Chapter 1

1.1 A major scale consists of several steps namely:

1 – 1 – ½ -- 1 – 1 – 1 -- ½

c – d–e– f–g–a–b–c

C major scale is major because c – e is a major third ( 2 steps )

When you want to find the minor scale that “belongs” to C major form a
new scale starting on the sixth note of C major ( =a ).

c – d -- e – f – g -- a – b – c

a–b–c–d–e–f–g–a

This parallel minor scale is minor because a – c is a minor third ( 1½ step )

A minor scale appears in 3 different forms:

- natural minor ( Aeolian )

- harmonic minor ( raised 7th )
- melodic minor ( raised 6th and 7th upward )

Exercises for Chapter 1:

1a What is the major scale: E – B - C# - Bb – D - A

1b What is the minor scale: e - b - c# - bb - d – a

2a What is the raised 7th of : e - b - c# - bb - d – a

2b What is the raised 6th of: f – a – g – b - c# - e

1  
 
 Chapter 2
2.1 An interval is a combination between two notes. ( dyad )
The names of these intervals come from the Latin language.

Example: C-C = Unison

C-D = Second ( distance is 1 )
C-E = Third ( distance is 2 )
C-F = Fourth
C-G = Fifth
C-A = Sixth
C-B = Seventh
C-C’ = Octave
C-D’ = None
C-E’ = Decime ( tenth )

2.2 We make a difference between perfect intervals and major/minor

intervals.
The perfect intervals are: perfect –unison /-fourth /-fifth /-octave.
The others are the major / minor intervals.

Example 1 : c – d (1-2 in C major scale) is a major second, so c – db or

c# – d ( a half less ) are minor seconds.

Example 2: c – e (1-3 in C major scale) is a major third and c – eb or

c# – e ( a half less ) are minor thirds.

You can see that the difference between a major and a minor interval is
always a half .

Exercises for Chapter 2:

1a What is the major third on: c – b - c# - bb – d - a
1b What is the minor third on: ab – e – g - eb - f#

2a What is the perfect fourth on: ( use ex. 1a – 1b )

2b What is the major sixth on:
2c What is the the minor second on:
2d What is the perfect fifth on:
2  
 
 Chapter 3
3.1 A chord exists out of at least 3 notes piled up in thirds.
Example 1 : c ----------- e ------------ g ( = C major chord )
major 3 minor 3

Example 2 : d ------------ f ------------ a ( = D minor chord )

minor 3 major 3

As you can see the first 3 determines whether it is a minor or major chord.

3.2 The triad appears in three different inversions.

Ground position – first inversion and second inversion.
c–e–g e–g–c g–c–e

If the c is in the bass it is a ground position. Regardless of the sequence of

the other notes. This also goes for the third in the bass: first inversion and
fifth in the bass: second inversion ( also here it doesn’t matter hoe the
sequence is of the other notes )

3.3 Of course it is possible to pile up more thirds.

Example: c ---------- eb ----------- g ------------ bb ( = Cm7 )

minor 3 major 3 minor 3

In Chapter 4 we go on with these 4 note ( seventh or tetrads ) chords.

P.S. We saw the combination of a major and a minor third in one chord.
Also possible is two major thirds ( c – e – g# ) = augmented or two minor
thirds ( c – eb – gb ) = diminished.
We come back on this in Chapter 6.

Exercises for Chapter 3:

1a. What is the triad of: C – A – G – B – Bb – Eb ( name all inversions )
1b. What is the triad of: Dm – Fm – Cm – F#m - Abm ( name all inversions )
2. What is the difference between a triad and a tetrad and give an
example?
3. What does diminished and what does augmented mean?
3  
 
 Chapter 4
4.1 In Jazz and world music ( western) we usually work with chords with at
least a seventh. We already know that a chord contains 1-3-5 :
Ground position ------- 1
First inversion ------------ 2
Second inversion ------ 3

Here we add a 7 and we get a tetrad or seventh chord.

An exception on this is the sixth chord ( 6 – chord ).
This is also a tetrad but not a seventh chord.
We have a major 6 – chord: example: c – e – g – a
and a minor 6 – chord: example: c – eb – g – a

4.2 The most important seventh chords are:

Major 7 – chord, augmented 7 – chord, minor 7 – chord, half diminished 7 –
chord, minor major 7 – chord, diminished 7 – chord and sus 7 – chord.

4.3 This brings us to scales / functions.

By piling up thirds we get triads or tetrads and when we apply this to every
note in the major or minor scale we get different kinds of chords.

