Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Heterogeneous fixed fleet vehicle routing problem based on fuel and

carbon emissions
Jin Li a, Danping Wang b, Jianghua Zhang c, *
a
School of Management and E-Business, Key Research Institute-Modern Business Research Center, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018,
China
b
School of Business, Shandong Normal University, Ji'nan, Shandong 250014, China
c
School of Management, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong 250100, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, we study an emission-based heterogeneous fixed fleet vehicle routing problem (E-HFFVRP)
Received 1 February 2018 with considerations of fuel and carbon emissions. This problem involves routing a fleet of a fixed number
Received in revised form of vehicles with various capacities to serve a set of customers. It seeks to minimize the objective function,
6 July 2018
which incorporates the fixed expenses and variable costs consisting of fuel consumptions and carbon
Accepted 7 August 2018
Available online 13 August 2018
emissions. It is a new variant of the heterogeneous fixed fleet vehicle routing problem (HFFVRP), in
which a fleet consists of a fixed number of vehicles with different capacities, fixed costs and variable
costs. We formulate this problem with a mixed integer programming model by introducing an approach
Keywords:
Vehicle routing
to calculate fuel and carbon emissions. Moreover, a split-based adaptive tabu search (SATS) algorithm
Freight transportation using an optimal split scheme and an adaptive tabu search algorithm is proposed. Its key features and
Heterogeneous fleet components are designed accordingly. Results of numerical experimentations on two sets of generated
Fuel instances confirm the efficiency and effectiveness of the algorithm.
Carbon emissions © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction about 20%e30% through improved routing decision on when and

In recent years, the energy crisis and global warming have
aroused great concern in the world. To deal with this challenge,
most countries in the world have enacted related carbon polices
such as carbon cap and trade, carbon tax, and carbon quota. EU has
implemented carbon cap and trade since 2005 and imposed carbon
tax from 2012. Thus, how to effectively save energy and reduce
carbon emissions has become the urgent task to address the
world's sustainable development. Transportation has been a major
source of carbon emissions, given the rapid industrial and eco-
nomic development. In China, the carbon emissions of freight
transportation have already accounted for 30% of the total carbon
emissions and the fuel consumption of freight companies is at least
40% of their total costs (Li and Zhang, 2014; Li and Zhang, 2014).
With strict carbon polices and increasing transportation cost, many
companies aim to reduce the carbon emissions and fuel con-
sumptions by optimizing vehicle routing decisions. For example,
Walmart reduced its transport energies and carbon footprint by
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangjianghua@sdu.edu.cn (J. Zhang).
how to visit its distributed stores. Therefore, it is necessary to
incorporate fuel and carbon emissions into classical vehicle routing
problem (VRP) to study a new variant and formulation.
The classical VRP (Dantzig and Ramser, 1959; Dantzig and
Ramser, 1959) focuses on how to minimize the total travel dis-
tance or total costs of all vehicles, which generally has a linear
relationship with distance. However, the routing arrangement of
minimizing the travel distance does not necessarily derive the
optimal solution of minimizing fuel and carbon emissions, because
the fuel and carbon emissions of vehicles are not only related to
distance, but also to various factors such as vehicle weight, speed
and load Turkensteen (2017).
In our paper, we study an emission-based heterogeneous fixed
fleet vehicle routing problem (E-HFFVRP), which extends the
traditional VRP by taking fuel and carbon emissions into account. In
particular, there is a heterogeneous fleet of vehicles to conduct
delivery from one depot to all customers. After finishing the de-
livery, the vehicles will return to the depot. Moreover, the number
of vehicles is limited and each type of vehicles available has
different load capacity, fuel consumption, carbon emission and
fixed cost. The costs of carbon emissions involve the costs of carbon

