AC vs DC Technologies for Long-Distance Power Transmission

Project no.
:
219123
Project acronym
REALISEGRID
Project title:
REseArch, methodoLogIes and technologieS for the effective
development of pan-European key GRID infrastructures to support the
achievement of a reliable, competitive and sustainable electricity
supply
Instrument: Collaborative project
Thematic priority: ENERGY.2007.7.3.4
Analysis and scenarios of energy infrastructure evolution
Start date of project: 01 September 2008
Duration: 30 months
D1.3.3
Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance
interconnections
Revision: Final
Actual submission date: 2010-03-19
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable:
Technical University of Dortmund
Dissemination Level
PU Public
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services) X
CO Confidential , only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)
Deliverable number: D1.3.3
Deliverable title: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections
Work package: WP1: Performances and costs of innovative grid technologies
Lead contractor: Technical University of Dortmund (TUDo)
Quality Assurance
Status of deliverable
Action By Date
Verified (WP-leader) Athanase Vaféas, TECHNOFI 2010-03-19
Approved (Coordinator) Gianluigi Migliavacca, ERSE (former CESI RICERCA) 2010-03-19
Submitted
Author(s)
Name Organisation E-mail
Sven Rüberg TU Dortmund sven.rueberg@tu-dortmund.de
Arturs Purvins JRC - Institute for Energy Arturs.purvins@ec.europa.eu
Abstract
The present report gives a brief technological introduction to long-distance power transmission based on both HVAC
(High Voltage Alternating Current) and HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) transmission technologies. Furthermore,
experiences in the operation of long-distance power transmission lines from other large scale networks, like those
ones in North America, South America, India, China, Russia and Africa, are evaluated to derive proposals for the
usage of HVAC and HVDC technologies for long distances within Europe. A special consideration is given to the
parallel operation of HVAC and HVDC systems and their mutual impact on system security. In addition, the impact of
an increased power infeed from Renewable Energy Sources (RES), in particular wind plants, on power transmission in
Europe and the potential of long-distance power transmission to help solving related system issues are also
described.
D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................................. 7
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 9
2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 13
2.1 Objectives of this deliverable..................................................................................... 13
2.2 Expected outcome ...................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Approach .................................................................................................................... 14
3 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF LONG-DISTANCE POWER TRANSMISSION...... 17
3.1 Traditional HVAC transmission ................................................................................ 17
3.2 HVDC transmission ................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Practical solutions for long-distance power transmission.......................................... 23
3.4 Parallel operation of HVAC and HVDC.................................................................... 24
3.4.1 HVAC and HVDC links in the same right-of-way ........................................ 24
3.4.2 HVDC link within a synchronized HVAC power grid .................................. 24
4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS ON LONG-DISTANCE

POWER TRANSMISSION .................................................................................................. 27
5 LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION PROJECTS IN OPERATION TO-DATE............. 31
5.1 North America: United States of America and Canada ............................................. 32
5.1.1 Pacific Intertie ................................................................................................ 34
5.1.2 Square Butte ................................................................................................... 34
5.1.3 CU .................................................................................................................. 35
5.1.4 Intermountain Power Project.......................................................................... 36
5.1.5 Quebec-New England .................................................................................... 37
5.2 South America............................................................................................................ 37

5.3 India ........................................................................................................................... 41
5.3.1 Rihand-Delhi .................................................................................................. 43
5.3.2 Chandrapur-Padghe........................................................................................ 44
5.3.3 East-South Interconnector II .......................................................................... 44
5.3.4 Ballia-Bhiwadi ............................................................................................... 45
5.4 China .......................................................................................................................... 45
5.4.1 Gezhouba-Nanqiao......................................................................................... 48
5.4.2 Tianshengqiao-Guangzhou............................................................................. 48
5.4.3 Three Gorges-Changzhou .............................................................................. 49
5.4.4 Three Gorges-Guangdong .............................................................................. 50
5.4.5 Guizhou-Guangdong ...................................................................................... 51
5.4.6 Three Gorges-Shanghai.................................................................................. 52
5.4.7 Guizhou-Guangdong II .................................................................................. 53
5.5 Russia ......................................................................................................................... 53
5.6 Africa ......................................................................................................................... 55
5.6.1 Cahora-Bassa.................................................................................................. 56
5.6.2 Inga-Shaba...................................................................................................... 57
5.6.3 Caprivi Link ................................................................................................... 57
5.7 Lessons learnt from the operational experience described ........................................ 58
6 FUTURE TRENDS OF LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION WITHIN EUROPE ........ 59
6.1 Green energy power balance...................................................................................... 59
6.2 Green energy power import ....................................................................................... 61
6.2.1 Desertec Foundation....................................................................................... 61
6.2.2 OffshoreGrid initiative ................................................................................... 63
6.3 Proposals for long-distance transmission in Europe .................................................. 65

7 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................... 69
8 REFERENCES...................................................................................................................... 71

ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS
AC Alternating Current
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CSC Current Source Converter
CSP Concentrating Solar thermal Power
DC Direct Current
EHVAC Extra High Voltage Alternating Current
EHVDC Extra High Voltage Direct Current
ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
EU European Union
EUMENA European Union, Middle East, North Africa
HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
LCC Line-Commutated Converter
RES Renewable Energy Sources
TREC Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation network
TSO Transmission System Operator
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
VSC Voltage Source Converter
XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The present report aims at describing the two key technologies of power transmission, i.e. High
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) and conventional High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC)
transmission, as well as their applicability and limitations in power transmission over long
distances, where in this context the term “long distance” refers to overhead lines with a length
longer than approx. 500 km.
Between 1962 and 2009, a total transmission capacity of 47.6 GW for long-distance HVDC power
transmission has been installed worldwide, mainly to connect remote hydro and coal-fired power
plants to the load centers. 50% of this transmission capacity has been constructed after the year
2000, while in 2009 additional 26.5 GW of new long-distance HVDC transmission capacity were
under construction. These numbers underline the high growth rate of installed HVDC transmission
systems which has been observed in the last years. This is obviously due to the technical and
economical benefits that come along with HVDC in long-distance power transmission compared to
conventional HVAC transmission technologies. In addition, since HVDC is a relatively new
technology, the growth rate of HVDC systems in power transmission is expected to remain steady
or even rise in the next years due to the results of research activities in this field. In particular, the
development of higher current and voltage ratings of self-commutating switching devices will open
up new fields of application for Voltage Source Converter (VSC)-based HVDC (VSC-HVDC) in
bulk-power transmission.
Today, existing long-distance HVDC transmission systems are primarily in use for the point-to-
point interconnection between remote power generation (mainly hydro and offshore wind power)
and highly urbanized areas (e.g. Los Angeles, Mumbai, and Shanghai). Almost all long-distance
HVDC transmission systems in operation to-date are overhead lines, for the most part carrying
between 1500 and 3000 MW of active power over distances between 500 and 1500 km. Most of the
lines are bipolar with two conductors and with DC voltages in the range of ±500 kV (+500 kV in
one conductor and -500 kV in the other, with respect to ground). Two converter stations are needed
at both ends of the line. The generated power at the sending end is converted from HVAC to HVDC
for lower transmission losses on the line and converted back from HVDC to HVAC at the receiving
end, where the transmitted power is supplied to distribution grid. The main reasons of bipolar
transmission are zero earth-current flows, when both poles are symmetrically loaded, and a higher
reliability: if an outage appears in one pole, the healthy pole can continue to deliver approximately
half of the rated power using the earth return path or a dedicated metallic low-voltage return in case
the earth return path is not licensable for environmental concerns.
The main purpose of the existing HVDC long-distance transmission systems described is bulk-
power transmission from the sending end to the receiving end of the line, hence, from areas with
high generation but low load to areas where additional power support is needed. The main choice
reasons for HVDC instead of conventional HVAC transmission are lower transmission losses on the
line, environmental advantages (higher power density per ground unit), and the positive impact on
the stability of the existing network. In the case of the interconnection of two asynchronously
operated AC networks and the interconnection between two AC networks with different
frequencies, HVDC constitutes the only feasible solution.

Main operational experience is described for the CU link 1 , Pacific Intertie and Square Butte (North
America), Itaipu (Brazil), Tianshengqiao-Guangzhou, Guizhou-Guangdong, Three Gorges-
Changzhou and the Three Gorges-Guangdong (China) HVDC transmission projects. Additionally,
flashover reliability records are presented for the Rihand-Delhi (India) and Gezhouba-Nanqiao
(China) projects. Some forced outages, which appeared in the first years of operation, were
prevented mainly by modifying the apparatus. The described problems in the operation of HVDC
systems in China were mainly caused by apparatus malfunction due to deficient design and
manufacturing. The quantity of forced bipolar line outages is relatively small, if compared with
monopolar faults.
The average energy availability of the existing HVDC lines as a function of time tends to rise after
the first 10 years of operation and remains relatively constant afterwards. The overall average
energy availability between 1993 and 2004 is approximately 94.3%. 2 Scheduled energy
unavailability increases for the facilities older than 20 years, perhaps indicating that a higher level
of maintenance is required for older HVDC systems. Approximately two thirds of the forced energy
unavailability of HVDC transmission systems around the world in the time period from 1983 to
2006 are caused by failure of AC and/or auxiliary equipment of the HVDC system in service.
Due to the geographical location and other causes, each of the lines in the following has its own
specific features. Quebec-New England is a multi-terminal HVDC transmission system with the
possibility to supply power from the middle of the line. Itaipu has the highest voltage level of
±600 kV, but long-distance overhead HVDC lines with higher voltages up to 800 kV are under
construction in China at the time of writing. The Zhengping converter station of the Three Gorges-
Changzhou project is exposed to very heavy industrial pollution. Therefore, the electrical insulation
has to be higher than conventional, all high-potential DC equipment is installed indoors, and all the
DC neutral equipment is installed outdoors. Because of the extreme line length and the difficult
logistics along the route, the Inga-Shaba project is composed of two monopolar lines (in contrast to
one bipolar line) in electrically parallel connection. The Caprivi HVDC system is the first system
worldwide that uses VSC-HVDC for long-distance power transmission in combination with
overhead transmission lines.
From the operational experience of the existing HVDC transmission systems described, it can be
seen that HVDC transmission technologies are essential in efficient long-distance electrical bulk-
power transmission: its low losses and its smaller environmental impact made it the preferred
choice over conventional HVAC transmission. In addition, the experiences gained from the
operation of HVDC transmission projects for years and the reliability records presented underline
the feasibility and reliability of HVDC for long-distance transmission. HVDC transmission can
therefore be a feasible option for the necessary upgrade and expansion of the European transmission
grid in order to ensure a stable integration of RES in the future.
1
CU stands for the names of the first owners – Cooperative Power Authority and United Power Authority
2
Analysis of 51 HVDC transmission systems. Not only long-distance systems are included.

An alternative to the long-distance HVDC transmission system for decreasing energy losses on a
long-distance AC line is the EHVAC technology (Extra High Voltage Alternating Current),
featuring a higher voltage level than traditional AC transmission systems. The first link of the
1150 kV EHVAC transmission system in the world was commissioned in 1985 in the Republic of
Kazakhstan between power substations in Ekibastuz and Kokshetaus. In total, the 1150 kV AC line
connects the following cities: Itat, Barnaul, Ekibastuz, Kokshetau, Kostanay and Chelyabinsk.
actually, step-down transformer substations were installed only on Kazakhstan territory. Therefore,
the energy transmission at voltage level of 1150 kV is only possible between Ekibastuz, Kokshetau
and Kostanay, while the remaining part of the system operates at 500 kV.
Due to environmental and political drivers, the future generation mix in Europe will contain a
considerable share of renewable energy resources, such as offshore and onshore wind energy from
the north-west Europe and solar energy import from North Africa and the Middle East. Solar power
plants with the possibility of radiation accumulation using molten salt technologies ensure a stable
power supply all 24 hours of day. Using HVDC technologies, an efficient energy transmission of
this green power to South-Eastern and Central Europe is possible. HVDC transmission can also be
used for green-power balance within Europe by transmitting the wind power from places with high
wind and low load to places with low wind and high load.
Ongoing feasibility studies, such as Desertec and OffshoreGrid, have shown that an HVDC overlay
grid can help TSOs to cope with the issue of long-distance bulk-power transmission as it is foreseen
to arise with the increased integration of renewable energy sources (RES). In addition, this report
provides some elements related to ongoing pilot initiatives, such as Kriegers Flak, the North Sea
Offshore Grid project, and the Mediterranean Energy Ring on power transmission in Europe.