Example: 7 b c d e f g a b
5 g a b c d e f g
3 e f g a b c d e
1 c d e f g a b c

Scale: I II III IV V VI VII

Triad: C Dm Em F G Am Bdim.

Tetrad: C∆ Dm7 Em7 F∆ G7 Am7 Bm7b5

Function T SD D

4.4 The main functions are: I = Tonica ( T ); determines the key of the
piece. IV = sub dominant ( leads to V ) and V = dominant ( leads to I )
Exercise for Chapter 4

1. Write all scales you don’t know well and add the seventh chords .
4  
 
 Chapter 5
5.1 In Chapter 4 we saw which chords come from the major scale. Lets
look at other scales. We start with the perfect or natural minor scale.

We use this scale many times in harmonic ( raised 7th ) or melodic ( raised
6th and 7th )from. The reason we do this has something to do with the fifth
degree. Because we changed the seventh tone from a g into a g# the
third of the chord on the fifth degree becomes major so we created a
dominant 7 chord instead of a minor 7 chord. A dominant 7 chord resolves
much better to the first degree than a minor 7 chord. ( harmonic reason )

Example: a–b–c–d–e–f–g– a natural minor

a – b – c – d – e – f – g# - a harmonic minor

6.2 If we change the sixth tone just like we did with the seventh tone we
have melodic minor. The reason we do this is filling that gap between the
f and the g# (melodic reason).

Example: a – b – c – d – e – f# – g # - a ascending melodic minor

If you play this scale you will notice it is minor scale ending in major .
If we use this scale in solos we always refer to the form of it. Now lets see
which chords we find in these scales.

6.3 harmonic minor: c - d - eb - f - g - ab - b

I - II - III - IV - V - VI - VII

Triad Cm Dmb5 Eb+5 Fm G Ab B dim.

Tetrad Cm ∆ Dm7b5 Eb7+5 Fm7 G7 Ab ∆ B dim7.

The second degree is half diminished because only the fifth is a diminished
interval. The seventh degree is diminished because the fifth and the
seventh are diminished intervals.

Melodic minor: c - d - eb - f - g - a - b

I - II - III - IV - V - VI - VII

Tetrad Cm ∆ Dm7 Eb∆+5 F7 G7 Am7b5 Bm7b

5  
 
 Chapter 6
More info on intervals ! They will bring us to the adds.

6.1 You can diminish major intervals and vice versa. With perfect intervals is
it the same only the name is different.

Example: c - g perfect fifth

c - g# ( half more ) augmented fifth
c - gb ( half less ) diminished fifth

Beware: this is why we have a diminished chord in the seventh degree.

Example: b - d - f -------------------- b - f = diminished 5
Remember that perfect intervals are never major or minor.

Example: c - b ---------- major 7

c - bb --------- minor 7
c - bb b ------- diminished 7
Example: b - a# -------- major 7
b - a --------- minor 7
b - ab -------- diminished 7

6.2 Beware it doesn’t become a g# because we are talking about a 7 and

not a 6. Always think about the natural tones ( these are the first 7 letters
from the alphabet: a – b – c – d – e – f – g ). From a to f = 6 so from a to f#
too, but a – f = minor 6 and a – f# = major 6
This looks confusing but it makes everything clear. An interval is always the
same. Example: c - d = major 2
c - d# = augmented 2 and not a minor 3 although they
sound the same. c - eb = minor 3 because derived from c – e (a major 3)

Augmented Augmented
I I
Major Perfect
I I
Minor Diminished
I
Diminished
6  
 
 Chapter 7
7.1 Because we always pile up thirds ( 1-3-5-7 ) by adding 9 / 11 / 13 we
create the following chord:
Example: C 7 / 9 means: C 7 so c – e – g – bb we add the major 9 ( = d ).

7.2 Because intervals can be augmented or diminished C 7 / b9 is possible:

c – e – g – bb – d# ( in Europe also written as C 7 b10 = eb ). This is because
people see it as a minor third in a major chord.

7.3 With 11 and 13 it works exactly the same way.

Example: Cm7 9 11 c – eb – g – bb + major 9 = d
+ perfect 11 = f

Written as Cm 7 11 or Cm 11. This means that the 7 and 9 probably are the
adds in the chord. Because de 11 is a perfect interval , it appears in
diminished and augmented ( = #11 ) form.
Example: C 7 9 #11 c – e – g – bb + major 9 = d
+ augmented 11 = f#

7.4 The 13 ( like the 6 ) is a major or minor interval.

Example: C∆9 13 c – e – g – b + major 9 = d
+ major 13 = a

Example: C7 – b9 – b10 – b13 c – e – g – bb + minor b 9 = db

+ minor b10 = eb
+ minor b13 = ab

This chord is also called: C7 alt ( altered ).