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.075
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908
pollution and emission reduction under various environmental
policies, such as carbon tax and carbon cap-and-trade mechanism.
Vehicle fixed costs are mainly related with the costs of hiring,
maintenance, depreciation and insurances, etc. The task of the
decision-maker is how to arrange the fleet and routing of these
different vehicles to achieve the minimization of total transport
network costs.
Our study is related to green vehicle routing problem (GVRP),
which is an alternative to regular well-established vehicle routing
models. Literature reviews on GVRP are presented in the papers
such as Lin et al. (2014) and Zhou et al. (2016). GVRP has been used
recently for purposes such as making routing decisions to minimize
fuel consumptions Zhu et al. (2014); Hosseini-Nasab and Lotfalian
(2017) or reduce carbon emissions Niu et al. (2018); Xiao and
Abdullah Konak (2017), recovery and distribution of remanufac-
tured products considering sustainability and green criteria
Soleimani et al. (2018) or routing a capacitated multi-depot dis-
tribution system Jabir et al. (2017).
As a typical GVRP, the pollution routing problem (PRP) is also an
extension of the traditional VRP and has a broad objective function
that accounts for carbon emissions. It was first introduced by
Bektas and Laporte (2011), and then some effective approaches are
developed to solve this problem, such as adaptive large neighbor-
hood search Demir et al. (2012) and disjunctive convex program-
ming Fukasawa et al. (2016). Some other variants of PRP are paid
more attention in the literature such as the time-dependent PRP
Franceschetti et al. (2017), PRP with multiple conflicting objective
functions Suzuki (2016), pickup and delivery PRP Tajik et al. (2014)
and PRP with uncertain demand and travel time (Eshtehadi et al.
(2017). However, in practical business activities, outsourcing has
been widely used. Outsourcing carriers may have limited number of
heterogeneous vehicles, each type with different capacities, fixed
costs, fuel consumptions and carbon emissions. This is so called E-
HFFVRP, which is to study how to arrange the routing of fixed
number of vehicles from the depot to a series of customers to
minimize a total cost consisting of fixed costs, fuel and carbon
emissions.
Another related problem is heterogeneous fixed fleet vehicle
routing problem (HFFVRP), which routes a fixed number of vehicles
from the depot to visit all customers with minimizing the overall
fixed and variable costs. To address HFFVRP, different heuristics and
metaheuristics have been developed, such as adaptive memory
programming metaheuristic Li et al. (2010), tabu search algorithm
Branda ~o (2011), and lifted polynomial size formulations Leggieri
and Haouari (2017). However, different with our problem,
HFFVRP did not consider the effect of fuel and carbon emissions on
vehicle routing arrangement.
One closely related literature is from Zhang et al. (2015), whose
focus is on a capacitated vehicle routing problem to minimize the
sum of fuel cost, carbon emission cost and the vehicle usage cost. By
contrast, our study is centered on an E-HFFVRP to minimize not
only the variable costs of fuel and carbon emissions but also fixed
costs. Hence, the study of E-HFFVRP in this paper is a new extension
of VRP in (Zhang et al. (2015), and is quite different from them as
well. To the best of our knowledge, E-HFFVRP has not yet attracted
much attention in the extant literature and an appropriate method
that addresses this problem remains unexplored.
Existing literature review shows that pure HFFVRP without fuel
and carbon emissions is well studied. However, low-carbon trans-
portation and logistics are paid more attention recently by gov-
ernments and customers. To fill this gap, in this paper, we present
the E-HFFVRP that integrating both economic and environmental
impacts. To reduce fuel consumptions and carbon emissions of
vehicle routing, we use a comprehensive approach to calculate the
897
amount of fuel and carbon emissions. Traditional approaches usu-
ally use a linear function with respect to travel distance or vehicle
load. In contrast, our approach takes into account the effects of not
just travel distance but also lots of other factors, such as vehicle
weight, load and speed. Moreover, we propose a mixed integer
programming model for the E-HFFVRP, and adapt adaptive memory
programming to develop a split-based adaptive tabu search (SATS)
algorithm. A few promising characteristics of this algorithm are
introduced to improve its computational performance. In partic-
ular, the algorithm incorporates an optimal split scheme and an
adaptive tabu search algorithm. The optimal split scheme is applied
to generate the adaptive memory, and the adaptive tabu search
algorithm is used to improve each temporary solution.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2
introduces an approach of calculating the fuel and carbon emis-
sions, and then describes the E-HFFVRP model. In Section 3, the
algorithm named SATS is presented. Its main features and different
components are given in detail. In Section 4, results of numerical
studies on two sets of test problems are shown to illustrate the
efficiency of the proposed algorithm and analyze the effect of split
strategy. Finally, Section 5 summarizes the final conclusions.
2. Mixed integer programming model
2.1. Problem description
The notations of E-HFFVRP are given as follows. We assume
that G ¼ ðV; EÞ is a digraph, V ¼ f0; 1; /; ng is the nodes set, and
E ¼ fði; jÞji; j2V; isjg is the arcs set between each pair of nodes. The
depot denoted by node 0 contains different types of vehicles, and
other n nodes constitute a customer set C ¼ f1; 2; /; ng.
x ¼ f1; 2; /; Kg is the set of vehicles and j ¼ f1; 2; /; Mg is the set
of vehicle types. For each m2j, the vehicle capacity is Qm , and the
fixed cost is Fm . The fuel cost per unit is Cf , and the emission cost
per unit fuel is Ce . The number of vehicle type m is fixed and equals
P
to Nm . Therefore, the total number of vehicles is M m¼1 Nm . For each
customer i2C, its demand to be delivered from the depot is qi . For
each arcði; jÞ2E, dij is assumed to be a non-negative distance.
Given above conditions, the objective function of the E-HFFVRP
is to minimize the sum costs of variable expenses (fuel consump-
tions and carbon emissions) and fixed expenses, by determining a
vehicle scheduling strategy. Unlike the HFFVRP, which only focuses
on the economic costs, the E-HFFVRP considers both the economic
and environmental costs (i.e. fuel cost and carbon emission cost) in
its objective function.
2.2. Calculation of fuel and carbon emission costs
Carbon emissions of vehicles depend on a number of factors
Sundarakani et al. (2010), such as transport mode, fuel type, fuel
consumption, and travel distance. For practical reasons, we intro-
duce an emission calculation approach for road transport from
Hoen et al. (2010). The total carbon emissions on an arc ði; jÞ are
assumed to be EMij , which is related to FCij and the fuel emission
factor (FE). Thus, it can be calculated as follows:
EMij ¼ FE$FCij (1)
where FE is defined as a gram of CO2 emitted per liter of fuel, i.e., the
efficiency of converting the fuel into carbon emissions, which is
affected by vehicle type, fuel type and other factors.
The traditional calculation of fuel consumption is a linear
function of travel distance, which is not in line with industry ap-
plications. Instead, we adopt a comprehensive fuel consumption
898 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908

model as reflected in Bektas and Laporte (2011) that considers more

precise factors, including vehicle load, speed, and distance as X
n X
K
xm
0jk  Nm ; cm (9)
shown in the following.
j¼1 k¼1
h   i
FCij ¼ aij w þ zij þ bv2ij dij (2)
X
M X
K X
M X
K
qj xm
ijk  zij  ðQm  qi Þxm
ijk ; ci; j (10)
where vij is a vehicle's average speed on an arc ði;jÞ; L ¼ w þ zij is the m¼1 k¼1 m¼1 k¼1
total vehicle load, w denotes the empty vehicle weight, and zij is a
 