2 INTRODUCTION
Today, the field of electrical power generation and transmission is in a deep transforming phase.
Driven by the public and political will to accomplish the nuclear-power phase-out, to responsibly
utilize conventional sources of generation (such as nuclear energy, lignite, and coal), to reduce
obnoxious gas emission, in particular carbon dioxide (CO2), and therefore to promote the
exploitation of Renewable Energy Sources (RES), the need of electrical power transmission over
long distances from remote RES to the load centers all over Europe increases. Furthermore, the
deregulation of the European electricity market puts additional pressure on the power grid: extra
transmission capacities have to be allocated by Transmission System Operators (TSOs) to allow for
a pan-European power trade. While the power grid was originally designed for the exchange of
reserve power in emergency situations only, the above stated changes result into an operation of the
power grid that is closer to its thermal and stability limits than ever before.
2.1 Objectives of this deliverable

The present report deals with the comparison of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC)
technologies for long-distance interconnections. Experiences from other large scale networks, like
those ones in North America, South America, India, China, Russia, and Africa are evaluated to
derive suggestions and benchmark solutions for the usage of the AC and DC technologies for long
distances within Europe. A special consideration is given to the parallel operation of AC and DC
systems and their mutual impact on system security. In addition, this report gives an outlook
towards the impact of feasibility studies, such as OffshoreGrid and Desertec projects on the one
hand, and elements related to ongoing pilot initiatives, such as Kriegers Flak, the North Sea
Offshore Grid project and the Mediterranean Energy Ring on the other hand, on power transmission
in Europe.
2.2 Expected outcome

This report provides and compares the technical key facts of HVAC and HVDC power transmission
as well as the operational experience that has been gained from existing long-distance transmission
projects in operation to-date. Hence, this report provides assistance in finding feasible technical
solutions to long-distance power transmission problems that are foreseen to arise within the
European continent. On this background, possible future installations of AC or DC long-distance
transmission lines are suggested.
In order to lay a profound theoretical basis, Chapter 3 provides the fundamentals of power
transmission over long distances. In particular, the key factors that limit the active power transfer
and the transmission distance are presented for both HVAC and HVDC power transmission.
Furthermore, economic, environmental and political considerations on long-distance power
transmission are given in Chapter 4 to enable for a widespread analysis of possible transmission
solutions. In Chapter 5, experience that has been gained from the operation of long-distance

transmission projects throughout the world complements the theoretical basis laid in Chapters 3 and
4. Finally, the impact of the increased use of RES and of feasibility studies, such as OffshoreGrid
and Desertec projects on the one hand, and elements related to ongoing pilot initiatives, such as
Kriegers Flak, the North Sea Offshore Grid project, and the Mediterranean Energy Ring on the
other hand, on the future role of long-distance transmission within Europe are presented in
Chapter 6. Also, the future trend in the construction of a long-distance transmission infrastructure is
described. Finally, Chapter 7 recaps the main points addressed and provides elements for the way
forward.
2.3 Approach
The information and the data presented in this deliverable are based on internal knowledge and
experience of the REALISEGRID authors as well as on the technical and scientific literature
available on long-distance transmission. In particular, the reliability survey of HVDC transmission
systems throughout the world, which is published every two years by the Study Committee B4 of
the International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE), has been a key source for the
reliability assessment that is conducted within the present report. In addition, public documents,
sources, and links to ongoing feasibility studies (e.g. OffshoreGrid), initiatives (e.g. Desertec) and
projects that are under realization (e.g. North Sea Offshore Grid and Kriegers Flak) in Europe have
been consulted and compared in order to have a broad and consistent picture on the need for long-
distance power transmission to promote the consequent use of RES.
The close interrelation of this report with the REALISEGRID Deliverables:
• D1.1.1 (“Synthetic description of performances and benefits of undergrounding

transmission”),
• D1.2.1 (“Improving network controllability by FACTS and by HVDC transmission

systems”),
• D1.2.2 (“Improving network controllability by coordinated control of HVDC and FACTS

devices”) and
• D1.4.1 (“List of promising innovative grid technologies”)
is stressed.

3 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF LONG-DISTANCE POWER
TRANSMISSION
The transmission of electrical power through a transmission channel is subject to physical

phenomena. This Chapter describes the physical models and principles behind electrical power
transfer through an electrical transmission line using the examples of conventional HVAC and
modern HVDC technologies. The corresponding restrictions and limitations that electrical
transmission system operators are confronted with during operation will be presented. In this
context the term “long distance” refers to lines with a length longer than approx. 500 km.
3.1 Traditional HVAC transmission
ES ER
jX
I
SS SR
(a) Simplified line diagram
ES
jX I
ϕ ER
I
(b) Phasor diagram
Figure 1: Model of transferring electrical power through an electrical transmis-

sion line in AC systems [1]
Figure 1(a) shows a diagram of electrical power transfer through a transmission channel in which
the complex power S S is transmitted from the sending end to the receiving end in order to balance
the complex load S R . The line reactance X corresponds to the series impedance of the simplified
representation of an electrical over-head transmission line in which the shunt capacities (and also
the line resistance) have been neglected for the sake of simplicity. E S and ER represent the
complex busbar voltages at the sending and the receiving end, respectively, where ER is assumed
to be real-valued, i.e. E R = ER ∠0° (see Figure 1(b)). I is the complex line current.
With
∗
S R = E R I =: PR + jQR (3.1)
and
E S − ER
I= , (3.2)
jX
it can be easily obtained that the complex power SR at the receiving end of the line equals
ES sin(δ ) + j[ ES cos(δ ) − ER ]
S R = ER , (3.3)
X
more precisely
ER ES
PR = sin(δ ) (3.4)
X
and
ER ES cos(δ ) − ER2
QR = . (3.5)
X
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 1(b).
Similarly, it can be found that at the sending end of the line

ES E R
PS = sin(δ ) (3.6)
X
and
ES2 − ES ER cos(δ )
QS = . (3.7)
X
Equations (3.4) to (3.7) indicate that with δ = 0 no active power can be transferred through the line.
In case ES > ER , QS and QR are positive and reactive power is transmitted from the sending to the
receiving end of the line. If ES < E R , then QS and QR become negative, i.e. reactive power is
flowing from the receiving end to the sending end of the line [1]. For both cases, Figure 2 shows the
corresponding phasor diagram for δ = 0 . The reactive power loss Qloss on the transmission line is in
this case

( ES − ER ) 2
Qloss = QS − QR = = XI 2 . (3.8)
X
jXI
I
ER ES
- jXI
I
ES ER
(a) ES > E R (b) ES < E R
Figure 2: Phasor diagrams for δ = 0 (after [1])
From the above results, it can be derived that transmission of lagging current, i.e., the transmission
of positive reactive power from the sending to the receiving end, causes a voltage drop in receiving
end voltage. Similarly, the transmission of leading current, i.e. the transmission of negative reactive
power from the sending to the receiving end, causes a voltage raise in receiving end voltage. In
another way of interpreting, this means that the transmission of reactive power (for δ = 0 ) mainly
depends on the difference between the voltage magnitudes at the ends of the line. Furthermore, it
can be noted that a transmission line consumes reactive power, which is equivalent to reactive
losses on the line.
In any case, the transmission of reactive power through a transmission line causes a variation of
voltage at the opposite end of the transmission line. This voltage variation is proportional to the
transmitted current, i.e. the transmitted reactive power, and the inductive reactance X of the line
which is proportional to the transmission distance. Since for a stable system operation this voltage
variation needs to be kept within specified limits, the amount of reactive power that can be
transmitted decreases with increasing transmission distance.
Considering now δ ≠ 0 and ES = ER = E , it is possible to derive from equations (3.4) to (3.7) the
expressions that now are
E2
PS = PR = sin(δ ) (3.9)
X
and
E 2 [1 − cos(δ )] 1 2
QS = −QR = = XI . (3.10)
X 2
Since ES − ER = 0 , no reactive power is transferred through the line 3 . With δ > 0 , active power
flows from the sending to the receiving end. With δ < 0 , the direction of active power flow
3
This is true only for E=0 or δ=0.

reverses. The reactive power loss Qloss on the line is equally balanced by each end of the
transmission line.
From these observations, the following conclusion can be drawn that with positive δ , active power
is transferred from the sending to the receiving end. Similarly, with negative δ , active power is
transferred from the receiving to the sending end. This leads to the finding that the transfer of active
ES ER
R jX
I
SS SR
Figure 3: Simplified line diagram considering ohmic resistance
power mainly depends on the load angle δ .
Taking a more detailed representation of the transmission line that now also considers the ohmic
series resistance R (see Figure 3) and allowing any possible values of δ ≠ 0 , ES and ER , it can be
found that the active and reactive losses on the transmission line Ploss and Qloss , respectively, can be
expressed as a function of the power transfer PR and QR by
PR2 + QR2
Ploss = RI 2 = R (3.11)
ER2
and
PR2 + QR2
Qloss = XI 2 = X , (3.12)
E R2
while again taking advantage of equation (3.1).
From equations (3.11) and (3.12), it can be deduced that an increasing active power transfer PR
results into increasing both reactive and active losses on the line, and with increasing reactive power
transfer QR , both active and reactive losses on the line increase. Furthermore, equations (3.11) and
(3.12) show that for a given transmission power, the losses on the line can be reduced by increasing
the operating voltage ER and hence decreasing the line current I .
The above stated deductions provide the basic framework for the engineering practice of long-
distance power transmission. Since the line reactance X and the ohmic series resistance R are
proportional to the transmission line length, for long lines X and R will take high values which in
turn lead to the following constraints in long-distance power transmission: With increasing
transmission line length
(1) the reactive power demand of the line increases, see equation (3.8);
(2) the voltage drop on the line (due to the increasing reactive power demand) may
lead to unacceptably low voltages at the receiving end of the line, see equation
(3.8);
(3) both reactive and active losses on the line increase, see equations (3.11) and
(3.12);
(4) for a given active power transfer PR , the load angle δ may exceed the stability
limit of maximum δ = 30° [2].
Reactive compensation of the line can solve problems (1) and (2) but may exhibit the line to
resonance phenomena which put the stability of the line at risk. Therefore, transmission lines can
only be partially compensated in practice. Problem (3) could be solved by increasing the operating
voltage of the line, but this operating voltage step-up results in increased insulation requirements
that make the transmission line and the downstream equipment uneconomically expensive. Problem
(4) cannot be solved and constitutes a strong restriction in long-distance power transmission that
limits the line length depending on the active power to be transferred through the line.
Taking a slightly compensated 3-phase HVAC line as an example with an operating voltage
ES = 400 kV , a line length l = 1000 km , a typical reactance per unit length X ′ = 0.15 Ω km and a
typical series resistance per unit length R′ = 0.027 Ω km , a more detailed simulation shows that a
maximum of PR = 300 MW can be transferred through this line without exceeding the operational
limits of ER = 400kV ± 10% and δ max = 30° .
3.2 HVDC transmission

For the reason that the line reactance X = ωL is ineffective in direct current systems with ω = 0 ,
only the ohmic series resistance R of the transmission line needs to be considered, see Figure 4.
ES ER
R
I
PS PR
Figure 4: Simplified line diagram of a transmission line in DC systems

