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Fiber Natural
Fiber Natural
for reinforcements. However, certain drawbacks higher specific properties are one of the major ad-
such as incompatibility with the hydrophobic poly- vantages of using natural fiber composites for ap-
mer matrix, the tendency to form aggregates during plications wherein the desired properties also in-
processing, and poor resistance to moisture greatly clude weight reduction.
reduce the potential of natural fibers to be used as
reinforcement in polymers.
MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE FIBERS
In this article, we shall review the reported work
on various aspects of natural fiber reinforced com- Natural fibers themselves are cellulose fiber re-
posites and address some of the basic issues in de- inforced materials as they consist of microfibrils in
velopment of such composites. an amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicellulose.
These fibers consist of several fibrils that run all
along the length of the fiber. The hydrogen bonds
and other linkages provide the necessary strength
Natural Fibers and stiffness to the fibers.
TABLE I
Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers
Tensile Strength Modulus Specific
Fiber Specific Gravity (MPa) (GPa) Modulus
carbohydrate polymers in the cell wall. Lignocellu- pounding PP/wood composites. It was observed
losics exposed outdoors undergo photochemical that tensile strength varied nonlinearly with rpm,
degradation caused by ultraviolet light. Resistance mixing temperature, and time, indicating that fiber
to biodegradation and UV radiation can be im- length and dispersion need to be optimum to obtain
proved by bonding chemicals to the cell wall poly- enhanced properties.
mers or by adding polymer to the cell matrix.
Dispersion of the Fibers in the Matrix
The incorporation of cellulosic fibers in thermo-
PROCESSING OF THERMOSET
plastics leads to poor dispersion of the fibers due to
COMPOSITES
strong interfiber hydrogen bonding, which holds
Thermosets are processed by simple processing the fibers together. Treatment of the fibers and/or
techniques such as hand layup and spraying, com- use of external processing aids can reduce this prob-
pression, transfer, resin transfer, injection, compres- lem.
sion injection, and pressure bag molding operations. Various processing aids/coupling agents such
A few other methods such as centrifugal casting, cold as stearic acid, mineral oil, and maleated ethylene
press molding, continuous laminating, encapsula- have been used. The concentration of the addi-
tion, filament winding, pultrusion, reinforced reac- tive is approximately 1% by weight of fibers. The
tion injection molding, rotational molding, and vac- stearic acid is highly effective in dispersing, re-
uum forming are being used for composites but use ducing fiber to fiber interaction. Mineral oil func-
of these methods for natural fiber composites is tions as a lubricant that is adsorbed by the fibers
hardly reported. In thermoset polymers, the fibers and this facilitates the disentanglement of individ-
are used as unidirectional tapes or mats. These are ual fibers.
impregnated with the thermosetting resins and then
exposed to high temperature for curing to take place.
FIBER – MATRIX INTERFACE
PROCESSING OF THERMOPLASTIC The incorporation of hydrophilic natural fibers in
COMPOSITES polymers leads to heterogeneous systems whose
properties are inferior due to lack of adhesion be-
The processing of natural fiber thermoplastic
tween the fibers and the matrix. Thus the treatment
composites involves extrusion of the ingredients at
of fibers for improved adhesion is a critical step in
melt temperatures followed by shaping operations
the development of such composites. The treatment
such as injection molding and thermoforming. Fi-
of the fibers may be bleaching, grafting of mono-
ber – fiber interactions as well as fiber – matrix inter-
mers, acetylation, and so on. In addition to the sur-
actions play a crucial role in determining the prop-
face treatment of fibers, use of a compatibilizer or a
erties of such composites. Many times, it is observed
coupling agent for effective stress transfer across the
that these fibers do not function as an effective re-
interface can also be explored. The compatibilizer
inforcement system due to poor adhesion at the fi-
can be polymers with functional groups grafted
ber – matrix interface. Cellulose fibers also tend to
onto the chain of the polymer. The coupling agents
aggregate and therefore the fibers do not disperse
are tetrafunctional organometallic compounds
well in a hydrophobic polymer matrix and thus
based on silicon, titanium, and zirconium and are
pose difficulties in achieving a uniform distribution
commonly known as silane, zirconate, or titanate
of fiber in the matrix. The surface characteristics of
coupling agents. Table III presents the structures,
the reinforcing fiber are important in the transfer-
functional groups, and applications of a few com-
ring of stress from the matrix to the fiber. The pre-
mercial coupling agents. (The coupling mechanism
treatment of the fiber with suitable additives prior
for the silane coupling agent is illustrated in the Ap-
to processing leads to good dispersion and signifi-
pendix.)
cantly improved mechanical properties of the com-
posites.
