un + 1200 V for t < 5s
o Long duration temporary overvoltages, amplitude Un + 250 V for t > 5s
(Un is the supply system nominal phase-neutral voltage to earth)
 Reinforced insulation must withstand values equal to double the overvoltage values.
These phenomena are very variable. They are mainly due to lighting and switching on the
system. Their rise time ranges from a few microseconds to a few milliseconds, so their
frequency range is very wide, from a few kHz to several hundred kHz.
Protection against overvoltages requires the use of protection devices such as voltage surge
protectors and the installation of equipment that is appropriate for its location in the
installation.
Figure 10 – Typical switching

overvoltage wave
Recording of overvoltage due to lightning strike
Lightning striking the system triggers overvoltages which are carried right to the users
despite protection devices installed by the distributor. Unlike overhead systems,
underground systems largely attenuate the shock wave.
Figure 11
– Recording of overvoltage due to lightning strike
Voltage unbalance is caused by high power single phase loads. It causes negative current
components which can trigger braking torques and temperature rises in rotating machines.
It is advisable to divide the loads over the three phases as much as possible and to protect
installations using appropriate detectors.
Under normal operating conditions, for each one-week period, 95% of the rms values of
the negative sequence component of the supply voltage, averaged over ten minutes, must be
between 0% and 2% of the positive sequence component.
Figure 12 – Example of recording of voltage unbalance
In some regions where parts of system users’ installations have single phase connections or
are connected between two phases, the unbalance can reach 3% at the three phase point of
supply. If τi is the instantaneous unbalance value, the average rate τνm is defined by the
equation:
where T = 10 minutes
Standard EN 50-160 only stipulates limits based on the negative sequence components of
the voltage. Satisfactory approximations can be made using conventional measurements
enabling the unbalance ratio between negative and positive components to be ascertained.
where U12 + U23 + U31 are the three phase-phase voltages.

Using symmetrical components
The symmetrical system corresponds to all the components (impedances, emf, back emf
and loads) assumed to be symmetrical, i.e. identical on each phase. this must not be
confused with balancing, which concerns the equality of the currents and voltages.
An unbalanced symmetrical three phase system can be expressed as three balanced three
phase systems (fortescue method). this division can be carried out using three methods:
positive, negative, zero sequence (homopolar).
If there is a fault, overvoltage or short circuit affecting only one of the phases (which is the
most common situation), the system becomes non-symmetrical and can then only be
described by a real system, with separate V and I for each phase, representing the part
concerned.
Figure 13 – Symmetrical components

When the characteristics of a distribution system are described, the harmonic distortion of
the distributed voltage(s) is an important factor with regard to operating problems
(sensitivity of electronic equipment) and reliability problems (ageing by heating of
windings and conductors, breakdown of insulation of capacitors) that this type of
disturbance can cause.
But it is important to know that the source of harmonic voltages is in the first place
harmonic currents. These currents can disturb equipment locally but above all they
perniciously increase the level of distortion of the distributed voltage across the whole
installation and for other users via the public distribution system.
Harmonic currents are generated by devices whose supply consumes non-sinusoidal

currents. Electronic, computer and office equipment, some lighting fittings, industrial
welding equipment, inverters, power converters and numerous machines are the main
causes.
Like harmonic currents, harmonic voltages can be broken down into sinusoidal
voltages than can be described:
 Individually, according to their relative amplitude (Uh) in relation to the

fundamental voltage Un, where h represents the harmonic order
 As a whole, i.e. according to the value of the total harmonic distortion THD,
calculated using the following formula:
Figure 14 – Example of recording of harmonic voltages
Under normal operating conditions 95% of the rms values of each harmonic voltage
averaged over ten minutes and measured over a week must not exceed the values given in
the table below.
Maximum harmonic distortion at the point of supply, expressed as a percentage of the

fundamental voltage U1 according to IEC 61000-2-2.
Table 1 – Maximum harmonic distortion at the point of supply, expressed as a percentage

of the fundamental voltage U1 according to IEC 61000-2-2
Odd-order harmonics
Even-order harmonics
Not multiples of 3 Multiples of 3
Relative Relative Relative
Order h Order h Order h
voltage (Un) voltage (Un) voltage (Un)
5 6% 3 5% 2 2%
7 5% 9 1.5% 4 1%
11 3.5% 15 0.5% 6…24 0.5%
13 3% 21 0.5% – –
17 2% – – – –
19 1.5% – – – –
23 1.5% – – – –
25 1.5% – – – –
In addition, total harmonic distortion of the voltage supplied (including all harmonics up to
order 40) must not exceed 8% of the fundamental voltage (order 1).
To limit the harmonics, it may initially be necessary to revise the structure of the
installation:
 Increase the cross-section of the neutral conductor