With ES and ER being the bus voltages at the sending and the receiving end, respectively, the
system can be described according to the following equations
PS = ES I , (3.13)
PR = ER I , (3.14)
and
ES − E R
I= . (3.15)
R
From equations (3.13) and (3.14), the active power losses Ploss on the transmission line can be
derived as follows:
Ploss = PS − PR = ( ES − ER ) I = RI 2 , (3.16)
while also taking advantage of equation (3.15).
In the above case, the transport of active power through the transmission line does not require any
reactive power or any specific load angle δ . In another way of interpreting, this means that reactive
power cannot be transmitted through a direct current operated transmission line.
From equation (3.15) it can be deduced that the voltage drop ES − ER on the line is proportional to
the line current I and the ohmic series resistance R . It can be concluded that with increasing
transmission line length,
(1) the ohmic series resistance R of the line increases,
(2) the voltage drop ES − ER on the line increases for a given line current I .
The above conclusions constitute the main restrictions in long-distance power transmission by
direct current since for a stable system operation the bus voltages ES and ER need to be kept within
specific limits, i.e. the voltage drop ES − ER may not exceed a specified value. While the line
current I is interrelated to the amount of active power to be transferred through the line,
problem (2) can be solved by taking into account the maximum allowable voltage drop ES − ER
during the design stage of the transmission project: The ohmic series resistance R can be easily
controlled by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor without putting the economic
efficiency of the line at risk. Therefore, HVDC technology is in many cases the most suitable
solution for the transmission of bulk power over long distances.
Taking again the above stated transmission line as a monopolar HVDC transmission example with
an operating voltage ES = 400 kV , a line length l = 1000 km and a typical series resistance per unit

length R′ = 0.009 Ω km , a more detailed simulation shows that a maximum of PR = 1500 MW can be
transferred through the same line without exceeding the operational limit of ER = 400kV ± 10% . 4
3.3 Practical solutions for long-distance power transmission

From sections 0 and 3.2 it has been deduced that with increasing line length and active power to be
transmitted (see also [60]), the most feasible application shifts from HVAC to HVDC. As a
guideline, Figure 5 shows possible transmission technologies for selected transmission projects up
to 1000 MW and 300 km [6]. It clearly indicates that HVAC up to 345 kV represents a feasible
solution for the transmission of small amounts of active power over short and medium distances
only while the fields of application then shift with increasing power to be transmitted and increasing
line length over Voltage Source Converter (VSC)-based HVDC to LCC (Line Commutated
Converter)-based HVDC, also known in literature as line-commutated Current Source Converter
(CSC)-HVDC. In addition, it can be seen that for some transmission tasks the fields of application
of HVAC and HVDC transmission may overlap, and both HVAC and HVDC technologies
constitute a technically feasible solution.
Figure 5: Solutions for power transmission (power against distance, reproduced from [6])
4
In this simulation it is assumed that all 3 conductors of the HVAC line are used in parallel operation in order to form
one HVDC pole.

For transmission projects of more than 1000 MW over distances longer than 300 km, the use of
HVDC transmission technologies (i.e. VSC-based or LCC-based HVDC) constitutes the only
technically, environmentally and economically feasible solution.
3.4 Parallel operation of HVAC and HVDC
3.4.1 HVAC and HVDC links in the same right-of-way
Today, transmission system planners are confronted with the problem of transmission capacity
increase under strict environmental constraints. The regulatory grant of right-of-way for the
construction of new overhead transmission lines is subject to strict regulations. This leads to a
denser utilization of existing transmission routes, often resulting in less interspace between
conductors than technically recommended.
If an HVDC-operated transmission line runs in parallel with an HVAC-operated one in the same
right-of-way, currents of the fundamental frequency will be induced in the DC system. The same
particularly applies when only one out of two or more HVAC-operated transmission circuits on a
tower is converted to HVDC. The fundamental frequency component on the DC side will generate
AC-side harmonics of 0th and 2nd order and higher when transferred through the converter.
Especially the 0th order harmonic, i.e. the DC component of the transferred current, will saturate the
converter transformer and will in turn reinforce already generated 2nd order harmonics. This
phenomenon may put the stability of the HVDC transmission control at risk [3].
It is therefore suggested to evaluate this mutual influence during the planning stage of the
construction or conversion process. Countermeasures such as the provision of dedicated filters on
the main circuit side are advised if needed [3].
3.4.2 HVDC link within a synchronized HVAC power grid
In addition to the positive contribution of HVDC to the transmission capacity increase of a power
grid, which has been described in detail in REALISEGRID Deliverable D1.2.1 ([4]), the wide
literature on research in the field of transmission system stability as well as the experience in
operation of HVDC transmission lines within a synchronized HVAC power grid have shown that
HVDC transmission can be used to influence the dynamic performance of a power system and
thereby augment its transient stability.
In particular, with its ability to provide instantaneous and continuous control of both active and
reactive power independently of each other, embedded self-commutating 5 VSC-HVDC allows for
flexible power flow control in real-time, bottle neck mitigations and optimized power sharing
between HVDC and HVAC transmission lines. In combination with WAMS, VSC-HVDC enables
5
Also known in literature as self-commutated VSC-HVDC.

effective damping control, dynamic voltage support and prevention of undesired power flow
loops [6]. For further information, see REALISEGRID Deliverable D1.2.2 ([5]).
In terms of long-distance power transmission, no negative impacts from the parallel operation of
HVDC systems within a synchronized HVAC power grid is known to date (but the number of such
installations still stays very limited)..

4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS ON
LONG-DISTANCE POWER TRANSMISSION
Long-distance transmission naturally comes along with an appreciable environmental impact since
a complete undergrounding of long transmission lines is economically unfeasible, although in
principle possible in case of HVDC. Long-distance transmission lines are therefore generally
overhead lines that need towers and possess a specific visual profile. However, in relation to
conventional HVAC transmission, the environmental impact can be reduced to the minimum by the
use of HVDC transmission technology due to the lower visual profile of its overhead lines, its
reduced non-pulsating EMF emissions, and its feasibility of cabling not only the entire but also
parts of the transmission line where necessary for environmental, public, or political reasons [4].
The land use can be reduced by 33-50% when choosing HVDC-operated overhead lines instead of
HVAC-operated ones [4]. Especially for these above stated environmental advantages, it is
expected that HVDC transmission is more acceptable to the public than HVAC transmission. Table
4.1 recalls the environmental key facts of both HVAC and HVDC transmission as they have been
presented in detail in REALISEGRID Deliverable D1.2.1 [4].
Land use
System component Voltage level Power rating min Max Unit
2
HVAC OHL, single circuit 400 kV 1500 MVA 40000 60000 m /km
HVAC underground XLPE
400 kV 1000 MVA 5000 15000 m2/km
cable, single circuit
Reactive power compensation
400 kV 1000 MVA 2000 3000 m2
unit for HVAC cable line
HVDC OHL, bipolar ±150..±500 kV 350..3000 MW 20000 40000 m2/km
HVDC underground cable ±350 kV 1100 MW 5000 10000 m2/km
HVDC undersea cable ±350 kV 1100 MW 0 m2/km
HVDC VSC terminal, bipolar ±150..±350 kV 350..1000 MW 5000 10000 m2
HVDC CSC terminal, bipolar ±350..±500 kV 1000..3000 MW 30000 40000 m2
Table 4.1: Typical surface occupation for selected HVAC and HVDC transmission system components [4]
Furthermore, the construction of new long-distance transmission lines increases the transmission
capacity of the power grid, allows for green power balance, and enables for long-distance power
trade. In case remote RES are directly connected to the load centers by dedicated long-distance
transmission lines, this power does not need to be transmitted through the main power grid. This
relieves the congested situation that predominates the European transmission grid to-date and frees
up transmission capacity that now can be used for the local power trade and the exchange of
primary reserve in emergency situations. In addition, with long-distance transmission lines, green
power can be transmitted from areas with high RES generation and low load to areas with low
generation and high load. Thus, the green power trade within entire Europe is promoted.
In terms of investment costs, Table 4.2 recalls the typical cost ranges of HVAC and HVDC
transmission equipment as they have been compiled in REALISEGRID Deliverable D1.2.1 [4]. It
can be seen that the installation costs for HVDC overhead lines can also be by approximately 40%
lower than the costs for the HVAC equivalent. Particularly in long-distance transmission, these cost
savings in the transmission line and the absent need for reactive compensation make up for the
higher HVDC station costs. Furthermore, the lower transmission losses of HVDC decrease the
annual operational costs [4].
Cost range
System component Voltage level Power rating min max Unit
(1)
HVAC OHL, single circuit 400 kV 1500 MVA 400 700 kEUR/km
HVAC OHL, double circuit(1) 400 kV 2×1500 MVA 500 1000 kEUR/km
400 kV 1000 MVA 1000 3000 kEUR/km
cable, single circuit
400 kV 2×1000 MVA 2000 5000 kEUR/km
cable, double circuit
Reactive power compensation for
400 kV - 15 15 kEUR/MVAR
HVAC cable line, single circuit
HVDC OHL, bipolar(1) ±150..±500 kV 350..3000 MW 300 700 kEUR/km
HVDC underground cable pair ±350 kV 1100 MW 1000 2500 kEUR/km
HVDC undersea cable pair ±350 kV 1100 MW 1000 2000 kEUR/km
HVDC VSC terminal, bipolar ±150..±350 kV 350..1000 MW 60 125 kEUR/MW
HVDC CSC terminal, bipolar ±350..±500 kV 1000..3000 MW 75 110 kEUR/MW
(1)
cost ranges correspond to the base case, i.e. installation over flat land. For installations over hilly landscape +20% and
+50% for installations over mountains or urban areas have to be factored in.
Table 4.2: Typical cost ranges for selected HVAC and HVDC transmission system components [4]
From the political point of view, long-distance power transmission provides additional transmission
capacity for the power grid which is absolutely necessary to fulfill the political target of increasing
the share of RES in the European power generation pattern. The power grid as of today is not able
to cope with the large amounts of power which are locally injected into a grid node and which need
to be transmitted to the load centers. Furthermore, long-distance transmission lines can only be
planned and constructed when supported at political level since usually many European TSOs and
countries are involved 6 . In addition, long-distance lines may cross countries which are not tapped to
the line. Local compensations and incentives need to be prepared at the political level. However,
long-distance transmission will also be necessary when large amounts of solar power shall be
imported from North Africa (as proposed by the Desertec foundation) in order to fulfill the political
will to promote energy efficiency, to increase the use of RES, and to decrease CO2 emissions, more
precisely, to fulfill the 20/20/20 target 7 set by the European Commission on January 23rd, 2008. The
very significant costs for the network expansion necessary for importing RES energy from very
remote areas could be allocated to the responsible generators. In the latter case, even if extra costs
allocated to the generators would in any case be traduced into price bid-ups and, therefore be
ultimately paid by the final customer, this would reveal the true costs associated to RES, making
6
A comprehensive discussion on the subject of TSO incentivization and regulation is included in the REALISEGRID
Deliverable D3.6.2.
7
20% cut in emissions (respect to 1990 levels), 20% improvement in energy efficiency and 20% energy consumption
covered by renewables by the year 2020.

them less competitive with respect to conventional generation. In this framework, this policy could
not be convenient in sight of achieving the 20-20-20 targets in terms of RES generation.

5 LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION PROJECTS IN OPERATION
TO-DATE
The total installed electrical generation power in the world was 4034 GW in 2006, in which
2752 GW were fueled by fossil resources, 798 GW by hydro power and 377 GW by nuclear power.
The average annual growth rate of installed generation capacity in the world was in average 2.8%
from 1980 to 2006 [56].
Mainly due to the increased deployment of renewable energy generation, more and more electrical
power is generated far away from the energy consumer, which in turn leads to the need of bulk-
power transmission over distances of several hundred kilometers or more. For this reason HVDC
transmission can be more economically and technically efficient if compared with conventional
HVAC transmission. In this context long-distance links refer to overhead lines with a length longer
than approx. 500 km.
This Chapter briefly describes existing long-distance HVDC transmission lines 8 in North America
(mainly United States of America, and also Canada), China, South America, Russia, India, and
Africa in order to see the world’s operational experience for a further analysis of the electrical
energy transmission sector. Main operational experience is described for the Pacific Intertie, Square
Butte, CU, Itaipu, Tianshengqiao-Guangzhou, Guizhou-Guangdong, Three Gorges-Changzhou and
Three Gorges-Guangdong HVDC transmission projects. Also, flashover operational experience for
the Rihand-Delhi and Gezhouba-Nanqiao projects is presented. As an alternative to HVDC, some
EHVAC installations have been carried out over long-distances. One of them connects Russia with
Kazakhstan .
8
Even if a transmission line length of more than 500 km is considered, a 473 km line in Russia is also included.