vehicle's load on this arc; aij represents an arc-dependent constant  
X  
related to acceleration, road angle, etc.; and b is a vehicle-specific xm
ijk  S  1; S3V\f0g; Ssf; cm; k (11)
constant that depends on the vehicle frontal surface area, air den- i;j2SS  
sity, and rolling resistance.
h
In terms of Eq. (2), the total cost TCij that consists of fuel con-
xm m
ijk 2f0; 1g; yik 2f0; 1g; zij 2 0; þ∞Þ; ci; j; m; k (12)
sumptions and carbon emissions is shown as follows:
  The objective function (4) has two parts. The first part measures
TCij ¼ cf þ ce FCij (3) the total variable costs of fuel consumptions and carbon emissions.
The second part measures the total fixed costs for vehicles.
Table 1 summarizes some symbols and values (ranges) used in Constraint (5) ensures that every customer can only be visited by a
the E-HFFVRP model and experiments. To be consistent with vehicle once. Constraint (6) and (7) define that every customer
practical applications, these data are derived from one large logis- enters and leaves one vehicle exactly once. Constraint (8) is the
tics company in China and some related literature Bektas and capacity limitation of vehicles. Constraint (9) imposes a limitation
Laporte (2011); Zhang et al. (2015). on the number of each vehicle type. Constraint (10) guarantees that
the vehicle's load on an arc ði; jÞ cannot exceed its remaining ca-
pacity. Constraint (11) is used to eliminate sub-loops. Constraint
2.3. Model formulation (12) defines xm , ym , and Zij as decision variables; Given a vehicle k of
ijk ik
type m and arc ði; jÞ, xm
ijk
¼ 1 if and only if the vehicle of type m
Given above analysis and integer programming approaches Wu
passes through arc ði;jÞ, otherwise, xm
ijk
¼ 0, Given a vehicle k of type
et al. (2010); Wu and Zhou (2015), we formulate E-HFFVRP as a
mixed integer programming model below: m and node i, ym ik
¼ 1 if and only if this vehicle visits node i, other-
wise it is 0. Given an arc ði; jÞ, the load zij  0 if it is visited by a
X
M X
K X
n n 
X h   i vehicle, otherwise zij ¼ 0.
min Cf þ Ce aij w þ zij þ bv2ij Þdij xm
ijk
m¼1 k¼1 i¼0 j¼0;jsi

X
M X
K X
n 3. Metaheuristic for the E-HFFVRP
þ Fm xm
0jk
m¼1 k¼1 j¼1 Since the E-HFFVRP is a new extension of the classical VRP, a
(4) metaheuristic algorithm should be used to solve this NP-hard
problem. Based on the general framework of adaptive memory
programming procedure Olivera and Viera (2007), a split-based
M X
X K
ym adaptive tabu search (SATS) algorithm that incorporates an
s:t: ik ¼ 1; cis0 (5)
m¼1 k¼1 optimal split scheme and embedded adaptive tabu search algo-
rithm is proposed. To facilitate the presentation, we define the
following notations: a is the adaptive memory that comprises some
X
n
xm m
ijk ¼ yjk ; cj; m; k (6) solutions; b is the set of temporary solutions constructed based on
i¼1 a at each iteration; nb is the number of temporary solutions found
at each iteration; xi is the ith solution in b; x0i is the ith improved
X
n solution for xi ; xcb is the best solution obtained in the current
xm m
ijk ¼ yik ; ci; m; k (7) iteration; xgb is the global-best solution obtained from the start of
j¼1
the algorithm; and nb is the number of best solutions in the current
iteration. In order to help the readers understand the whole picture
X
n
of the proposed algorithm, the basic structure of the SATS is shown
qi ym
ik  Qm ; ck; m (8) by a flow chart in Fig. 1.
i¼1
The steps of SATS are described in the following. First, a is set to
store the E-HFFVRP solutions, which are denoted as sequences
without delimiters and then organized by a split algorithm. To
enhance the diversification strategies, the solutions in a are
Table 1
selected in probability to generate temporary solutions in each
Symbols representation referred in the E-HFFVRP model.
iteration step. Next, an adaptive tabu search (ATS) is used to
Symbols Descriptions Values (ranges) improve each temporary solution. To better utilize the search
cf Fuel cost per liter (CNY) 7.30 memory and history, several best improved solutions are selected
ce Emissions cost per liter (CNY) 0.64 to update a. The above steps are repeated until the maximum
FE Fuel emissions factor (kilogram/liter) 2.32 number of iterations IM is satisfied. Finally, after the main loop, a
vij Average arc speed (kilometers/hour) 40e100
post-optimization procedure (POP) is added to further improve the
aij Arc specific constant 0.09e0.15
best solution. Specifically, the algorithmic framework of SATS
 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908 899

W contains weights of arcs. The weight wij 2W reflects the trans-

portation cost (condition (15)).

X
j
cði; jÞ2A : qSk  Qm (13)
k¼iþ1

Nam ¼ Nm  Num  1 (14)

cði; jÞ2A : wij

Fig. 1. Flow chart of the SATS.
incorporates an optimal split algorithm and an adaptive tabu search
as shown in Algorithm 1 in Appendix.
3.1. Solution denotation and split
Most solution denotations for the VRP regard the depot as the
route's delimiters. For example, the tour (0-1-2-3-0-4-5-0) repre-
sents the sub-route (0-1-2-3-0) and (0-4-5-0). Instead, we simply
denote a solution tour as a sequence S composed of n customer
without delimiters, such as the above tour (0-1-2-3-0-4-5-0) be-
comes (1-2-3-4-5). This denotation approach can transform VRP
into a simpler traveling salesman problem. On the other hand, it is
essential to split S into sub-routes to evaluate the solution. Some
splitting procedures have been proposed to compute the fitness,
such as Christian (2004), but they did not consider the effect of fleet
composition, limited number of vehicles and the computation of
fuel and carbon emissions. Accordingly, we develop an improved
optimal splitting procedure called Optimal Split (OS) to derive the
best E-HFFVRP solution corresponding to the denotation sequence.
The main idea of OS is that for any kind of optimal tour split, the
remaining tour split is also optimal when subsequent several sub-
routes are removed. OS works on an auxiliary graph H ¼ ðN; A; WÞ,
where N includes n þ 1 nodes indexed from 0 to n; A contains route
arcs, for any arc ði;jÞ2A, i < j, if one vehicle of type m traversing Siþ1
to Sj is in existence satisfying vehicle load (condition (13)) and
number limitation (condition (14), where Nam is the number of type
m vehicles available, Num is the number of type m utilized vehicles);
!
  X
j1
¼ cf þ ce FC0;Siþ1 þ FCSk ;Skþ1 þ FCSj ;0 þ Fm
k¼iþ1
(15)
Therefore, an optimal E-HFFVRP solution expressed by S is
actually the minimum cost route r from 0 to n. Let qmin ¼