 Regroup the polluting loads (if necessary with source separation)
 Use of transformers with special windings (coupling of the 3rd order harmonic and
its multiples on the neutral)
 Connection of sensitive equipment away from the polluting loads
 Connection of polluting loads to the source with the lowest impedance and as far
upstream as possible. It is also necessary to check that the capacitor banks for
compensating the power factor cannot start resonating (possible use of anti-
harmonic inductances connected in series).
 The TN-C neutral earthing system must be avoided.
13. InterharmonIc voltages
This phenomenon refers to the frequencies located between the harmonics. These are
caused by frequency inverters, uninterruptible power supplies, controlled rotating machines
or arc devices. Their interaction can cause flicker phenomena, but it is above all with regard
to information signals transmitted on the system that they must be identified and controlled.
In some countries, the public distribution system may be used by the distributor to transmit
signals. The voltage value of the signals transmitted on the medium voltage distribution
system (1 to 35 kV), averaged over 3s, must not exceed the values shown by the curve
below over a period equal to 99% of one day.
Figur
e 15 – Information signals transmitted on the system
The system is used by the distributor to transmit information signals which are
superimposed over the voltage supplied in order to transmit information to users’
installations. However, the system must not be used to transmit information signals from
private installations.
The frequencies of these signals vary from tens of hertz to several kilohertz, according to
their function:
1. Centralised remote control signals: superimposed sinusoidal voltage in the 110

Hz to 3000 Hz range
2. Power line carrier signals: superimposed sinusoidal voltage in the 3 kHz to 148.5
kHz range
3. Wave marking signals: short-time pulses (transients) superimposed at selected
moments in the voltage wave.
Example of network of analysers

There are many network analyzers that can can be used to obtain full readings for the
electrical characteristics of networks, store them and transmit them remotely for use.
The choice of reactive power compensation or conditioning solutions will then be totally
appropriate.
Fi
gure 16 – Example of a network of analyzers installed as well in the electrical substations
as in the consumer locations
Figure 17 – Example of implementation for the analysis of a local and public energy
distribution system
Source: Electrical energy supply by Legrand
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Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Tushar Mogre
Jan 07, 2020
The Article is certainly Good and informative. The way the PQ phenomenon affects
the connected supply system components with every different PQ type of issue is
still an missing information at large. Even today, the standards specified in these
areas are inadequate and needs to address every issue separately with in depth
analysis.
Reply
2.
Chinmaya Behera
Jan 06, 2020
Definition of Power quality can change depending upon geographical area and
weather conditions. It’s seems that there may be other power quality problems we
encounters in our day to day life but, we couldn’t recognize or name them because
we could not relate faults with the occurrences. A lots of research are required to
understand the power quality issues. To mitigate PQ issues we need to make our
machineries PQ ride through capabilities…
We should encourage this type of documents.
Reply
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Medium Voltage
3 Common Misconceptions Regarding

Automatic Transfer Systems
By Edvard | February, 26th 2016 | 2 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 3 Common Misconceptions Regarding Automatic Transfer Systems
Automatic transfer systems

Several common misconceptions regarding automatic transfer systems exist. Three of
these are addressed here //
3 common misconceptions regarding automatic transfer systems (photo credit:
bladespowergeneration.co.uk)
1. I need a complex automatic transfer scheme at every voltage level

2. AC Control Power for my automatic transfer PLC can be handled by the system UPS’s
3. Since my automatic transfer system was tested in the factory, it doesn’t need field testing
Three most common ATS misconceptions //
Misconception #1
“I need a complex automatic transfer scheme at every voltage level”
This may or may not be true, but in general if more than one automatic transfer scheme
is present, the farther downstream it is, the less complex it has to be. For example, consider
the system of Figure 1.
As shown in Figure 1 below, two automatic transfer systems exist, one at the medium
voltage level and one at the low voltage level. The automatic transfer system at the low
voltage level must be coordinated so that it does not transfer unless the reason for transfer is
not addressed by a transfer on the system at the medium voltage level.
For example, should one of the utility sources fail, the medium voltage system will
transfer to the other utility source.
Figure 1 – Two automatic transfer systems at different voltage levels

In that case, the low voltage transfer scheme should not transfer at all. However,
should a fault occur on one of the medium voltage feeders, the low voltage system must
transfer to restore power to the loads.
Typically this coordination between automatic transfer systems is achieved by making the time
delays for source failure and re-transfer longer on the low voltage system than on the medium
voltage system.
Further, in Figure 1 the generation is at the medium voltage level, so the low voltage
automatic transfer system does not have to consider operation of the generators. It is
therefore less complex than the medium voltage automatic transfer system and will, in
general, transfer less frequently.
Go back to ATS Misconceptions ↑
Misconception #2
“AC Control Power for my automatic transfer PLC can be handled by the system UPS’s”
On the surface, this is true. However, initial system start-up will require a power source
other than the system UPS’s, which are devices downstream from the automatic transfer
system. And, if a UPS is taken off-line for maintenance the availability of the control power
can be compromised.
In reality, automatic transfer PLC’s have control power reliability requirements that are
similar to microprocessor-based protective relays. Where those devices are used, the
preferred power source is a DC battery system, and this is true for an automatic transfer
PLC also.
Typically, a 24V battery system is sufficient, although care should be used to isolate the PLC from
the battery voltage via a DC-to-DC converter to avoid exposing the PLC power supply to the
voltage variations that will occur on the battery system.
Alternatively, a small UPS, supplied by a control transformer in the