All added notes in altered form are present ( not a but ab etc.)
Exercises for Chapter 7:

1: What are the notes of the following chords:

a: D7 9/Bbm7 9/C7b10/F#7 #9
b: B7b9/Eb7 -9/Gm7 9/ Aø 9
2a: What is the 13: c – f – bb – g – a – d
b: What is the 11: b – eb – ab – e – c# - gb
c: What is the b13 on: see a
d: What is the #11 on: see b
7  
 
 Chapter 8
Lets get into modes: pentatonic ( 5 )
hexatonic ( 6 )
octotonic ( 8 )
chromatic ( 12 )

8.1 How is the pentatonic mode built up? You take the major scale and
remove the 4th and the 7th tone: you get major pentatonic.

Example: c–d–e–f–g–a–b–c
c – d – e – – g – a – – c = C pentatonic scale / mode

Because the minor scale is parallel to the major scale, the minor
pentatonic scale is parallel to the major pentatonic scale. So they are the
same notes, but the starting tone is a instead of c.’

When we talk about pentatonic we usually mean minor pentatonic.

Pentatonic is also used a lot in blues / pop music and then the same mode
fits on a lot of chords. With Brazilian / Latin / Jazz you also have this mode
but used differently.

G : Em pentatonic
G7sus : Dm or Am pentatonic
G∆ #11 : F#m or Bm or Em pentatonic
G7 alt : Bbm pentatonic
Gm7 : Gm or Dm or Am pentatonic

With every different chord type other pentatonic modes are possible.
( of course more possibilities exist! )

Example: II V I
Dm7 G7alt C∆#11
| | |
Am pent. B m pent
b Bm pent

8  
 
8.2 An other mode which is used a lot in improvisation is the hexatonic
mode or whole tone mode.
Whole tone means that there is always 1 ( distance ) between the notes.

Example: c – d – e – f# - g# - a# - c

You can see that there are 6 notes. We miss one note (b).
Play this mode on your instrument, and you will see that there is no
beginning or end ( so no root ). There are only two forms of this mode.
Example 1: see above
Example 2: db – eb – f – g – a – b – db
P.S. You can start on every note possible, but there will always be example 1 or 2.

8.3 Only half distances is called chromatic:

c-c#-d-d#-e-f-f#-g-g#-a-a#-b-c ( ascending )
c-b-bb-a-ab-g-gb-f-e-eb-d-db-c ( descending )

Play this mode to and experience the same with the whole tone mode.
No root!!! It fits on all chords but be careful. There only exists 1.

8.4 This brings us to the last mode: 1 – ½ - 1 – ½ etc. / ½ - 1 – ½ - 1 etc.

This is the octotonic mode.

Example 1: c – c# – d# – e – f# – g – a – bb – c
Example 2: c# – d – e – f – g – ab – bb – b – c#
Example 3: d – eb – f – f# – g# – a – b – c – d

As you can see there are 8 notes in a mode so there is one double. Which
one that is doesn’t matter. Is it not a root.
With this mode there are only 3 types and they are used many times in
Jazz and world music soloing .

Solo on a 7 b9 13 chord begin with ½ - 1

Solo on a dim. Chord begin with 1 – ½
About octotonic is a lot more to tell , but we will do that later.

Many other modes exist and are used in the different types of world music.
Eg. Turkish music uses Maqam ‘modes’ and Indian music ‘Ragas’.

9  
 
 Chapter 9
More modes

9.1 The model scale

Ionian C major scale
Dorian d–e–f– g–a–b–c–d
Phrygian e–f– g–a–b–c–d–e
Lydian f –g–a–b–c–d–e-f
Mixolydian g–a–b–c–d–e–f–g
Aeolian A perfect minor scale
Lokrian b–c–d–e–f–g–a–b

Each of these scales have a specific quality in their sound .

Dorian: minor scale but with major 6

Phrygian: minor scale but with minor 2

Lydian: major scale but with augmented 4

Mixolydian: major scale but with minor 7

Aeolian: Is the same as the minor scale

Lokrian: minor scale but with minor 2 and diminished 5

A specific style in Jazz which is based on these scales called Modal Jazz
and it occurs also in many folklore styles of Brazil and other South
American countries. Of course you can use this in any way you want.

Some possibilities are:

Dorian / Phrygian on minor chords
Lydian on ∆ #11 chords
Mixolydian on all dominant 7 chords that belong to the
scale and of course Blues, Baiao and many Nordeste styles.
Exercise for Chapter 9

1. Name the notes of: A Dorian – E Lydian – F# Mixolydian – C# Aeolian –

Bb Lokrian – B Lydian – Eb Phrygian – D Mixolydian - G dorian.