minfqSk k ¼ 1; 2; /; ng, and the number of customers traversed by
a sub-route is not more thana ¼ bQ m =qmin c. Then, route r can be
derived within OðmnaÞ using OS.
Algorithm 2 in Appendix presents a detail description of OS.
Algorithm 2 computes several labels for each node j2N\f0g: V½j is
the cost of the minimum cost route from node 0 to node j; P½j
denotes the predecessor of node j on this route; T½j is the type of
vehicle used on this route; and Nm ½j, cm2j, is the number of
available vehicles of type m on this route. In step 2, the “do while”
loop enumerates all feasible sub-sequences Si ; /; Sj with different
types of vehicles to find the min-cost route and directly update
these labels. If the label of the last node is updated, the final total
cost is expressed as V½n. However, some un-routed customers may
remain at the end of the iterations.
Algorithm 2 does not generate the E-HFFVRP solution explicitly.
Thus, Procedure 1 in Appendix is used to extract the E-HFFVRP
solution from vectors of labels Pand T. For each route shown as a list
of customers, Procedure 1 starts with putting each customer node
in one route and thus initializes n routes and labels of vehicle type.
If a route is empty at the end of the algorithm, then the route does
not belong to the solution. The number of routes used is computed
by the counter t. The insertion cost cki of route rðkÞ including
customer i is calculated by the following formula:
  
cki ¼ cf þ ce FCi1 ;i þ FCi;i2  FCi1 ;i2 (16)
where i1 and i2 are the predecessor node and successor node for a
given insertion location, respectively. Each un-routed customer in R
is put into one of the available routes with minimum insertion cost.
As the vehicle capacity is not considered, infeasible solutions may
be generated. As a diversification strategy, SATS allows cross-border
search between feasible and infeasible spaces to improve the
quality of the final solutions.
3.2. Solution evaluation
SATS allows exploring the infeasible solutions, which means
that there might exist a solution of violating the vehicle capacity.
We define a penalty function FðxÞ to evaluate a solutionx.
X
K
FðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ þ pli (17)
i¼1
where f ðxÞ represents the original objective value of solution x; K
denotes the number of vehicles used; li is the load excess in vehicle
(or route) i; and p is a penalty term.
900 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908
3.3. Adaptive memory initialization and temporary solutions
generation
In the initial stage of SATS, a is composed of various solutions.
Let am be the size of a. We generate random permutation of
customer nodes as initial solutions. Then, these solutions are ar-
ranged in descending order and put in a. First, Each solution x is
assigned with a triple ðfðxÞ; f ðxÞ; FðxÞÞ, where fðxÞ is the total load
excess value of the capacity in x. Second, there are three possible
cases in which these solutions are sorted: (1) When x1 and x2 are
both feasible, x1 has a higher level than x2 if and only if f ðx1 Þ < f ðx2 Þ;
(2) when x1 is feasible and x2 is infeasible, x1 has a strictly higher
level than x2 ; (3) when x1 and x2 are both infeasible, x1 has a higher
level than x2 if and only if Fðx1 Þ < Fðx2 Þ. Note that if f ðx1 Þ ¼ f ðx2 Þ or
Fðx1 Þ ¼ Fðx2 Þ, x1 and x2 is chosen randomly to be assigned with a
higher level.
A multi-start strategy is used to enhance diversification and thus
increase the probability of generating better solutions, that is, nb
solutions in a are probabilistically selected to be temporary solu-
tions at each iteration. As mentioned above, a solution with a higher
level is more likely to be selected in probability. Hence, the prob-
ability of selecting the ith solution is defined as pi ¼ ðns  i þ 1Þ=n2s ,
where ns represents the total number of available solutions in a. In
terms of the solution level in a, the first solution with the highest
level is certain to be selected, and the final one with the lowest level
has least selection probability.
3.4. ATS for solution improvement
An improvement-based procedure is applied to improve all
solutions in b and push to their local optima. We use an ATS as a
solution improvement procedure in SATS. Some related notations
in the ATS are listed as follows: i0 represents the iteration counter of
no improvement in current best feasible or infeasible solution; iL is
the limit of i0 in the current cycle; q is the tabu tenure; d is the
number of nearest neighbors of a customer; IA is the total limitation
number of iterations; FS FD ,FW and FO are the frequencies of the
neighborhood operators of single, double, swap and 2-opt,
respectively. A typical feature of ATS is that it can adaptively adjust
several key parameters with search evolution, such as the tabu
tenure and the frequencies of the neighborhood operators. In