switchgear or switchboard, could be used. In either case, maintenance requirements apply
to insure that the power is available when called upon.
Critical Power System Functional Block Diagram
In this case, a control power throw over is advisable, with one source being the
switchgear or switchboard UPS, and the other being a system UPS or other reliable source.
AC control power for low voltage switchgear (or switchboards) used for automatic transfer
is generally provided via a control power throw over supplied by control transformers in the
equipment.
Energy to trip circuit breakers when no control power is available (i.e., after source failure
but before standby generators are up and running) is provided via capacitive energy-storage
devices. For medium voltage switchgear, the protective relays will have similar control
power reliability requirements similar to those of the automatic transfer PLC, and DC
batteries are typically used, but usually at the 48VDC or 125VDC level.
Many variations exist on switchgear, switchboard or PLC control power design, and this is

an issue must be carefully considered to achieve the desired results.
Misconception #3
“Since my automatic transfer system was tested in the factory, it doesn’t need field testing”
Like any other engineered system, factory testing for an automatic transfer system is no
substitute for field testing. Field testing takes into account shipping damage and
installation errors that may have occurred, as well as testing the system’s response to actual
system conditions rather than simulated test conditions.
In many cases the specified time delays, such as source failure delays, are found to need
adjustment when applied under real-world conditions.
This is doubly important in the mission-critical environment, where reliable equipment

operation is crucial.
Simple emergency/standby system

arrangement
How an ATS Works with a Generator
https://youtu.be/jwBI-rd3-I4

Reference // Critical Power Automatic Transfer Systems – Design and Application by Bill
Brown, P.E., Jay Guditis, Square D Critical Power Competency Center (Schneider
Electric)
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engineer.
More Information
Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Gregory
Mar 20, 2019
Hi,
my suggestion is to use a dedicated microcontroller which can start quicker than
PLC.
Additonaly in case when there are power sources like a transformer or generator
with auto start (self detect) we don’t need UPS or DC supplier. To avoid a single
point of failure, you need to build a redundant power supply for the controller or
power it from the generator battery.
Regards,
Greg
Reply
2.
haou soraya
Mar 19, 2019
thanks for all this informations
Reply
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Protection

Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV

By Edvard | October, 30th 2012 | 3 comments | Save to PDF

Selectivity is intended to ensure that the protective shutdown is as close as possible to the

In individual cases, reference to manufacture documents and frequently the technical

Selectivity between fuses connected in series

Selectivity of circuit breakers connected in series

Selectivity between fuse and downstream circuit breaker

Selectivity between a circuit breaker and downstream

Selectivity and undervoltage

In order to guarantee operational continuity, suitable off-delays or remaking equipment

Resource: Allen Bradley – Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear

Feb 08, 2015

Please reach me at the email above

Your real name *

Power Substation / Protection / Transformers

Protection scheme for the substation with a

By Edvard | January, 7th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

Single-transformer, single-bus configuration

A fused-disconnect switch provides three-phase switching and protection for the

Several factors are involved in selecting the transformer high-side fuses.

If low-resistance grounding is used, several relay schemes can be employed to clear a

All of these schemes use a neutral CT and overcurrent relay (51G).

For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay connected to a CT in

For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-sequence CT is

When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a zero-sequence CT it is referred to as a 50G,

<="" ins="" data-adsbygoogle-status="done">

2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection

Feeder phase protection is provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-

The time current characteristics of the relays should be selected accordingly.

It is also important to check coordination of the time-overcurrent relay with the

b) Maximum ground fault sensitivity

3. Protection of the supply line

4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)

Selectively coordination circuit breakers around a transformer.

1. IEEE Std C37.95 – IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer

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Jan 07, 2019

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Energy Generation / Protection

Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker

By Edvard | January, 14th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

The complex role of a generator CB

Introduction to GCB circuits

1. The system-source fault (fault on generator side, point A) and

If a system-source fault occurs, the short-circuit current is established at high magnitudes

Breaking capacity of a GCB

Requirements in terms of breaking capacity depend on the amount the installation

 Fault in A – system-source fault

Circuit breakers for generators conforming to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 are

Generator circuit breakers must conform to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 “High-

In the case of generator-source breaking capacity, the first value refers to maximum

Current interruption due to generator-source faults is an extremely complex

Example of how a generator circuit breaker is sized

The main grid data are:

Transformer with 3 windings:

V1 = 150 kV S1 = 150 MVA Vcc_12 = 11.5% at 55 MVA

Xd = 2.26 Xq = 2.06 Td’ = 0.71 Tq’ = 0.71

Figure 4 – Transformer with 3 windings

The graph shows that the maximum current peak is:

while the remaining current values at instant t = 45 ms are:

Considering a 45ms instant, the remaining current values are as follows:

Table 1 – ABB’s generator circuit breaker VD4G family