10  
 
 Chapter 10
10.1 Chord progressions are chord connections
There are a few who are used often in Latin music/jazz

II ---------------- V ----------------- I in major ( instead of IV – V – I in pop

Dm7 G7 C∆
SD D T
first replacer

II --------------- V ----------------- I in minor

Dø G7b9 Cm7
SD D T
|
harmonic minor because we want major 3 ( = b ) in the chord
in order to resolve to Cm ( stronger )

10.2 I ----- VI ----- II ----- V ----- I

C∆ Am7 Dm7 G7 C∆ in major
Cm7 Aø Dø G7b9 Cm7 in minor

The Vth degree comes from minor harmonic ( see above )

The VIth degree comes from minor melodic to create a better connection
with Dø ( Ab appearing in natural scale just wouldn’t sound right )

10.3 Dominant chain ( by way of a chain of dominant 7 chords in a row )

V – I – V – I etc.
(I–V)

G7 C7 F7 Bb7 They all resolve. G7 goes to C but because it directly

gets a dominant 7 is I = V

10.4 The secondary dominant . Each dominant 7 chord that isn’t the
actual V belonging to the key.

Example: I --- VI --- II --- V --- I In major

C∆ A7 Dm7 G7 C∆

11  
 
Usually is VI a minor 7 chord but because the relationship VI – II is the
same as V – I, the solution with a major 3 sounds much stronger.

C# --- D
G ---- F
A7 – Dm7

Example: Bb – G7 – Cm7 – F7 or even Bb – G7 – C7 – F7

TD TD TD

10.5 The diminished chord is on de VIIth degree in minor and can be the
replacement for the natural V ( compare G7 b9 and Bdim ).
We use this in ascending and descending chord progressions.

Example 1: Bb – Bdim – Cm7 – C#dim – Dm7 etc.

As you can see now Bdim is the replacement for the secundary V7 en
C#dim for the natural V7.

Example 2: Gm7 – Gbdim - F∆ or Fm7

Now Gbdim the replacement for the natural V7. This chord movement is
used a lot in standards from the Brazilian and Jazz repertoire.

Diminished. chords are also replaced by secundary II – V movements

( = secondary V with a II degree).

Example: Outra Vez by Jobim C6 – C#dim ---------- Dm7 – G7

C6 -– Eø --- A7b9 --- Dm7 – G7
II V

A7b9 is the natural V for Dm and Eø is II.

Exercises with Chapter 10:

1. Which chord progressions you see mentioned here ? Give degrees !

a. Eø – A7b9 – Dm7
b. Gb7 – Cb7 – E7 – A7
c. Eb – C7 – Fm7 – Bb7
d. Bb – Bdim – Cm7 – C#dim – Dm7 – G7 – Cm7 – F7

12  
 
 Chapter 11
11.1 Still some loose ends !
On which chord can you improvise which scale or mode?

∆ chord : major scale / Lydian / minor pentatonic

min7 chord : minor scale ( perfect – harmonic – melodic )
dorian / phrygian / minor pentatonic
min6 chord : dorian / minor pentatonic
ø chord : minor harmonic ( = natural scale, ø = II degree )
minor melodic
dim chord : minor harmonic ( = natural scale, dim = VIII
degree ) octotonic
min ∆ chord : minor harmonic and melodic
7 chord : mixolydian
-----------------
7 9 13 chord : mixolydian / minor pentatonic
7 9 #11 b13 chord : minor melodic ( but a 5 higher )
7 alt. chord : minor melodic ( but a ½ higher )
7 9 #11 b13 chord : hexatonic ( you can also write 7 #11 or 7 b5
chord
7 sus chord : mixolydian / minor pentatonic
7 +5 chord : hexatonic / minor melodic ( but a ½ higher )
∆ +5 chord : minor melodic ( but a minor 3 lower )

11.2 Also some information about form. Every piece of music has a specific
form and in Jazz some form are quite regular but also in Brazilian music you
see in Choro some forms more often:
1. A1 A2 B A C A Classic Choro form
2. A1 A2 B A3 ( 32 bars A = 8, B = 8 ) Rhythm changes or standard form
3. A1 A2
4. A1 A2 B 5.
Blues form ( 12 bars )