particular, once the search reaches to the middle of the cycle (iL =2)
or the end of the cycle (iL ), accordingly, the ATS changes some
parameters (qdFS FD FW FO ) to enhance the diversification. POP and
restart strategy are also used to achieve the intensification. The
outline of the ATS is described in Algorithm 3 in Appendix.
3.4.1. Neighborhood structure
In a tabu search algorithm, the degree and quality of solution
search are determined by neighborhood structure. We use three
intra-route neighborhood operators (single insertion, double
insertion and swap) and one inter-route neighborhood operator (2-
opt). We limit the search of these operators by d  neighborhood
restriction to reduce the number of potential moves at each itera-
tion, which thus not only saves the computing time but also drives
the search to find better solutions. For any node s2S, we define its
d  neighborhood Nd ðsÞ as the set of the d nodes on the tour that is
closet to s with respect to the total costs. This concept was proposed
and used by Gendreau et al. (1994). However, the main difference
with them is that the d in our algorithm varies with the search
evolution, that is, the initial d is very small and increases gradually
during the search evolution.
The single insertion removes a customer Si from one tour and
inserts it into various positions in another tour that contains at least
one of the Nd ðSi Þ. The double insertion removes any pair of cus-
tomers ðSi ; Sj Þ from one tour and inserts them into any different
position of another tour that has at least one of the Nd ðSi Þ or Nd ðSj Þ.
The swap allows a customer node Si from one tour to be exchanged
with a customer node Sj from another tour while satisfying that at
least one customer in route j falls inNd ðSi Þ. For the 2-opt, non-
adjacent arcs ðSi ; Siþ1 Þ and ðSj ;Sjþ1 Þare replaced by ðSi ; Sj Þ and ðSiþ1 ;
Sjþ1 Þ in the same tour, and then the direction of the sub-tour ðSiþ1 ;
/; Sj Þ which has at least one of the Nd ðSi Þ or Nd ðSjþ1 Þ is reversed.
3.4.2. Tabu status and tabu tenure
To avoid local cycling, we don't allow recent solutions found to
be used in the next q iterations and put some relevant attributes of
these solutions into a tabu list. For each action that generates a new
solution, the inverse action will be taboo in subsequent q iterations
and is then inserted into the tabu list. The status of an operator is
required that a customer removed from a position of a tour cannot
go back to it during the tabu tenure. The tubu tenure is changed
systematically as the search evolution. Due to the fact that the tabu
restriction may prohibit promising moves, a common aspiration
criterion is used if the move action produces a better solution.
3.4.3. Restart and shaking
As tabu search algorithm is easy to fall into local optimal, to
address this problem, restart and shaking is often used to obtain
better solutions. By changing parameters, restart can make a good
tradeoff between intensification and diversification. The restart of
our algorithm is done from the best-so-far solution xgb if no
improvement is found within iL iterations. Furthermore, to escape
local optimum at the end of the search, it is necessary to shake the
best known solution and reach better solutions. Shaking technique
is often used when the search falls into local optimum within a
given neighborhood structure. In our implementation, a random
move is performed on the current neighborhood by randomly
executing one of the three movements: GENI, US Gendreau et al.
(1994) and 2-opt.
3.5. Adaptive memory update
After the solution improvement procedure ATS is implemented,
several poor solutions are removed from a and replaced by the
improved solutions. First, we select nb (nb < nb ) best solutions from
nb improved solutions according to the following conditions: (1)
The feasible solution should be selected in advance when feasible
and infeasible solutions are all available; (2) When only feasible
solutions are derived, we select the one with the least objective
value; and (3) When only infeasible solutions are generated, we
select the one with the least penalty value. Then, these solutions are
assigned and sorted with the triple given in Section 3.3. Finally, the
nb worst solutions in a are deleted and replaced by the same
number of best solutions with assigned order level.
3.6. POP
At the end of the ATS or SATS, in order to promote intensifica-
tion, we use a POP to further improve the best found solution.
Similar to those operators in the shaking stage, GENI, US, and 2-opt
are also executed. However, they are not used by random selection,
instead they are implemented in sequence using the best-accepted
criterion, i.e., they search the entire neighborhood of the solution
space to find the best improvement.
 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908 901