5.1 North America: United States of America and Canada
The total installed power of the electrical energy generators in the United States of America (USA)
in 2007 was 995 GW; fossil fueled generators comprised the majority of 764 GW, 100 GW were
fueled by nuclear energy and 77.9 GW were generated from hydro power [56]. From 1995 to 1999
only a few new electrical energy generation stations with a total power of some 10 GW were built
in the USA. In the period from 2000 to 2002 there was a higher growth with about 144 GW of new
power plants installed [22]. From 2003 to 2007 the construction of new generators slowed
down [56]. The total generation capacity gain in the USA from 1949 to 2007 was in average 4.9%
per year [56].
A significant amount of hydro energy is transferred from hydro-electro generators in the north-
western regions of the USA to the south-west consumers; thereby, less power is generated in south-
west area from fossil fuel. In this hydro power transmission the first long-distance HVDC project in
the USA called Pacific Intertie was included and realized by ASEA and GE for the Los Angeles
Department of Water and Power and the Bonneville Power Administration [9].
From coal-powered power plants located in North Dakota the energy is transferred to Minnesota
through two HVDC lines – Square Butte and CU 9 – built by General Electric for Minnesota Power
Cooperative and Minnesota Power and by ASEA for Cooperative Power Association and United
Power Association (later Great River Energy) respectively [9].
The second HVDC transmission to Los Angeles is part of Intermountain Power Project. The
transmission system from coal-fired electrical generators in Utah was realized by ASEA and is
owned by the Intermountain Power Agency and Los Angeles Department of Water and Power [9].
Some amount of hydro power from Quebec region in Canada is transmitted to the USA through
HVDC technologies built by ABB and owned by Hydro Québec (Canada) and National Grid USA
(formerly New England Electric Systems) [9].
Main technical data of existing long-distance HVDC transmission systems in the USA and between
USA and Canada are listed in Table 5.1 (as at commissioning year) and their approximate
geographical locations are indicated in Figure 6.
9
The first letters of the tag CU are taken from the names of the first owners: Cooperative Power Authority and United
Power Authority

Table 5.1: Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in the USA [7] [9]
Length1 Power No. of DC voltage Converter HVDC AC voltage3

Project (in km) (in MW) poles (in kV) locations2 Technology (in kV/Hz) Year4
Celilo/ 230/230,
Pacific Intertie 1362 1440 2 ±400 Mercury 1970
Sylmar 60/60
Young/
Square Butte 749 500 2 ±250 CSC - 1977
Arrowhead
Underwood/ 235/350,
CU 701 1000 2 ±400 CSC 1979
Dickinson 60/60
Celilo/ 230/230,
Pacific Intertie 1362 1600 2 ±400 Mercury 1982
Sylmar 60/60
Pacific Intertie Celilo/ 230/230,
1362 2000 2 ±500 CSC 1985
upgrade Sylmar 60/60
Intermountain Delta/ 345/500,
785 1920 2 ±500 CSC 1986
Power Project Adelanto 60/60
Pacific Intertie Celilo/ 230/230,
1362 3100 2 ±500 CSC 1989
expansion Sylmar East 60/60
Radisson/ 315/
Quebec-
1500 2250 2 ±450 Nicolet, CSC 230, 345, 1990
New England
Sandy Pond 60/ 60, 605
1 2 3
Length of DC cable or line; Converter station sending end / receiving end; AC voltage sending end / receiving end, frequency sending
4 5
end / receiving end; year of commissioning; Connections – Radisson to 315 kV 60 Hz, Nicolet to 230 kV 60 Hz, Sandy Pond to 345 kV
60 Hz.
Radisson
Celilo Underwood Nicolet

Arrowhead
Young
Dickinson
Delta Sandy Pond
Sylmar
Adelanto
Figure 6 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in the USA; geographical map from [59]

5.1.1 Pacific Intertie
The Pacific Intertie connection ensures electrical energy flow from the hydro power generators on
the Columbia River in the north-west of the USA to the area around Los Angeles in the south-west
coast of the USA. The electrical connection includes three AC lines (500 kV 60 Hz) and one HVDC
line with transmission power 4800 and 3100 GW respectively [9].
The northern end (sending end) of the 1362 km HVDC transmission line is connected to the Celilo
Converter Station, which is just south of the Dalles Dam little more than 100 km east of Portland,
and the southern end (receiving end) is joined to the Sylmar station located on the northern outskirts
of Los Angeles [9].
The overhead long-distance bipolar HVDC transmission system was firstly energized in 1970 with
rated power 1440 MW and voltage level ±400 kV. In 1971, after one year of operation, the San
Fernando earthquake damaged the Sylmar converter station, which was rebuilt in 1973. In 1982 the
transmission system was upgraded to 1600 MW and in 1985 the DC voltage level was stepped up to
±500 kV by putting a 100 kV thyristor converter in electrically series connection with the mercury
arc converters. This led to a transmission power rise up to 2000 MW. At last in 1989 the rated
transmission power of the ±500 kV line was extended to 3100 MW in a way that new 1100 MW
converter stations were installed in electrically parallel with the existing stations. At Sylmar it was
necessary to build a new terminal, Sylmar East, located few kilometers from the first Sylmar site. In
1994, the mercury arc valves in the Sylmar converter station sustained damage during the
Northridge earthquake. In 2004 the Sylmar East station was upgraded and modified to full
transmission power of 3100 MW. Because of cost saving, some part of the existing equipment in
the Sylmar station that survived former earthquakes was used for Sylmar East construction. In the
same year mercury arc power valves in the Celilo converter station were replaced with thyristor
valves. After 2004 each power valve in the converter stations at both ends consists of 84 water
cooled thyristors [8] [9].
• Main choice reasons:

Relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability [9].
• Operational experience:
The reliability statistics from 1999 to 2006 are given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Reliability statistics of the Pacific Intertie HVDC link [42][43][44][45]
1999 2000 2001
Energy availability in % 88.0 88.9 79.5
Forced energy unavailability in %1 2.87 1.70 5.20
Planned energy unavailability in % 8.90 9.40 10.9
1
Converter station outages only
5.1.2 Square Butte
The Square Butte overhead HVDC transmission system ensures 500 MW power supply from the
Milton R. Young coal-fired power plant situated near Center in North Dakota to Duluth in
Minnesota in the USA. A ±250 kV bipolar line with a total length of 749 km connects sending end
converter station Young with receiving end station Arrowhead (near Adolph) and was
commissioned in 1977 [9].

Relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability [9].
The reliability statistics from 1999 to 2006 is given in Table 5.3; in the mentioned period the
major part of equivalent forced outage hours (607.4 of total 846.2) was caused by 24 forced
outages in transmission line equipment; in AC and/or auxiliary equipment there were 29
forced outages with 113.6 equivalent forced outage hours, and in DC Equipment 11 outages
with 68.6 equivalent forced outage hours; approximately 35% from total outages in period
from 1999 to 2006 occurred in other equipment parts and caused little below 7% from total
equivalent forced outage hours [42][43][44][45].
Table 5.3 Reliability statistics of Square Butte HVDC link [42][43][44][45]

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Energy availability in % 95.9 94.8 80.8 92.8 94.9 85.0 95.0 95.4
Forced energy unavailability in %1 0.10 0.38 0.45 0.61 0.09 0.57 0.42 0.12
Planned energy unavailability in % 2.37 4.44 18.64 4.19 3.55 14.0 4.09 4.49
Quantity of forced outage 17 10 13 10 11 23 11 5
Equivalent forced outage hours2 152.2 64.0 52.1 266.8 133.2 90.6 76.7 10.6
1 2
Converter station outages only; the sum of the forced outage hours after the outage duration has been adjusted for the percentage of reduction
in capacity due to the outage (at monopolar outage 50 % loss of capacity and at bipolar – 100 %), for example, for an outage of one pole of a
bipole system which lasted two hours, the equivalent outage hours would be one hour)
5.1.3 CU
CU is a HVDC overhead long-distance transmission system between Underwood in North Dakota

and Dickinson (near Minneapolis) in Minnesota with commissioning in 1979. The project's name
"CU" originates from the name of the first owners: Cooperative Power Authority (CPA) and United
Power Authority (UPA). The 701 km bipolar ±400 kV DC line ensures 1000 MW power
transmission from coal-fired electrical generators of Coal Creek generating station. The sending end
is connected to the 235 kV 60 Hz grid, while the receiving end converts DC back into AC at 350
kV, 60 Hz. The power valves in both terminals are built from air-cooled thyristors. CU was one of
the first project to employ metallic return during monopolar operation. Transmission system
overload capacity: 1375 A continuously, 1500 A for 1 hour or continuously if the temperature is
below 8°C [9].

Relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability [9]

5.1.4 Intermountain Power Project
One part of the Intermountain Power Project is a long-distance 785 km ±500 kV bipolar DC line
that ensures the transmission of 1920 MW from the coal-powered Intermountain Power Agency
power plant in Utah (sending end in Delta) to the Adelanto converter station near Adelanto in
California, which is located in a seismically active area. Suspended thyristor valves are therefore
used to achieve maximum security. Extremely stringent requirements were imposed on reliability.
Each pole has a 1200 MW continuous and 1600 MW short term overload capacity in order to
minimize the impact on the power system in the event of a pole outage. The Delta and Adelanto
converter stations are connected to the 345 kV 60 Hz and the 500 kV 60 Hz grid, respectively. An
additional upgrade of the transmission system to 2400 MW is in process at time of writing [9].

Relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns;
• Specific project features:

Relatively high monopolar overload characteristics [9].

5.1.5 Quebec-New England
Quebec-New England is the first long-distance multi-terminal HVDC transmission in the world.
The power is generated in Canada at the La Grande II hydro power station in the James Bay area,
converted into DC at the sending end converter station Radisson (Quebec in Canada), and
transmitted over the multi-terminal system to load centers in Montreal (Canada) and Boston (USA).
The receiving end terminal is Sandy Pond in Ayer (Massachusetts, USA). The total length of the
±450 kV bipolar DC line is 1480 km [9].
In the first construction phase of the project the HVDC transmission system was built and
commissioned in 1986. The DC link connects two converter stations – Des Cantons (near
Sherbrooke in Quebec) and Comerford (near Monroe, New Hampshire) – each with rated power
690 MW [9].
The second phase includes three additional converter terminals as well as modifications to the
existing ones. The line was extended to the North from Des Cantons to the 2250 MW Radisson
terminal, located within the La Grande hydroelectric generating complex. Furthermore, the line was
also extended to the South from Comerford to a new 1800 MW converter terminal at Sandy Pond in
Massachusetts (USA). These extensions were taken into full commercial operation in 1990 [9].
In 1992 another terminal – Nicolet – was put into service on the multi-terminal HVDC system. This
terminal has a rated power 2138 MW and is located at Nicolet in the Montreal area in Canada [9].
The Radisson converter station receives the power from the 315 kV 60 Hz grid. At Nicolet station
power is delivered to Montreal area via the 230 kV 60 Hz grid and Sandy Pond is connected to
345 kV 60 Hz grid in Boston area [9]

Relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, connection between two
asynchronous networks;