The properties of the composites are also influ-
MODIFICATION OF NATURAL FIBERS
enced by the processing parameters in the case of
thermoplastic composites. Takase and Shiraishi88 Natural fibers are incompatible with the hydro-
have reported the effect of processing parameters phobic polymer matrix and have a tendency to form short
such as mixing time, rpm, and temperature in com- aggregates. These are hydrophilic fibers and thus standard
TABLE III
Some Typical Representative Commercial Coupling Agents115
Sl. No. Functional Group Chemical Structure Applicable Polymera
exhibit poor resistance to moisture. To eliminate the out by extracting with alcohol or benzene and treat-
problems related to high water absorption, treat- ment with NaOH followed by drying at room
ment of fibers with hydrophobic aliphatic and cyclic temperature.93 Many oxidative bleaching agents
structures has been attempted. These structures such as alkaline calcium or sodium hypochlorite
contain reactive functional groups that are cap- and hydrogen peroxide are commercially used.
able of bonding to the reactive groups in the matrix Bleaching generally results in loss of weight and
polymer, e.g., the carboxyl group of the polyester tensile strength.94 These losses are mainly attributed
resin. Thus modification of natural fibers is at- to the action of the bleaching agent or alkali or al-
tempted to make the fibers hydrophobic and to im- kaline reagent on the noncellulosic constituents of
prove interfacial adhesion between the fiber and the fibers such as hemicellulose and lignin.
matrix polymer.89 –103 Chemical treatments such as Acetylation of jute is reported to impart resist-
dewaxing (defatting), delignification, bleaching, ance to fungal attack and hydrophobicity. The
acetylation, and chemical grafting are used for mod- change in properties is attributed to the decrease in
ifying the surface properties of the fibers and for moisture sorption in the cell walls and blocking of
enhancing its performance. (The mechanisms of the hydroxyl group of the wall components in such
these reactions are discussed in detail in the Appen- a way that enzymes of the wood-degrading micro-
dix.) organisms cannot recognize them as attachable sub-
Chemical modification of natural fibers has been strates. Acetylated jute is considerably more hydro-
reviewed by Rowell.90 Table IV summarizes the var- phobic than unmodified jute.95 The acetylated jute
ious chemical treatments and coupling agents used shrinks much less than unmodified jute when ex-
so far for the modification of the fiber surface. posed to water and thus exhibits improved dimen- short
Delignification (dewaxing) is generally carried sional stability. standard
TABLE IV
Chemical Treatments Used for Modification of Natural Fibers
Fiber Chemical Treatments Coupling Agents/Compatibilizers
Wood flour Succinic acid, EHMA, styrene, urea–formaldehyde, m-phenyl- Maleated PP, acrylic acid grafted
ene bismaleimide, acetic anhydride, maleic anhydride, itaconic PP, Silane A-174, Epolene C-18,
anhydride, polyisocyanate, linoleic acid, abietic acid, oxalic acid, Silane A-172, A-174, and A-1100,
rosin PMPPIC, zirconates, titanates
Jute Phenol– formaldehyde, malemine–formaldehyde, cardanol–
—
formaldehyde
Sisal NaOH, isocyanate, sodium alginate, N-substituted methacrylam-
—
ide
Pineapple p-phenylene diamine —
Banana Sodium alginate —
Coir Sodium alginate, sodium carbonate —
Chemical modification through graft copolymer- shell liquid – formaldehyde improved the wettabil-
ization provides a potential route for significantly ity of jute fibers and reduced the water regain prop-
altering their physical and mechanical properties. erties. Treatment with cardanol – formaldehyde
Chemical grafting involves attaching to the surface was also found to reduce water absorption and im-
of a fiber/filler a suitable polymer with a solubility proved the mechanical properties of a jute/polyole-
parameter similar to that of the polymer matrix, fin composite.37 The chemical treatment of jute fibers
which acts as an interfacial agent and improves the with ethylenediamine and hydrazine results in for-
bonding between the fiber and the matrix. Graft co- mation of complexes with the hydroxyl group of the
polymerization of vinyl monomers such as methyl cellulose and thus reduces the moisture absorption
methacrylate, acrylamide, and acrylonitrile onto cel- of the fiber.46,47
lulose, cellulose derivatives, and lignocellulosic fi- Samal and Ray102 have studied the chemical mod-
bers has been well established and has been exten- ification of pineapple leaf fiber using alkali treat-
sively studied over the past few decades.96 – 98 ment, diazo coupling with aniline, and cross-linking
Impregnation with monomer followed by its po- with formaldehyde and p-phenylenediamine. These
lymerization has also been one of the most common chemical treatments resulted in significant improve-
methods used for treatment of fibers. Samal and co- ments in mechanical properties, chemical resistance,
workers99 have reviewed various methods of graft and reduced moisture regain. A study by Yap et
copolymerization onto cellulose fibers. Graft copo- al.103 has shown that the treatment of wood with
lymerization onto cellulose takes place through an vinyl monomers improved termite and funogal re-
initiation reaction involving attack by macrocellu- sistance and they also imparted flame retardancy to
losic radicals on the monomer to be grafted. The polymer wood composites.