4. Numerical experiments dependent on number of customers. Some parameters will be

4.1. Benchmark problems
SATS is programmed in C language and executed on a PC with
Intel Duo CPU 2.26G, 2G of RAM, under Windows 7. This paper is
the first attempt to use instance to test the E-HFFVRP. The sets of
benchmark problems in existing papers are unable to be used.
Hence, we plan to test the performance of SATS by designing two
sets of benchmark problems, whose configurations for the E-
HFFVRP are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Set 1 is generated in Table 2
based on Taillard (1999), which comprises eight problems labeled
from 13 to 20. Six vehicle types labeled from A to F are given. In Set
1, we generate the number of customers according to the integers
between 50 and 100.
We also generate a new set of benchmark problems, i.e., Set 2 in
Table 3, which are composed of eight problems denoted by P1eP8
with the number of customers ranging from 150 to 300. All cus-
tomers for each problem are located in a Euclidean plane. The co-
ordinates ðxi ; yi Þ of customer i (i ¼ 1; 2; /; n) are randomly
produced in square interval ½0; 1002 in a uniform distribution,
where (30, 60) represents the depot. We set the demand of a
customer as any integer randomly selected in interval (Zhou et al.,
2016; Christian, 2004). The fleet contains six types of vehicles: A, B,
C, D, E, and F. In the headings of Tables 2 and 3, VT and VP represent
the vehicle type and property respectively. For vehicles of type i, bi
is a vehicle-specific constant, and r0 is the ratio of total demand and
total capacity, i.e., (total demand/total capacity)  100. According to
the characteristics of these two sets of problems, they have
important implications in the resolution.
4.2. Parameter tuning
In SATS, how to set some key parameters has a great impact on
the algorithmic performance. Some characteristics in ATS are in line
~o (2011). Thus,
with that in an algorithm for solving HFFVRP Branda
previous knowledge is used to tune the value of several ATS pa-
rameters, such as qd, and the frequencies of the neighborhood op-
erators. For other parameters setting, an F-Race approach is used to
automatically achieve the best configuration of SATS in a set of
experiments. The F-Race can set some evaluation metrics and then
automatically derive the best configuration of an algorithm through
preliminary experiments (Birattari, 2005) (Birattari, 2005). The
tuning results indicated that the parameter combination settings
work well in our proposed algorithm.
In order to ensure that the SATS performance is consistent with
the size of the problem, most of the parameters are set to be
varied adaptively with the search evolution of the algorithm to
induce diversification. The initial q is defined to be n=2 according to
a set of experiments. In the middle of the cycle, the q should be
reduced to allow intensification. However, at the end of the cycle,
current solutions in the search space cannot be improved, and q
should be added to drive the search toward more distant spaces.
Therefore, for a cycle, we set q ¼ maxðq=2; 6Þ in the middle, and at
the end, we change it to be q ¼ minð2q þ 3; 0:6nÞ.
Similar with the setting of the tabu tenure, we change d with the
search evolution as well. A set of experiments showed that the
initial d must be small. Here, it is set as d ¼ 1. In the middle of the
cycle, it is set as d ¼ minðd þ 1;n  1Þ. And at the end of the cycle, no
better solution could be found. To enhance diversification in the
search space, d is desirable to increase, and thus we set it as d ¼
minðd þ 2;n  1Þ. According to our previous experiments, the value
of p(penalty term) was set as follows: At the initial stage, it equals to
Pn
i¼1 qi =100n. If ten successive iterations all generate infeasible
solutions, then p ¼ 2p. If ten successive iterations all generate
feasible solutions, then p ¼ p=2.
Finally, we study how to set appropriate frequencies of four
neighborhood operators. According to the degree of conversion to a
solution, the four neighborhood operators are sorted from low to
high as follows: single insertion, swap, double insertion, and 2-opt.
With multiple iterations, single insertion can result in the same
conversion caused by the other two operators (swap and double).
Therefore, single insertion should be used most frequently. Since
double insertion and swap can produce similar conversions, they
should not appear in the same iteration. Through a set of trials, we
have the following frequencies of the operators: At the beginning of
the cycle, FS ¼ 1, FD ¼ 10, and FW ¼ 5; in the middle of the cycle,
FD ¼ 5, FW ¼ 10, and FO ¼ 0; at the end of the cycle, FD ¼ 0, FW ¼ 2,
and FO ¼ 6.
According to our experiments, good values used for other pa-
rameters are set and summarized as follows:
pffiffiffi
(1) IA ¼ 100 n;
(2) Initially iL ¼ 1.5n, and at the end of the cycle, iL ¼ iL þ0.5n;
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
(3) am ¼ 10n, nb ¼ n, nb ¼ n=2, IM ¼ 3000 n.
4.3. Numerical results
4.3.1. Effect of split strategy
In this paper, we use a novel optimal split strategy in the pro-
posed algorithm, SATS. We conduct an experiment based on the
given parameters of configuration tuning to assess the quality of

Table 2
Data for the testing problems of Set 1.

VT VP Problem VT VP Problem

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

n 50 50 50 50 75 75 100 100 n 50 50 50 50 75 75 100 100

r0 95.39 88.45 94.76 94.76 95.38 95.38 76.74 95.92 r0 95.39 88.45 94.76 94.76 95.38 95.38 76.74 95.92

A QA 20 120 50 40 50 20 100 60 D QD 70 350 150

FA 20 100 100 100 25 10 500 100 FD 120 320 180
NA 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 6 ND 4 1 2
bA 0.54 2.67 1.59 0.73 1.59 0.54 2.60 1.84 bD 1.91 4.05 3.05
B QB 30 160 100 80 120 50 200 140 E QE 120 250
FB 35 1500 250 200 80 35 1200 300 FE 225 400
NB 2 2 3 4 4 4 3 4 NE 2 1
bB 0.70 3.13 2.60 2.11 2.67 1.59 3.37 3.01 bE 2.67 3.70
C QC 40 300 160 140 200 100 300 200 F QF 200 400
FC 50 3500 450 400 150 100 2100 500 FF 400 800
NC 4 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 NF 1 1
bC 0.73 3.75 3.13 3.01 3.37 2.60 3.75 3.37 bF 3.37 4.14
902 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908

Table 3
Data for the testing problems of Set 2.

VT VP Problem VT VP Problem

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8

n 150 150 200 200 250 250 300 300 n 150 150 200 200 250 250 300 300

r0 88.53 95.43 96.40 93.90 88.15 95.77 95.52 94.29 r0 88.53 95.43 96.40 93.90 88.15 95.77 95.52 94.29

A QA 80 100 150 100 60 120 200 150 D QD 200 400 350 300 250 300 350 300
FA 300 350 400 320 200 340 600 410 FD 550 2200 1500 1200 750 1100 1800 1200
NA 4 3 4 2 6 5 3 5 ND 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 2
bA 2.11 2.60 3.05 2.60 1.84 2.67 3.37 3.05 bD 3.37 4.14 4.05 3.75 3.70 3.75 4.05 3.75
B QB 120 160 200 160 120 160 250 200 E QE 250 400 350 300 350 400 400
FB 350 500 550 450 350 500 800 600 FE 600 2100 1800 1200 1600 2100 2100
NB 4 3 3 4 4 5 3 3 NE 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
bB 2.67 3.13 3.37 3.13 2.67 3.13 3.70 3.37 bE 3.70 4.14 4.05 3.75 4.05 4.14 4.14
C QC 150 300 300 250 200 200 300 250 F QF 350 350 400
FC 500 1500 1200 800 510 560 1500 850 FF 2200 1600 2100
NC 3 3 3 3 2 4 3 3 NF 1 2 1
bC 3.05 3.75 3.75 3.70 3.37 3.37 3.75 3.70 bF 4.05 4.05 4.14