Multi-terminal HVDC transmission [9].
5.2 South America

Brazil is the biggest electrical power producer among the South American countries. The total
electricity generation in 2006 in Brazil was 93 MW, in which 71 GW were produced from hydro
power, 14 GW from fossil fuel and 2 GW from nuclear power. The total generated capacity gain in
Brazil from 1980 to 2006 was in average 4.0% per year [56].
The significant part of Brazil’s energy is provided by one of the world’s biggest hydroelectric
power plant, Itaipu on the Parana River (15 km north of the Friendship Bridge), located on the
border between Brazil and Paraguay. Itaipu is a binational project with a power rating of 14 GW

(with 20 generating units providing 700 MW each) at commissioning year 2004. With such an
amount of power Itaipu provides approximately 30% of Brazil’s electrical power needs and more
than 90% of the needs of neighboring Paraguay. 10 of the 20 Itaipu’s electrical power generators
operate at 50 Hz (the standard frequency in Paraguay) and the other 10 generators at 60 Hz (the
standard frequency of Brazil). The 60 Hz generators of the Itaipu power plant supply only the
Brazilian Interconnected Power System through the Foz do Iguassu substation, where the voltage is
stepped-up to 765 kV, 60 Hz. Subsequently, the electrical power is transmitted from there by three
HVAC transmission lines to the Sao Paulo area, located 900 km far away from Foz do Iguassu. The
South-Southeastern Brazilian electrical power generation is 95% hydraulic [10][12].
Itaipu supplies ranges of 100 to 500 MW from its 50 Hz generators to Paraguay, where the rest of
the 50 Hz power is supplied to Brazil through the only one long-distance HVDC transmission line
in South America [7][9]. The main technical data of the line are listed in Table 5.4 (as at
commissioning year) and the approximate geographical locations of the power converters are
indicated in Figure 7.
Table 5.4: Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in South America [7][9]

Foz do Iguacu/
Itaipu 1 785 1575 1 300 CSC - 1984
Sao Roque
Foz do Iguacu/
Itaipu 1 785 2383 1 ±300 CSC - 1985
Sao Roque
Foz do Iguacu/ 500/345,
Itaipu 1 785 3150 2 ±600 CSC 1986
Sao Roque 50/60
Foz do Iguacu/ 500/345,
Itaipu 2 805 3150 2 ±600 CSC 1987
Sao Roque 50/60
1 2 3
Length of DC cable or line; Converter station sending end / receiving end; AC voltage sending end / receiving end, frequency
sending end / receiving end; 4year of commissioning.
Two bipolar ±600 kV DC lines (Itaipu 1 and Itaipu 2) with an overall power rating of 6300 MW
were realized by ASEA for Furnas Centrais Eletricas in Rio de Janeiro (an Eletrobras company).
Still, at time of writing, it operates at the world’s highest long-distance transmission DC voltage
magnitude [10][12], but HVDC transmission systems operating at voltages of ±800 kV are currently
under construction by ABB in China and are planned to enter service in 2010.

Foz do Iguacu Sao Roque
Figure 7 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in South America; geographical map from [59]
Both long-distance overhead transmission systems are designed to operate independently of one
another under normal conditions. They connect the rectifier station (with input voltage 500 kV,
50 Hz) at Foz do Iguacu in Parana and the inverter station (with output voltage 345 kV, 60 Hz) in
Sao Roque near Sao Paulo, in the industrial centre of Brazil. Each line has a rated power of
3150 MW. HVDC electrical power transmission started on a monopolar line in 1984 with a rated
voltage of 300 kV DC and in 1985 on a bipolar line with a rated voltage of ±300 kV DC. In 1986
the first and in 1987 the second DC bipolar line ±600 kV (transmission length 785 and 805 km,
respectively) were commissioned. The converter stations were commissioned stepwise in order to
match the generating capacity built-up at the Itaipu hydropower plant [7][9].
The HVDC converter stations have a current overload capability of 12% of rated power for two
hours, temporarily at rated ambient temperature of 40°C or continuously if below 30°C. There is
also a five second overload capability of 30%, which ramps down to 12% according to thyristor
junction temperature [20].
Four 300 MVAr synchronous compensators are available for fine control of the AC voltage in Sao
Roque converter station. In Foz do Iguacu station there is a limit to the total capacity of filters
which may be connected, as a function of number of generators, in order to avoid a potential self-
excitation situation [10].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, interchange of power
from the 50 Hz generators to the 60 Hz system [9];
In 1985 after about three months of operation, a flashover occurred on the DC pole bushing
at Foz do Iguacu due to heavy rain; at the end of the year, also because of the heavy rain,
five flashovers occurred at Foz do Iguacu and two flashovers at Sao Roque on both the
positive and negative poles for five different bushings; by that time it had become clear that
this was a general problem for the 600 kV wall bushings; in 1986 silicone grease was
applied to all 600 kV wall bushings as a temporary measure and the experiences from the
temporary silicon grease application was excellent, preventing further flashovers in that
area; from 1985 several failures occurred in both inverter and rectifier power converter
transformers – 6 failures in the first operation year of the transformers, 3 in the second, 2 in
the third, 1 in the fourth – and no more failures occurred in the transformers in the following
5 years of the operation; the main fault reason was gassing in oil due to physical properties
of the transformers, which were prevented by modification of the transformers; in 1989 a
fire broke out in power converter at the Foz do Iguacu substation mainly due to the cooling
water leakage.
Twelve-year (1988-2000) outage statistics reported a total of 54 events (either monopolar or

bipolar) with a total duration time of 25 hours, or around two outages/year and
1.9 hours/year as average. One should have in mind that these lines crossed a region of high
values of extreme wind speed, which has been responsible for several tower breakdowns
over the years [10][26].
The reliability statistics from 1999 to 2006 for the bipole 1 and 2 are given in Table 5.5 and
Table 5.6; the major part of the equivalent forced outage hours in the time from 1999 to
2000 in Itaipu bipole 1 and bipole 2 are caused by forced outages in AC and/or auxiliary
equipment and are 10.4 (by one outage) and 42.5 (by two outages) hours respectively, what
is more than half from the total equivalent forced outage hours in mentioned period; in time
period from 2005 to 2006 the great part – 116.8 equivalent forced outage hours – was caused
by 2 forced outages in transmission line and/or cable equipment in 2005 and 33.8 equivalent
forced outage hours was caused by 4 forced outages in AC and/or auxiliary equipment part
in 2006 [42][43][44][45].

Table 5.5 Reliability statistics of Itaipu bipole 1 HVDC link [42][43][44][45]
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Energy availability in % 97.2 97.7 - - - - 95.4 96.6
Forced energy unavailability in %1 0.22 0.05 - - - - 0.18 0.41
Planned energy unavailability in % 2.55 2.24 - - - - 3.06 3.00
Quantity of forced outage 7 9 - - - - 17 7
Equivalent forced outage hours2 19.3 4.2 - - - - 132.2 35.5
1
Converter station outages only; 2the sum of the forced outage hours after the outage duration has been adjusted for the percentage of reduction
in capacity due to the outage (at monopolar outage 50 % loss of capacity and at bipolar – 100 %), for example, for an outage of one pole of a
Table 5.6 Reliability statistics of Itaipu bipole 2 HVDC link [42][43][44][45]

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Energy availability in % 98.0 97.3 - - - - 97.6 96.5
Forced energy unavailability in %1 0.71 0.05 - - - - 0.10 0.14
Planned energy unavailability in % 1.28 2.64 - - - - 2.32 3.21
Quantity of forced outage 19 6 - - - - 8 8
Equivalent forced outage hours2 62.4 4.1 - - - - 8.8 13.1
1
Converter station outages only; 2the sum of the forced outage hours after the outage duration has been adjusted for the percentage of reduction
in capacity due to the outage (at monopolar outage 50 % loss of capacity and at bipolar – 100 %, for example, for an outage of one pole of a

highest voltage level (± 600 kV) among the world’s long-distance HVDC transmission
systems in operation at time of writing [7][9].
There is also an ongoing project Rio Madeira whose scheduled commissioning year is 2012. It can
become the longest HVDC transmission line in the world with an overhead line length of 2500 km.
It is planned to connect two hydro power plants in the Amazonas down (on Madeira River in Porto
Velho in the north-west of Brazil) to the Sao Paulo state (Araraquara in the south-east coast of
Brazil). 3150 MW HVDC converter stations are to be placed at each end of a new ±600 kV line. An
additional HVDC station will be 800 MW back-to-back station that will transmit power to the
surrounding AC network in the north-west of Brazil [9].
5.3 India
In the Republic of India in 2006 the installed electrical generation power reached 144 GW, in which
32 GW of generators used hydropower, 102 GW fossil fuel, and nuclear powered generators share
3 GW. The generation power rose with average 5.8% per year between 1980 and 2006 [56].
The electrical power grid in India has developed to regional power systems which are operating
asynchronously. The interconnections between regions are made by AC or back-to-back DC links.
The traditional HVAC transmission technologies in such interconnections between asynchronous
networks can reach their system stability limits and are marked by relatively high energy
transmission losses because of bulk power long-distance transmission.

To increase the electrical bulk-power transmission in parallel to the existing AC transmission lines
from the thermoelectric generators (mainly coal-based) located in the eastern part of India to the
energy consumers in highly urbanized areas the HVDC transmission systems described in the
following were constructed.
The first long-distance HVDC transmission project in India – Rihand-Delhi – was built by ABB and
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and is owned by the National Thermal Power Corporation (after
the reorganization of the Indian power sector the transmission system belongs to Power Grid
Corporation of India). The same companies realized the second project – Chandrapur-Padghe – for
the Maharashtra State Electricity Board. Further Siemens AG developed the East-South
Interconnector II project for the Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. The fourth long-distance
HVDC transmission link in India – the Ballia-Bhiwadi project – was built together by Siemens AG
and Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd for the Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd [8][9].
Main technical data of the HVDC long-distance lines in India are listed in Table 5.7 (as at
commissioning year) and their approximate geographical locations are indicated in Figure 8.

Table 5.7: Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in India [7][8][9]
Rihand/ 400/400,
Rihand-Delhi 814 750 1 500 CSC 1991
Dadri 50/50
Rihand/ 400/400,
Rihand-Delhi 814 1500 2 ±500 CSC 1992
Dadri 50/50
Chandrapur- Chandrapur/ 400/400,
752 1500 2 ±500 CSC 1999
Padghe Padghe 50/50
East-South Talcher/ 400/400,
1450 2000 2 ±500 CSC 2003
Interconnector II Kolar 50/50
East-South
Talcher/ 400/400,
Interconnector II 1450 2500 2 ±500 CSC 2007
Kolar 50/50
upgrade
Ballia/ 400/400,
Ballia-Bhiwadi 800 2500 2 ±500 CSC 2009
Bhiwadi 50/50
1 2 3
Length of DC cable or line; Converter station in sending end / Converter station in receiving end; AC voltage in sending end / AC voltage in
receiving end, frequency in sending end / frequency in receiving end; 4year of commissioning.
Bhiwadi
Dadri
Ballia
Rihand
Talcher
Padghe
Chandrapur
Kolar
Figure 8 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in India; geographical map from [59]
5.3.1 Rihand-Delhi
The first HVDC transmission to Delhi – Rihand-Delhi – is also the first commercial HVDC long-
distance overhead transmission system in India with a rated power of 1500 MW (bipolar ±500 kV).
Energy is transferred from the coal-based thermal power Rihand complex with generation power
3000 MW in Uttar Pradesh in the eastern part of India. The monopolar transmission was
commissioned in 1991 (750 MW) and in 1992 the bipolar line was opened for operation. The
sending and receiving end converter stations – Rihand and Dadri (outside Delhi) respectively – are
connected to the AC grid at 400 kV, 50 Hz and by a 814 km long DC line between them. In
electrical parallel with Rihand-Delhi DC link, the energy is also transmitted through the 400 kV,
50 Hz AC transmission systems [7][9].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability and
control, and also better overall economy, interconnection between two asynchronous AC
regional power networks [9][13];
since beginning of operation until 1997 there have been flashovers in Dadri power converter
station during fog and/or light rain; the countermeasure adopted was to apply silicone grease
coatings on practically all DC yard insulators and bushings, after than in interval of one year
no more flashovers have occurred in Rihand-Delhi transmission system [32].
5.3.2 Chandrapur-Padghe
The first HVDC transmission system in the area around Mumbai is the Chandrapur-Padghe long-
distance overhead bipolar DC transmission system, which was commissioned in 1999. It transmits
1500 MW, ±500 kV DC power from Chandrapur in the eastern part of Maharashtra to Padghe in the
western coast area of India. Chandrapur is located in the middle part of India, where thermal power
generation is concentrated due to the abundance of coal in that area. On the AC sides the sending
and receiving end converter stations – Chandrapur and Padghe respectively – are connected to the
400 kV, 50 Hz grid and have a 752 km DC line between them. In electrical parallel with the HVDC
transmission system, there exists a AC transmission tie between Chandrapur and Mumbai, which
comprises three 400 kV, 50 Hz lines with a total power around 1200 MW. At Chandrapur as well as
at Padghe converter station an 800 MVAr AC filter bank is provided for each converter [7][9][14].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability in
Maharashtra region, interconnection between two asynchronous AC regional power
networks;