generation of the macrocellulosic radicals is accom-
plished by a variety of methods such as (1) diazo-
tization, (2) chain transfer reactions, (3) redox reac-
tions, (4) photochemical initiation, and (5) Mechanical Properties of
radiation-induced synthesis.
The effect of treatments with other chemicals, for
Natural Fiber Composites
instance, sodium alginate and sodium hydroxide,
has been reported for coir, banana, and sisal fibers The properties of natural fiber reinforced com-
by Mani and Satyanarayan.100 The treatment re- posites depend on a number of parameters such as
sulted in an increase in debonding stress and thus volume fraction of the fibers, fiber aspect ratio, fi-
improved the ultimate tensile strength up to 30%. ber – matrix adhesion, stress transfer at the interface,
Basak et al.39 have reported that treatment of jute and orientation. Most of the studies on natural fiber
with polycondensates such as phenol – formalde- composites involve study of mechanical properties short
hyde, malemine – formaldehyde, and cashew nut as a function of fiber content, effect of various treat- standard
ments of fibers, and the use of external coupling ester composites, it was noted that the mechanical
agents.104– 108 Other aspects include the prediction of properties were dependent on the secondary chem-
modulus and strength using some well-established ical bonding between jute fiber and polyester.45 San-
models for two-phase systems and comparison with adi et al.76 have studied the mechanical properties
experimental data.104 of sunhemp fiber reinforced polyester. The tensile
Both the matrix and fiber properties are impor- strength and modulus increased linearly with in-
tant in improving mechanical properties of the com- creasing fiber content following the rule of mixtures.
posites. The tensile strength is more sensitive to the The improved toughness was ascribed to the fiber
matrix properties, whereas the modulus is depen- pullout mechanism in the composite. In banana/
dent on the fiber properties. To improve the tensile polyester composites, the improvement in the prop-
strength, a strong interface, low stress concentra- erties was observed only when the fiber weight frac-
tion, fiber orientation is required whereas fiber con- tion was more than 19%. At 30% fiber content, the
centration, fiber wetting in the matrix phase, and flexural strength was 97 MPa and elastic modulus
high fiber aspect ratio determine tensile modulus. was 6.5 GPa.73 Jain et al.78 have studied bamboo/
The aspect ratio is very important for determining epoxy composites up to a volume fraction of 0.85. It
the fracture properties. In short-fiber-reinforced was noted that the composites with banana fiber ex-
composites, there exists a critical fiber length that is hibited better tensile, impact, and flexural strength
required to develop its full stressed condition in the compared with the properties of other natural fiber
polymer matrix. Fiber lengths shorter than this crit- composites.
ical length lead to failure due to debonding at the Ismail and Rosnah79 have studied the curing
interface at lower load. On the other hand, for fiber characteristics of oil/palm fiber reinforced rubber
lengths greater than the critical length, the fiber is composites. It was noted that the presence of bond-
stressed under applied load and thus results in a ing agents prolonged the curing time; however, the
higher strength of the composite. mechanical properties were better due to improved
For, good impact strength, an optimum bonding interfacial bonding as evidenced by SEM studies.