13  
 
11.3

Intro: A passage at the beginning of a composition / song

Interlude: A piece in the composition / song that can connect A
or B or a time when people can have a solo.
Coda: End of the composition ( tail )
Tag: A few extra bars at the end of the theme ( = the song ) that
that makes A3 longer than the previous A part. ( Chega de Saudade )
Vamp: A few repeating bars at the end or the beginning of a
song. A lot of times the degrees I – VI – II – V or II – V – III -
VI are used.
D.S al Coda: Go back to S and repeat till the Coda sign, go to the Coda
= end of the composition / song.
D.C.: Da Capo ( = the begin / head of the composition / song ).
Repeat from the beginning

14  
 
 Music examples with the lessons

Chapter 3 ( II – V ) Corcovado
Triste
Beautiful Love
& all other standards

Chapter 6 ( min Boto

Passasrim
Nica’s dream

Chapter 9 ( Alla Brève ) O negocio e amar

Windows

Chapter 10 ( modes ) Berimbau

A Ra
Canto de Ossanha

Chapter 11 ( feel ) sambas

frevo
maracatu

Chapter 12 ( chord progressions ) Hermeto Pascoal

Egberto Gismonti
Andre Mehmari
Toninho Horta

and of course there are many more artists that compose interesting tunes !

15  
 
 Scales / Modes
Major scale :1–1–½-1–1–1–½
Minor scale :1–½-1–1–½-1-1
Minor harmonic : minor scale but with raised 7th tone
Minor melodic : minor scale but with raised 6th and 7th
tone ( ascending )
Modal modes : Ionian = major scale
Dorian = minor scale but with major 6
Phrygian = minor scale but with minor 2
Lydian = major scale with augmented 4
Mixolydian = major scale with minor 7
Aeolian = natural minor scale
Lokrian = minor scale but with minor 2 and
diminished 5
Alterated : scale with all the minor adds in it.
½ - 1 – ½ - 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 ( = minor melodic a ½
higher )
Major pentatonic :1–1–1½-1–1½
Minor pentatonic :1½-1–1–1½-1
Hexatonic : 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 ( whole tone )
Octotonic : 1 – ½ - 1 – ½ - 1 – ½ - 1 – ½ or
:½-1–½-1–½-1–½-1
Chromatic :½-½-½-½-½-½-½-½-½-½-½-½
‘blues scale’ : = minor pentatonic with added #4
This scale doesn’t originally exists because
everyone who plays Jazz uses an other ‘blues
scale’. All ‘blues scales’ are derivative from the
pentatonic mode. The scale above is just one
of the many possibilities.
Phrygian dominant : also called Flamenco scale or the fifth mode of
harmonic minor. Ex: C-Db-E-F-G-Ab-Bb-C

16  
 
 Intervals
Perfect unison ( 1 )
Major / Minor second ( 2 )
Major / Minor third ( 3 )
Perfect fourth ( 4 )
Perfect fifth ( 5 )
Major / Minor sixth ( 6 )
Major / Minor seventh ( 7 )
Perfect octave ( 8 )
Major / Minor none ( 9 )
Major / Minor decime ( 10 )

Augmented Augmented
| |
Major Perfect
| |
Minor Diminished
|
Diminished

Adds

9 b9 b10 11 #11 b13 13

∆7 X X X
dom 7 X X X X X X
min / ∆ X X X
min7 X X X
ø X X x
diminshed X x
∆ +5 X
b5 X
7 sus X X X
6 X X
min 6 X X
17  
 
 Chords
4 –---: m 7 m 7 maj7 maj7 m7 b7 maj7 maj6 maj6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 –---: 5 5 5 5 b5 b5 #5 5 5
m3 3 3 m3 m3 m3 3 3 m3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
m7 dom7 ∆ m/∆ ø dim7 ∆+5 ( 6 ) ( m6)

m = minor ∆= major ø = half.dim A = augmented

Chordprogressions
1: II m7--- V7 --- I∆ in major and minor
2: I --- Vim7 --- IIm7 --- V7 --- I∆ in major and minor
3: V7 --- V7 --- V7 --- V7 etc. dominant chain
4: II becomes V = secundary dominant 5:
Secundary IIm7 – V7 instead of only secunday V7
6: VII dim chord as replacement for V 7:
Tritone replacement ( also for V ) Dm7 – G7 - C∆ becomes Dm7 – D 7 - C∆
b

- G – Db is an augmented 5 , ( 3 whole distances between each other =

tritone )

Music Theory is not a very difficult thing ! It is very logical and everybody
can do it. It is just a lot of information. It takes effort, listening to music a lot.
Having an open mind to all styles of music. Try to listen a lot to classical
music. Start with Bach eg. and work your way up till Schoenberg eg. It will
give you more understanding of how things are built. Search for new cd’s
and start your own collection of music. Not only copy but invest also !
Good luck !

ANNA ELIS DE JONG

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