Active DC filters for an overhead long-distance line transmission has been provided for the
first time to further minimize possible disturbances to nearby telecommunication lines [14].
5.3.3 East-South Interconnector II
The East-South Interconnector II is one of the longest existing HVDC transmission systems in the
world with a DC line length of 1450 km. The overhead bipolar HVDC line was opened for
commercial operation in 2003 with a rated power 2000 MW, ±500 kV for electrical energy
transmission from the Eastern region of India (Orissa province) to West-South India (Karnataka
province). The AC voltage levels on both sides of the transmission system in sending end converter
station Talcher and in receiving end station Kolar is 400 kV, 50 Hz. Because of the growing
demand for energy in the region around Bangalore (Karnataka province) the line was upgraded to a
rated power of 2500 MW and was commissioned to operate with increased power in 2007 [7][8]
[9].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, interconnection between
two asynchronous AC regional power networks [8].
5.3.4 Ballia-Bhiwadi
The HVDC long-distance bipolar overhead transmission system project Ballia-Bhiwadi was
commissioned in 2009 to transmit 2500 MW electrical power from the Ballia Power Pool in the
East of Uttar Pradesh province (eastern part of India) to the Bhiwadi substation in the province of
Rajasthan, about 80 km from Delhi (north region of India). The total length of the ±500 kV DC line
is 800 km. Both ends of the DC transmission system (Ballia and Bhiwadi converter stations) are
connected to the 400 kV, 50 Hz AC power grid [7][8].
In order to satisfy the maximum reactive power demand of the converters at two hour-overloading
and at minimum AC voltages and frequencies, a total of 1904 MVAr and 2054 MVAr AC filters (at
400 kV, 50 Hz) are installed in Ballia and Bhiwadi respectively [33].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, interconnection between
two asynchronous AC regional power networks [8].
5.4 China
In the People's Republic of China the total installed power of the electrical energy generators in
2006 was 518 GW, in which more than a half (391 GW) was due to generators using fossil fuel,
117 GW from hydro power and 7 GW from nuclear power generators [56]. The expanded rate of
the installed electrical generators in average was about 8.2% per year from 1980s to 2006 [56]. At
such rising rate the total generation power in 2030 will be around 1000 GW.
A part of the electrical power generators (mainly hydro power) is located in the South-West region
of China. From there the energy is delivered to the East-South coast, a highly industrialized urban
area, over a distance close to thousand kilometers. For this bulk-power transmission several HVDC
systems were constructed.
The first HVDC long-distance overhead transmission system project in China – Gezhouba-Nanqiao
link – was realized by BBC and Siemens PTD and is owned by China National Technical Import &
Export Corporation. Several further HVDC transmission projects were accomplished by Siemens
AG such as Tianshengqiao-Guangzhou and Guizhou-Guangdong for State Power South Company
and Guizhou-Guangdong II for China Southern Power Grid [7].
For the energy flow from Three Gorges region, ABB developed the following HVDC transmission
systems: Three Gorges-Changzhou, Three Gorges-Guangdong, and Three Gorges-Shanghai, which
are owned by the China’s State Grid Corporation [8][9]. This is a part of the Three Gorges project
planned to be the largest hydropower plant in the world located on the Yangtze River with a
generating capacity of 18200 MW from 26 generating units of 700 MW each in 2009 [11]. In
2007 there was a 14.7 GW generation power capacity [17].
Xiangjiaba-Shanghai is an ongoing ±800 kV EHVDC transmission project in China with scheduled

commissioning year in 2010. With 2071 km DC line the 6400 MW transmission is planned from the
Xiangjiaba hydro power plant, located in the southwest of China, to Shanghai area. It includes two
main breakthroughs in the technology of electric power transmission: the system voltage ±800 kV
will be the highest DC voltage used (the highest being so far in Itaipu, Brazil: ±600 kV) and the
power rating 6400 MW is approximately twice higher than the nominal power of the HVDC
transmission in operation to date [9].
Main technical data of the HVDC long-distance lines in China are listed in Table 5.8 (as at
commissioning year) and their approximate geographical locations are indicated in Figure 9.

Table 5.8 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in China [7][8][9]
Gezhouba/ 525/230,
Gezhouba-Nanqiao 1000 600 1 500 CSC 1989
Nanqiao 50/50
Gezhouba/ 525/230,
Gezhouba-Nanqiao 1000 1200 2 ±500 CSC 1990
Nanqiao 50/50
Tianshengqiao- Tianshengqiao/ 230/230,
960 1800 2 ±500 CSC 2001
Guangzhou Beijiao 50/50
Three Gorges- Longquan/ 500/500,
860 1500 1 500 CSC 2002
Changzhou Zhengping 50/50
Three Gorges- Longquan/ 500/500,
860 3000 2 ±500 CSC 2003
Changzhou Zhengping 50/50
Three Gorges - Jingzhou/ 500/500,
940 3000 2 ±500 CSC 2004
Guangdong Huizhou 50/50
Guizhou- Anshun/ 525/525,
980 3000 2 ±500 CSC 2004
Guangdong Zhaoqing 50/50
Three Gorges - Yidu/ 500/500,
900 3000 2 ±500 CSC 2006
Shanghai Huaxin 50/50
Guizhou- Xingren/ 525/525,
1200 3000 2 ±500 CSC 2007
Guangdong II Shenzhen 50/50
1
Length of DC cable or line; 2Converter station in sending end / Converter station in receiving end; 3AC voltage in sending end / AC voltage in
receiving end, frequency in sending end / frequency in receiving end; 4 year of commissioning.
Tianshengqiao
Zhengping
Longquan
Huaxin
Gezhouba
Yidu Nanqiao
Jingzhou
Anshun
Xingren
Huizhou
Beijiao
Zhaoqing
Shenzhen
Figure 9 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in China; geographical map from [59]

5.4.1 Gezhouba-Nanqiao
The Ge-Nan (Gezhouba-Nanqiao) HVDC long-distance bipolar overhead transmission system

ensures 1200 MW, ±500 kV electrical power flow from the hydroelectric plant on the Yangtze
River in central China to Nanqiao (about 40 km from Shanghai) on the East coast of China for the
Shanghai conurbation. Rectifier station Gezhouba in the Hubei Province receives generated power
from the 525 kV, 50 Hz grid and the inverter station Nanqiao converts delivered power to AC
230 kV, 50 Hz. The length of the DC line between two converter stations is 1000 km. Commercial
operation of the line started in 1989 as monopolar (600 MW, 500 kV) and in 1990 as bipolar
transmission. The power switches in the converter stations are thyristors with water cooling
system [7][8][9].

relatively low energy transmission losses, network stability and environmental concerns [9];
from 1989 to 1997 in total 26 flashovers occur in the Ge-Nan transmission system, where
the PLC (power line carrier) capacitors contribute with almost 50% of the flashovers; the
flashovers have happened in fog and/or rain conditions; the RTV (room-temperature
vulcanization) coating was done in 1991; it was very effective for preventing the uneven
wetting which caused flashover on the wall bushings; however, it had no effect on the PLC
capacitors flashovers; that led to conclusions to change the hardware design sufficient at
environment conditions similar to those in Gezhouba and Nanquiao [32].
5.4.2 Tianshengqiao-Guangzhou
The HVDC long-distance bipolar overhead transmission system Tian-Guang (Tianshengqiao-

Guangzhou) carries 1800 MW, ±500 kV of electrical power from the hydropower plant
Tianshengqiao in South-West China Yunnan Province to the load centre of Guangzhou in the
Guangdong Province at the South coast of China. Both converter stations are connected to the
respective AC networks through 230 kV, 50 Hz buses. The 960 km DC line connects both power
converter stations, where water-cooled thyristors are used. Active DC filters are implemented in this
system for absorption of DC harmonics in order to avoid interference on neighboring
communication lines. The transmission line has been put into operation by the middle of 2001 and
then China Southern Power Grid (CSG) became the first AC & DC hybrid grid in China, where the
HVDC system operates in parallel with three AC transmission lines. The DC link helps damping
low-frequency oscillations (typically 0.1 to 0.7 Hz for AC power transmission systems) and
stabilizing the system [7] [8] [29] [31].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability [8][31].
The reliability statistics from 2001 to 2007 is given in Table 5.9.
After two years of operation in the converter station transformer severe defect in design and
manufacture emerged what caused gassing in transformer oil.
In 2003 one of the tuning devices for coupling capacitor of AC PLC filter at Beijiao station
was burnt out because of overheating of a resistor; in the same station in 2007 a lightening
on DC line caused an arrester firing in a line trap.
Shunt capacitors and filter capacitors units on shunt banks failed frequently usually in
summer when environment temperature was high – until 2007 there were totally 71 unit
failures at Tianshengqiao and 97 at Beijiao converter station; the main reason was the rated
voltage of capacitor had been designed a little lower; to improve voltage stress, one unit was
added in series into a string of capacitor units, but the effect was not satisfactory; inrush
current was another reason causing capacitor failures; new HVDC project installed a
switching synchronization device on every breaker for filter/shunt bank to avoid inrush
current; the dielectric film of the capacitor was found not enough to bear the electrical stress
and capacitors for new projects are suggested to use three layers of film instead of two
layers.
In 2007 stainless pipe in power valve cooling system in Tianshengqiao station broke
repeatedly at welding joints for several times; one of the reasons was the vibration caused by
pumps and motors.
During initial operation stage of the DC line, two highways were built across by Beijiao
station; also the local developing industry forced the pollution increasing; in 2005 all post
insulators and bushings on DC yard at Beijiao station were painted with RTV.
Overheating on DC disconnector took place sometimes if mechanism operation had not been
done properly; the problem was the pressed spring in apparatus losing its elasticity.
In spring of 2007 the DC voltage measurement link fluctuated frequently, several sensors
were found abnormal and replaced [41].
Table 5.9 Reliability statistics of Tian-Guang HVDC link [41]

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Energy availability in % 91.99 89.98 93.66 89.23 91.78 93.84 93.78
Forced energy unavailability in % 0.56 0.16 0.17 4.68 2.97 0.47 0.16
Planned energy unavailability in % 7.46 9.86 6.18 6.09 5.25 5.68 6.06
Quantity of monopole forced outage 21 10 8 11 9 13 13
Quantity of bipolar forced outage 1 1 0 0 1 1 3
Quantity of monopole scheduled outage 35 30 32 31 22 16 21
Quantity of bipolar scheduled outage 1 5 3 2 5 1 3