level is necessary. The degree of adhesion, fiber Tobias and Ibarra74 have studied the effect of cure
pullout, and a mechanism to absorb energy are temperature on flexural strength of polyester-based
some of the parameters that can influence the im- composites. The flexural strength increased with in-
pact strength of a short-fiber-filled composite.105 The creasing cure temperature and maximum strength
properties mostly vary with composition as per the was obtained for abaca/polyester composites com-
rule of mixtures and increase linearly with compo- pared to banana/polyester and rice hull/polyester
sition. However, it has been observed that this linear composites. The incorporation of pineapple leaf fi-
dependence on percentage of fiber content does not bers in polyester resulted in an increase of 2.3 times
hold at high percentage (⬎ 80%) of the fiber, prob- in the specific flexural stiffness at 30 wt% content of
ably due to lack of wetting of the fiber surface by the fiber.68 The use of Silane A-172 further improved
the polymer. the properties of the composites.
For sisal/polyester composites, the effect of treat-
ments of fibers with silane, titanate, and zirconate
THERMOSET COMPOSITES
coupling agents and N-substituted methacrylamide
For thermoset composites, the fibers are com- was investigated by Singh et al.56 The treatments re-
bined with phenolic, epoxy, and polyester resins to sulted in improved strength retention properties of
form composite materials. These thermoset poly- the composites and thereby the composites exhib-
mers contain reactive groups, which aid the inter- ited better properties in humid as well as dry con-
face development. The reported work on thermoset ditions. Similar improved moisture resistance was
composites covers the effect of process parameters reported by Bisinda et al.62
such as curing temperature and various treatments For natural rubber composites with sisal fibers,
on the properties of composites. treatment with resorcinol and hexamethylenetetra-
For jute/polyester composites, an increase in mine resulted in a better storage modulus. The re-
modulus and strength was reported up to a volume laxation process for the composites was altered and
fraction of 0.6 followed by a decrease. Further in- the composites exhibited a two-stage relaxation pro-
crease in volume fraction resulted in a decrease in cess corresponding to the matrix and the interface.
the properties, which was attributed to insufficient The process was sensitive to the type of bonding short
wetting of the fiber.44 In another study of jute/poly- agent used.60,61 standard
and PS that contained various amounts of bleached fins are now commercially available. It is reported
pulp.15 that these composites offer advantages of 20% re-
Improvement in the mechanical strength of wood duction in processing temperature and 25% reduc-
fiber filled thermoplastic composites has been tion in cycle time in addition to a weight reduction
achieved with the use of coupling agents. Cellulose of about 30%.113 The composites provide woodlike
fibers treated with vinyl chloride, plasticizers, and appearance without requiring the maintenance. The
an isocyanate produced better adhesion with silane extruded profiles can be used as a wood substitute
coupling agents A-172 and A-174, and A-1100 ex- in various applications such as window systems and
hibited better bonding between the fibers and PVC decking.114
matrix.29– 31 These developments are confined to polymer
The physical properties of silane-treated wood/ composites based on PE, PP, PS, and PVC, for which
PMMA composites were studied by Elvy et al.109 As the processing temperature is about 200⬚C. The real
a result of treatment, the compressive strength was challenge for the scientist is to improve the thermal
found to increase from 180 to 210% for treated wood stability of these fibers so that they can be used with
fiber composites. The increased values of stress are engineering polymers and further the advantage of
attributed to the incorporation of polymer into the both the polymers and the fibers. Thus improved
void spaces in the wood fiber. thermal stability of natural fibers and modification
As discussed earlier, reports on wood fiber com- of fibers for better performance are still an indis-
posites with engineering polymers are scarce. This pensable task for the scientist. Such attempts can
is mainly because of the high processing tempera- widen the applications of natural fiber composites
ture (⬎ 250⬚C) required for processing of engineer-
ing polymers. The influence of the use of jute fibers
on the mechanical properties of ABS has been stud-
ied by Bawadekar and Jog.110 It has been observed
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Appendix
I. Macromolecule of Cellulose
H OH CH2OH H OH CH2OH
O O
HO H H O H OH
OH H H OH H H
H O OH H H O OH H
H H H H
O O
CH2OH H OH CH2OH H OH
n short
standard
H2O2 !: HOO⫺ ⫹ H⫹
IV. Coupling Agents
Cell 9 M ⫹ M Cell 9 M2 R R
Cell 9 M n⫺1 ⫹ M Cell 9 Mn HN HN
Termination N N N N
graft Cl N Cl O N Cl
Cell 9 MDn ⫹ Cell 9 MnD !:
copolymer
short
standard