the optimal split strategy. The experiment is conducted by per-
forming four versions of SATS with different split strategies as
follows: (1) SSA-SATS, a SATS with a simple split strategy in which
available vehicles of different types are assigned in ascending order
of capacity; (2) SSD-SATS, another simple split strategy in which
available vehicles of various types are assigned in descending order
of capacity; (3) RS-SATS, where a random split strategy is imple-
mented, i.e., available vehicles of different types are assigned at
random; and (4) OS-SATS, where the proposed optimal split
strategy is considered in SATS. Table 4 summarizes the comparison
results of testing problems in Set 1 and Set 2. For each instance, we
run four algorithms each 20 trials, and present the average value of
the best solutions in the column labeled “Average” along with the
related CPU average time used in computing the algorithm. For the
last three columns, the column entitled DevA (%), DevD (%) and
DevR (%) shows the percentage deviations of OS-SATS from SSA-
SATS, SSD-SATS, and RS-SATS, respectively. Furthermore, suppose
SðOSÞ is the optimal solution found with OS-SATS, and SðADRÞ
represents the solution value produced by one of the other three
split-based algorithms. Then, the percentage deviation is calculated
as 100ðSðADRÞ  SðOSÞÞ=SðADRÞ.
As shown in Table 4, from both solution quality and computa-
tional efforts, the optimal split strategy outperforms the other split
strategies. Moreover, the optimal split strategy is able to discover
the best solution in nearly all instances. The average deviations
from the other three split strategies are significant from 4.98% to
10.11% for Set 1 instances and from 2.93% to 12.92% for Set 2 in-
stances. In particular, the average deviation from the random split
strategy is above 10%. Moreover, when the split strategy is used, the
computational time required to obtain the best solutions is not
significantly increased. These figures suggest that the optimal split
strategy can be used to obtain good-quality solutions. Therefore,
the optimal split strategy should be adopted in the SATS to derive a
better balance between computational time and solution quality.
4.3.2. Comparison of SATS with other algorithms
In this subsection, we carry out simulation experiment to show
the performance of SATS by comparing it with some existing al-
gorithms. For SATS, we also use the best parameter settings
selected in the above sections. The selected algorithms include a
pure tabu search and two methods used in HFFVRP as follows:
(1) TS: a tabu search algorithm, which is similar to ATS, except
that it use saving algorithm rather than the split-based
procedure to construct initialization solution. Its termina-
tion condition is also the maximum number of iterations,
pffiffiffi
3000 n.
(2) BATA: a back-tracking adaptive threshold accepting meta-
heuristic Tarantilis et al. (2004), which was implemented on
MS Visual Cþþ, Pentium II, 400 MHz, 128 MB RAM.

Table 4
The effect of split strategy in SATS.

Instances SSA-SATS SSD-SATS RS-SATS OS-SATS DevA (%) DevD (%) DevR (%)

Average CPUs Average CPUs Average CPUs Average CPUs

13 2081.12 100 2085.96 109 2211.47 113 2065.96 95 0.73 0.96 6.58
14 11121.32 107 10192.37 105 11444.35 118 10034.51 98 9.77 1.55 12.32
15 2604.07 113 2591.58 108 2690.05 110 2520.39 90 3.21 2.75 6.31
16 2675.01 98 2658.66 104 2652.51 107 2631.22 89 1.64 1.03 0.80
17 2050.64 149 1991.98 153 2192.88 161 1825.06 143 11.00 8.38 16.77
18 2921.95 153 2859.11 160 3178.75 154 2723.14 151 6.80 4.76 14.33
19 11248.84 236 11455.49 227 11778.69 231 10215.39 225 9.19 10.83 13.27
20 4474.95 215 4493.63 208 4538.69 209 4060.80 206 9.25 9.63 10.53
Average 6.45 4.98 10.11
P1 12822.67 314 15005.69 290 15296.87 285 12950.24 283 0.99 13.70 15.34
P2 14386.42 326 16320.36 313 16318.78 328 13668.71 307 4.99 16.25 16.24
P3 21527.50 447 23377.88 435 23412.30 427 21273.17 416 1.18 9.00 9.14
P4 21384.31 412 22302.72 405 24760.75 410 20837.67 397 2.56 6.57 15.84
P5 23439.18 491 25400.64 462 24239.18 481 21658.77 446 7.60 14.73 10.65
P6 24509.41 524 26456.88 482 27030.09 497 23053.85 468 5.94 12.86 14.71
P7 26428.75 655 28060.79 624 28991.76 628 25985.84 611 1.68 7.39 10.37
P8 31338.07 673 34714.78 637 35043.96 649 31175.32 633 0.52 10.20 11.04
Average 2.93 11.34 12.92
 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908 903

(3) MAMP: a multistart adaptive memory programming met-

CPUs/Tflop
aheuristic (Li et al., 2012; Li et al., 2010), which was
implemented on MS Visual Cþþ, Intel CPU 2.2G.

287/14350
200/10000
110/5500

148/7400
119/5950
As the algorithms of BATA and MAMP have been tested on

34/1700
46/2300
99/4950
benchmark problems Set 1, we use Set 1 to conduct an experi-
ment for all algorithms. Note that different algorithms are
executed on different computer environments. To offer a fair
MAMP

comparison, we measure the computational speed in ten millions

Best

of floating-point operations per second (Tflop/s) based on Don-

10194.17
garra tables Dongarra (2006) as follows: Pentium IId8 Tflop/s,
1945.06
9710.34
2362.29
2473.69
1731.02
2467.35

4015.58
Intel 2.2Gd50 Tflop/s, Intel 2.26Gd55 Tflop/s. All benchmark
problems found through 20 runs of SATS and TS are compared.
Table 5 presents detailed results of the experiment. For each pair
of instance and algorithm, this table includes the best solution
(Best) and the computational time (CPUs/Tflop) obtaining the
CPUs/Tflop