Active DC filtration installed [8].
5.4.3 Three Gorges-Changzhou
The Three Gorges-Changzhou ±500 kV HVDC overhead long-distance bipolar electrical power
transmission system is the first of two links to connect Three Gorges and Eastern China at the time
of writing. Converter stations at both ends of the 860 km-long DC line ensure AC/DC bidirectional
conversion of the electrical power of 3000 MW from ±500 kV DC to AC 500 kV, 50 Hz and vice
versa. The electrical energy is transmitted from the Three Gorges hydropower plant in central China
to the eastern coastal area of Changzhou city. The line came into commercial operation in 2002 as
monopolar line with 1500 MW transmission power and in 2003 as bipolar with full power
3000 MW. The sending end converter station is located at Longquan, approximately 50 km from
the Three Gorges power plant, and the receiving end station Zhengping is in the city of Changzhou,
approximately 80 km northwest of Shanghai. The transmission system has a continuous overload
capability of 3480 MW and a 5 second overload capability of 4500 MW. There are three possible
connection modes: bipolar, monopolar ground return, and monopolar metallic return mode. In total
90 thyristors per single valve are installed at Longquan and 84 thyristors per single valve at
Zhengping converter station. Power switches are air insulated and water cooled [7][9][15][19].

relatively low energy transmission losses, network stability, environmental concerns [9];
during 2004 several monopolar outages occurred – three times in DC control and protection
part because of software bug and false trip from transformer saturation protection, twice in
AC and auxiliary equipment part because of transformer guard malfunction and manual fire
call point miss-operation, once discharge fault in one of the DC line tower; there were also
several monopolar outages in 2005 – twice in DC control and protection part because of
optic circuit fault and malfunction of station service power control system, once because of
human factor during DC disconnector maintenance work, once in AC and auxiliary part
malfunction of converter transformer tap changer pressure release function, four times in DC
line because of line icing, all the restart attempts failed [18];

A part of the line is crossing the Yangtze River near Wuhu in Anhui Province using two 229
m tall pylons with two conductors on each and the span width is 1910 m; the Zhengping
converter station is exposed to very heavy industrial pollution, therefore the pole insulators
had to be longer than conventional and all high-potential DC equipment and all the DC
neutral equipment are installed outdoors [9][27].
5.4.4 Three Gorges-Guangdong
The 3000 MW, ±500 kV HVDC overhead long-distance bipolar transmission system Three Gorges-
Guangdong transmits electricity from the Three Gorges hydropower plant in central China to the
Guangdong province in the South coastal area of China. The sending and the receiving end of the
system are both connected to the 500 kV, 50 Hz grid. The transmission system with a 940 km long
DC power line went into commercial operation in 2004. The sending end converter station is
located 16 km from Jingzhou city near the Three Gorges power plant, and the receiving converter
station in Huizhou near Guangzhou. The overload characteristics and power switch performance
and also possible connection modes are practically equal to the Three Gorges-Changzhou
project [7][9][18].

relatively low energy transmission losses, connection between two asynchronous AC
networks, network stability, and environmental concerns [9][31];
in 2004 one bipolar outage occurred in DC control and protection part first in one pole and
later in both because of LAN network disturbance, in the same year several monopolar
outages occurred – once in AC and auxiliary equipment part caused by malfunction of on-
load tap changer gas relay, flashover fault due to icing in DC line, other flashover over DC
voltage divider in primary DC equipment, one human error and DC line fault due to hill fire;
in 2005 one bipolar outage occurred in AC and auxiliary equipment first in one pole and
later in both because of malfunction leading to loss of station power supply; in the same year
four faults occurred in DC line because of line icing all the restart attempts failed,
malfunction caused by inconsistent status in DC control and protection part [18].
5.4.5 Guizhou-Guangdong
The Gui-Guang (Guizhou-Guangdong) project is HVDC long-distance bipolar overhead

transmission system developed in 2004 and allows the transmission of 3000 MW of electrical
power from the Anshun converter station in Guizhou Province in South-West China, where the
hydro and thermo-electro plants are located, to the Zhaoqing converter station in Guangdong
Province near the load center of Guangzhou. It is a bipolar ±500 kV DC transmission system
(1500 MW per pole) with a total DC line length of 980 km. The Gui-Guang system is electrically
parallel to the other HVDC transmission tie Tian-Guang to integrate large AC transmission
systems. The thyristors in both converter stations are water-cooled and AC voltage connection at
both ends is 525 kV, 50 Hz [7][8].
Due to the long transmission distance (about 1000 km) the AC system in the mentioned
transmission area experiences severe power oscillations after faults, close to stability limits. Due to
its ability to damp these power system oscillations, the DC transmission system helps to increase
the overall system reliability [28][30].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network
stability [8][28][30].
The reliability statistics from 2001 to 2007 is given in Table 5.10.
The very low energy availability in 2005 was mainly due to several explosion of the
coupling capacitors for DC PLC filter, all took place in rainy or fog weather; research
showed that the uneven voltage distribution on capacitor sections was the main reason;
inside the porcelain capacitor column, there are no resistors to even the voltage distributions
among elements; finally, external resistors have been added in parallel with porcelain
capacitor sections; this method ensures voltage distribution evenly among sections and has
avoided further explosions.
Oil leakage happened on some of units of shunt and filter capacitors banks mainly caused by
mechanical damage in transportation from factory to converter station (explanation from
supplier).
Light triggered thyristor used for Gui-Guang link was first introduced into China; in first
half year of operation totally 32 of thyristors failed.
As the industry developed somewhere near the line path, the pollution becomes heavy so
that flashover of insulator takes place in spring; to improve the insulation level, additional
porcelain or glass insulators were added into the string; composite insulators replaced
porcelain insulators.
From 2005 to 2006 there were 4 times of signal transmission faults caused by the problem in
data verification. In humidity season of 2005 it was found that DC voltage measurement
fluctuated frequently, several sensors were found abnormal and replaced [41].
Table 5.10 Reliability statistics of Gui-Guang HVDC link [41]

2004 2005 2006 2007
Energy availability in % 96.07 92.53 96.32 96.67
Forced energy unavailability in % - 3.22 0.10 0.81
Planned energy unavailability in % - 4.25 3.58 2.52
Quantity of monopole forced outage 6 11 10 9
Quantity of bipolar forced outage 0 0 1 1
Quantity of monopole scheduled outage 12 9 4 3
Quantity of bipolar scheduled outage - 2 3 3
5.4.6 Three Gorges-Shanghai
The Three Gorges – Shanghai is the second of two 3000 MW HVDC power links to connect Three
Gorges in central China and Eastern China, by a long-distance bipolar overhead HVDC power
transmission system, and delivers electrical energy to the coastal city of Shanghai. Both converter
stations are connected to the 500 kV, 50 Hz grid, where sending end station is located at Yidu,
approximately 58 km from the Three Gorges power plant, and the receiving end station, Huaxin, at
the western outskirts of Shanghai. The receiving station will feed power directly into Shanghai. The
±500 kV DC transmission system with a 900 km DC line length was commissioned in 2006 and
from that time the amount of electrical power delivered from central China to the Shanghai area
raised from 4200 MW to 7200 MW. The transmission is designed to transmit full rated power up to
specified maximum ambient temperature and without any redundant cooling in service. With
redundant cooling in service, a continuous overload of 105% and two hour overload of 113% of
rated power is achievable. With lower ambient temperature, the overload can be even higher i.e. for
an ambient of 20°C, a continuous overload of 115% and 2 hour overload of 131% of rated power is
achievable. The power switch performance and also possible connection modes are practically
equal to the Three Gorges-Changzhou project [7][9][16].

relatively low energy transmission losses, network stability, environmental concerns [9].

5.4.7 Guizhou-Guangdong II
The HVDC long-distance bipolar overhead transmission system developed under Gui-Guang II
(Guizhou-Guangdong II) project is located in the South-East part of the China. The DC line
distance is 1200 km and connects the converter station Xingren in the region of the hydro and
thermo-electro plants in Guizhou Province in the South-West China with the converter station in
Shenzen – city in the Guangdong Province on the South coast of China. The bipolar ±500 kV DC
overhead line ensures 3000 MW electrical power transmission and has a long-term overload
capability of up to 115%. Power transmission in the reverse direction is also possible. The AC
voltage at both ends of the system is 525 kV, 50 Hz and AC filters in sending end have 140 MVAr
reactive power and in receiving end 155 MVAr. Power switches are thyristors with water cooling.
The line was inaugurated for operation in 2007, what is the latest realized long distance HVDC
project in China so far [7][8][31].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, network stability [8][31].
5.5 Russia
In 2006 the total installed power of electrical generators in the Russian Federation was 218 GW, in
which 149 GW is ensured using fossil fuel and 46 GW hydro power, and 23 GW from nuclear
power [56].
Part of the hydro power is generated in the largest hydroelectric station in Europe – Volga
Hydroelectric Station or Volga GES – which is located on the last of the Volga-Kama Cascade
dams before the Volga River flows into the Caspian Sea. The system was commissioned in 1955.
At time of writing the Volga GES has 2551 GW generation power [25].
The power generated by the hydroelectric station is transmitted primarily via 220 kV AC
transmission to the city of Volgograd (formerly called Tsaritsyn and Stalingrad), which is located
on the western bank of the Volga River. The other part of Volga GES energy is transmitted to
Moscow (via AC 500 kV transmission) and to Donbass (Donets Basin in Ukraine) via the only
long-distance HVDC line in Russia in operation today called Volgograd-Donbass [24].
The main technical data of the line are listed in Table 5.11 and the approximate geographical
locations of the power converters are indicated in Figure 10.

Table 5.11 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in Russia [7]
Volgograd- Volzhskaya/ 220/220, 1962/
475 750 2 ±400 CSC
Donbass Mikhailovskaya 50/50 1965
1 2 3
Length of DC cable or line; Converter station in sending end / Converter station in receiving end; AC voltage in sending end / AC voltage in
receiving end, frequency in sending end / frequency in receiving end; 4 year of commissioning.
Volzhskaya
Mikhailovskaya
Figure 10 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in Russia; geographical map from [59]
The Volgograd-Donbass project was realized by the Ministry for Electrotechnical Industry of USSR
for power companies Volgogradenergo and Donbassenergo with commissioning in 1962 and 1965.
Both converter stations – Volzhskaya (at Volga Hydroelectric Station) and in Donbass called
Mikhailovskaya – ensure the 475 km DC line connection between the two 220 kV, 50 Hz power
grids. The ±400 kV DC bipolar overhead power transmission system with a rated power of
750 MW has an overload capacity of 15% continuously. Earth return is possible with only one pole
in service. Depending on hydro power available in the Volga River and power demand in each end
of the transmission system the energy flow can be reversed. In the first operation period, mercury
power valves were used. Later, power switches in the converter stations were replaced by thyristor
type valves. At present, the transmission system operates at only 25% of its design capacity with a
DC voltage level of 100 kV [7][24].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, connection between two
asynchronous AC networks [24].
An alternative to the long-distance HVDC transmission system is the EHVAC technology with an
extra high AC voltage level, which is higher than in traditional AC transmission systems, to
decrease the energy losses on a long-distance AC line.
The first 1150 kV EHVAC transmission system in the world was commissioned in 1985 in the
Republic of Kazakhstan. The length of the AC line is 494 km ensuring connection between power
substations in Ekibastuz and Kokshetaus. Other links were the one in 1988 between Kokshetau and
Kostanay with a 1150 kV AC line length of 396 km and a 697 km line between Ekibastuz and
Barnaul. The further expansion of the transmission system was built in 1995 between the power
substations in Barnaul and Itat with a line length of 448 km, where the AC line, autotransformer and
reactor equipment are installed for a nominal voltage of 1150 kV, while the other part of the
electrical equipment is designed for a nominal voltage level of 500 kV. In the 1990s, the power
substation in Chelyabinsk was included in the transmission system, linked with a 1150 kV AC line
to Kostanay. In total the 1150 kV AC line connects the cities in the following sequence: Itat,
Barnaul, Ekibastuz, Kokshetau, Kostanay and Chelyabinsk, but step-down transformer substations
were installed only on Kazakhstan territory. Therefore, the energy transmission at voltage level
1150 kV is possible between Ekibastuz, Kokshetau and Kostanay, but the other part of the system
operates at 500 kV. From 1996 until 2005, the whole 1150 kV line operated with a voltage level of
500 kV, mainly because of a significant lowering of required power capacities [54].
The main purpose of the line was to strengthen the electrical transmission grid and to ensure the
5 GW power transfer from the thermo-electro plants in Ekibastuz area and hydro-electro stations in
the Siberian Federal District to the Urals Federal District [54].
Without specific extra high voltage level equipment, there are many different specific operation
properties of the EHVAC line, like relatively high corona discharge losses, radio disturbances and
the like. It stands to reason that the EHVAC transmission technologies are relatively expensive, like
many of new technologies (also the HVDC) in research process.
5.6 Africa
The total electricity generation in Africa in 2006 was 110 GW, in which 22 GW of generators used
hydro-power, 2 GW were powered by nuclear energy and the majority of 86 GW was powered by
fossil fuels. The total gain of the generation capacity from 1980 to 2006 in Africa composes in
average 3.6% per year [56].
For bulk-power transmission there are three existing long-distance overhead HVDC transmission
systems in Africa and all of them are located in the Central, Eastern and Southern regions of Africa.
The first long-distance HVDC transmission project in Africa, Cahora-Bassa, was developed by
BBC, AEG-Telefunken and Siemens AG for the Eskom South African electricity public utility and
Hidroelectrica de Cahora Bassa (owned by Mozambique and Portugal). The next HVDC long-
distance transmission project, Inga-Shaba, was realized by Morrison-Knudson Co., as main
contractor with ASEA and GE and is owned by the SNEL, the national electricity company of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Developed by ABB and owned by the Namibian transmission
system operator, NamPower, the newest project that will start operation in 2010 is called the
Caprivi Link [9].
Main technical data of the HVDC long-distance lines in Africa are listed in Table 5.12 (as at
commissioning year) and their approximate geographical locations are indicated in the Figure 11.