1156/9248
843/6744
387/3096
368/2944
341/2728
363/2904
971/7768
428/3424

best solution over 20 trials. Furthermore, for SATS, we also show

the total number of vehicles (NV) available and the number of
vehicles generated in the best solutions (Vehicles). Table 6 shows
the relative deviations between the best solution of each algo-
rithm (Best) and the best solution found by all these four algo-
rithms (BSA). The percentage deviation is computed as 100(Best
10210.61
1990.05
9755.32
2362.29
2510.63
1739.19
2472.82

4037.54
BATA

eBSA)/Best.
Best

As shown in Tables 5 and 6, we can conclude the following

observations. Generally, SATS has a good performance on the
benchmark problems Set 1. Specifically, SATS can improve the
best solution of other methods to most testing problems except
CPUs/Tflop

283/15565
271/14905
120/6600
129/7095
115/6325
122/6710
167/9185
175/9625

problems 16 and 19. MAMP obtains the best solution on problem

16. For problem 19, both SATS and MAMP have the same ability to
find the best solution. In addition, SATS has a stable performance
because the average percentage deviation is the smallest, that is,
0.0109%. These values for TS, BATA and MAMP are 1.5976%,
1.3217% and 0.6287%, separately. Moreover, the vehicles used in
10213.57
1986.33
9757.88
2376.56
2541.86
1738.22
2488.68

4035.25

SATS are fewest in available vehicles for many instances, such as

Best

14, 17 and 18. Finally, on average, the computing time for SATS is
TS

faster in CPU seconds, but a bit lower in the measurement of

floating-point operations. This finding means that SATS can
significantly and efficiently reduce the transportation cost and
CPUs/Tflop

241/13255
238/13090

carbon emissions in industry operations.

103/5665
112/6160

101/5555
158/8690
163/8965
97/5335

Our study provides some managerial and application insights.

First, due to the environmental policies emerged in the recent
decades, such as carbon tax and carbon cap and trade mechanism,
which are costly in practical transportation and distribution, lo-
gistic service providers should bring environmental factors (such
10194.17
1920.31
9670.36
2358.49
2475.85
1683.63
2458.04

4012.80

as fuel and carbon emissions) into the routing arrangement to

SATS
Comparison results of different algorithms on benchmark instances.

carry out an environment-friendly transportation. The proposed

Best

method can optimize their operational decisions and help them

reduce their environmental costs effectively. Second, we still
consider the special cases of our model, which seek to minimize
the economic costs and carbon emissions respectively. We find
Vehicles

that there exists tradeoff relationship between economic costs

17

10
12

13
6
9
9

and carbon emissions. For the logistic service providers, it is

valuable to use the proposed method to reduce the carbon

Table 6
NV

17

11
14
10
13
7
9
9

The percentage deviations of each algorithm from the best solution of all algorithms.

Instances BSA SATS TS BATA MAMP

13 1920.31 0 3.3237 3.5044 1.2725

100
100
50
50
50
50
75
75

14 9670.36 0 0.8969 0.8709 0.4117

n

15 2358.49 0 0.7603 0.1609 0.1609

16 2473.69 0.0872 2.6819 1.4713 0
17 1683.63 0 3.1406 3.1946 2.7377
18 2458.04 0 1.2312 0.5977 0.3773
Instances

19 10194.17 0 0.1899 0.1610 0

Table 5

20 4012.80 0 0.5563 0.6127 0.0692

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Average 0.0109 1.5976 1.3217 0.6287

904 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908
emissions at the minimal costs. Finally, from this paper, the policy-
maker can know how to formulate and adopt effective govern-
mental polices to affect the environmental performance of the lo-
gistic service providers. For example, sufficiently higher carbon
price may reduce the carbon emissions at a lower degree, but
depress the logistic firms by increasing more economical costs.
5. Conclusion
In light of growing concerns about global warming, all modern
industries are starting to increase their investment in reducing fuel
consumptions and carbon emissions. To achieve this objective, the
transportation industries should optimize vehicle routings by
focusing on minimizing variable costs (fuel and emission) and fixed
costs. Accordingly, we studied the emission-based heterogeneous
fixed fleet vehicle routing problem (E-HFFVRP) with reducing fuel
and carbon emissions. A mixed integer programming model was
built along with introducing an approach of calculating fuel and
carbon emissions. A split-based adaptive tabu search algorithm is
proposed, which combines an optimal split procedure with an
adaptive tabu search. A vehicle routing is denoted as a sequence
without delimiters. The split algorithm is then used to extract an
optimal solution from the sequence. In addition, an adaptive tabu
search (ATS) is embedded in SATS to improve the solution. We
generated different sets of instances to evaluate the effectiveness of
SATS. Then, some parameters are tuned systematically based on
previous knowledge and F-Race procedure. We tested this algo-
rithm on a series of problems. The results showed that optimal split
strategy could be incorporated to enhance the performance of SATS,
and the SATS can effectively search for high quality solutions on the
given instances.
Although the SATS algorithm yields good results in the given test
instances, some limitations should be noticed. Firstly, since the E-
HFFVRP is an NP-hard problem, if the data structure of the prob-
lems is large dimension and uniform, some additional difficulties
will be imposed on the algorithm. Secondly, in terms of the good
performance of the SATS, we believe that this algorithm can be
adapted to efficiently deal with other VRPs found in real-life, but
several features with the algorithm may be returned, such as tabu
tenure, the frequencies of the neighborhood operators and shaking
mechanism. Moreover, other efficient algorithms will be incorpo-
rated in the solution improvement to solve more difficult problems
with other strong constraints. In the future, we shall test the per-
formance of our algorithm through other large-scale real data.
Acknowledgments
This work was partly supported by a grant from the Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 71571111); Zhejiang Pro-
vincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Foundation of China (Grant
No. 18NDJC180YB); Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. LY17G020005), and the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant Nos. 71302035, 71672179).
The authors also would like to thank the Qilu Young Scholars and
Tang Scholars of Shandong University for financial and technical
support.
Appendix
J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908 905
906 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908
 J. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 201 (2018) 896e908
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