Table 5.12 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in Africa [7][8][9]
Songo/ 220/275, 1975,
Cahora-Bassa 1456 1920 2 ±533 CSC
Apollo 50/50 1998
Kolwezi/ 220/220,
Inga-Shaba 1700 560 2 ±500 CSC 1982
Inga 50/50
Zambezi/ 330/400,
Caprivi Link 970 300 2 350 VSC 2010
Gerus5 50/506
1
Length of DC cable or line; 2Converter station in sending end / Converter station in receiving end; 3AC voltage in sending end / AC voltage in
receiving end, frequency in sending end / frequency in receiving end; 4 year of commissioning; 5Not determined sending and receiving end;
6
Zambezi converter station / Gerus converter station.
Inga
Kolwezi
Songo
Zambezi
Gerus
Apollo
Figure 11 Long-distance transmission projects in operation to-date in Africa; geographical map from [59]
5.6.1 Cahora-Bassa
The Cahora-Bassa long-distance overhead HVDC transmission system is used to transmit

1920 MW electrical power from a hydroelectric plant on the Zambezi River in the northern part of
the Republic of Mozambique to the Republic of South Africa. The 1456 km long ±533 kV DC line
project was commissioned in 1975. The system includes two converter stations: Songo connected to
the 220 kV, 50 Hz grid in Mozambique and Apollo connected to the 275 kV, 50 Hz grid in South
Africa. Cahora Bassa is the first HVDC project that used thyristor valves, which were outdoor
located, oil-cooled and oil-insulated designed [7][8].

During the civil war in 1980s the transmission line was heavily damaged and the system was down.
Besides the restoration of the main equipment, the complete DC control was exchanged by a fully
digital, computerized system including a modern Human-Machine Interface. The new system
increases the availability and reliability of the HVDC transmission system and the most powerful
DC line in Africa has been back in operation since 1998. The upgraded Apollo substation
contributes to an expansion in transmission capacity of the HVDC transmission system in the future
from 1920 MW to a planned 2500 MW and was completed in 2008. The upgrade significantly
increases the availability and reliability of the system and reduces the maintenance of the Apollo
station. Air-insulated outdoor thyristor valves have replaced the old oil-insulated valves and are
mounted on the existing support insulators for the old valves. The total reactive power generation
per AC filter has been increased from 167 MVAr (old AC filters) to 300 MVAr [9].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns [7][8][9].
5.6.2 Inga-Shaba
The second longest HVDC overhead bipolar electric power transmission system in the world –
Inga-Shaba – with a DC line length of 1700 km is located in the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DR Congo). It allows to transmit 560 MW electrical power from the Inga hydroelectric complex at
the mouth of the Congo River (western part of DR Congo) to mineral fields in Katanga province –
prior Shaba (eastern part of DR Congo). The DC voltage level is ±500 kV and the AC voltage at
both ends of the transmission system – at Inga and Kolwezi converter stations – has a value of
220 kV, 50 Hz. The line was commissioned in 1982 [7][9].
The power valves in both converter substations are equipped with six double-valves of air-cooled
design, where each single valve has 258 series connected thyristors [9].

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns;

because of the extreme line length and the difficult logistics along the route, it was decided
to build two monopolar lines; the converter stations were built so that the two converter
poles can be operated in parallel with ground return, in case of a monopolar line outage [9].
5.6.3 Caprivi Link
The Caprivi project – HVDC overhead long-distance transmission system – is constructed in

Namibia and will start operation in 2010. At present there are 300 MW power connection between
the Zambezi converter station in the Caprivi strip in eastern part of Namibia, close to the border of
Zambia, and the Gerus converter station, about 300 km North of Windhoek in the middle of
Namibia. The AC voltages are 330 kV and 400 kV at Zambezi and Gerus converter stations
respectively, which are interconnected by a 970 km long 350 kV DC line. The electrical power

transmission is possible in both directions [7][9]. The Caprivi Link will be the longest overhead line
based on the modern VSC-HVDC technology.

relatively low energy transmission losses, environmental concerns, two relatively weak AC
networks stability, enable power trading in the expansive region of southern Africa.
5.7 Lessons learnt from the operational experience described

From the above description of existing HVDC transmission systems, the following deductions that
are of special interest for TSOs can be derived: HVDC transmission technologies are essential in
efficient long-distance electrical bulk-power transmission. Its low losses and its smaller
environmental impact made it the preferred choice over conventional HVAC transmission. In
addition, the experiences gained from the operation of HVDC transmission projects for years and
the reliability records presented underline the feasibility and reliability of HVDC for long-distance
transmission.
HVDC transmission can therefore be a feasible option for the necessary upgrade and expansion of
the European transmission grid in order to ensure a stable integration of RES in the future.

6 FUTURE TRENDS OF LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION WITHIN
EUROPE
The combination of increasing demand for electrical power and strict environmental regulations
entail that more and more energy generation from remote hydro, solar and wind plants is under
consideration. Renewable generators are naturally built in areas, where the renewable resource,
such as wind and solar, has a high potential and is easily available. Generally, this is far away from
densely urbanized areas and the main energy consumers. A considerable number of these resources
is located several hundred kilometers from the load areas. Considering the future renewable energy
supply in Europe, there is a notable potential of solar radiation from North Africa and the Middle
East as well as an important potential of offshore and onshore wind power from Northern Europe.
In order to increase the share of renewable energy sources within the European generation pattern,
efficient electrical power transmission systems are needed.
6.1 Green energy power balance

Europe has a relatively high amount of wind power resources, especially in the northern part of the
continent, which can cover a significant share of the electrical power demand. That has been
already successfully realized in many European countries, for example, Germany with 23.9 GW,
Spain with 16.7 GW, and Denmark with 3.2 GW of installed wind power in 2008 [46]. The highest
onshore and offshore wind potential is in the northern and north-western part of Europe and has an
average value from 350 to more than 1500 W/m2 in offshore regions (mainly depending on the
height above sea level) and from 150 to more than 1800 W/m2 in onshore regions, where the highest
energy density is found in the hill areas [48]. The EU market for onshore wind grew by an average
of 32% per year in the 12-year period from 1992 to 2004 [47]. Therefore, wind power experienced
the highest growth in the European electricity generation, more than any other technology in
2008 [46]. In Europe, the total installed wind power was 57.1 GW in 2007 and reached 65.9 GW in
2008.
The main characteristic of wind power is its variable nature: the power output of wind generators
depends on the weather and is therefore fluctuating. This makes transmission system operation
difficult, especially in times when the generation of electrical power from RES is high while the
local power consumption is low. In this case, the RES power surplus shall be transmitted to areas
where it is needed and where it can replace power generation from conventional resources. Also,
the maximum share of wind power within a certain area depends on the power balance in this area,
taking also into account the minimum power demand and the exchange possibilities with
neighboring zones (e.g. between countries). Furthermore, the activation of reserve power to
compensate for wind power fluctuations and its efficient allocation throughout Europe need to be
considered: since power generation and consumption have to be balanced in order to guarantee a
stable grid operation, energy storages and/or conventional power plants need to provide reserve
power and therefore will still have a role to play within a RES-dominated generation pattern. The
accumulation of wind power in battery electric vehicles and/or in hydro reservoirs must also be
considered as leading factors to provide reserve power, to maximize the electricity generation from
wind power and to increase the wind power share in the total energy system.
In [50], the wide-area interconnection of wind power plants through a transmission grid is estimated
as a simple and effective way of reducing swings in wind power delivery caused by wind
fluctuations. As more wind farms are mutually interconnected in cluster, the probability that all sites
experience the same wind regime at the same time decreases. The cluster consequently behaves
more and more similarly to a single farm with steady wind speed and thus steady deliverable wind
power. It was found that an average of 33% and a maximum of 47% of yearly averaged wind power
from interconnected farms can be used as a reliable base-load power generator. Equally significant,
interconnecting multiple wind farms to a common point and then connecting that point to a far-
away city can allow the long-distance portion of transmission capacity to be reduced, for example,
by 20% with only a 1.6% loss of energy.
Efficient energy transmission over long distances is possible using HVDC technologies (described
in section 3.2). HVDC transmission can lead to increase the wind powered electrical generation
share in Europe by supplying the wind power from the place where wind is blowing to the
consumers around Europe, even between asynchronous AC networks with or without different
frequencies.
There are many plans of new wind parks, mainly focused on the high wind energy potential in
offshore sites. Over 100 GW of offshore wind projects in European waters are already in various
stages of planning [48].
One of the ongoing EU funded project at the time of writing is OffshoreGrid, which is a techno-
economic study within the Intelligent Energy Europe programme. It will develop a scientifically-
based view on an offshore grid in Northern Europe along with a suited regulatory framework
considering technical, economic, policy and regulatory aspects. The project is targeted for European
policy makers, industry, transmission system operators and regulators. The geographical scope is,
first, the regions around the Baltic and North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. In a
second phase, the results will be applied to the Mediterranean region in qualitative terms [51].
High political support is devoted to a European supergrid idea which includes long term develop-
ment of an international electricity grid including new wind (mainly offshore), and also solar power
plants in and around Europe. In developing the European supergrid, it has been suggested that the
approach should focus on modular development, with particular attention being paid to the regional
projects like Kriegers Flak, the North Sea Offshore Grid and the Mediterranean Energy Ring pro-
ject [58]. Such an increase in scale in presence of large amounts of variable RES generation will
require a clear and harmonized regulatory framework and innovations in system planning, opera-
tions and also market issues. It will also require reinforcements of existing high voltage networks
onshore. Transmission assets will hence continue to play an ever increasing role to connect remote
RES to customers and to manage the load-supply balance, along with a more efficient and smarter
use of energy by end consumers [62].
A large quantity of offshore wind power generators are being considered in the Kriegers Flak pro-
ject, concerning the Baltic Sea area. Spread out over the German, Swedish and Danish parts of
Kriegers Flak a total of 1600 MW future wind power generation capacity has been assumed in the
literature [57] where the classical solution with the offshore power plants connected nationally is
compared to solutions where the grid connection of the offshore wind power plants would also
function as an interconnector between Germany, Sweden and Denmark. In this combined solution
at Kriegers Flak it is planned to deliver wind power to the European consumers, strengthen the en-
ergy markets and increase the security of supply by providing international transmission capac-
ity [57]. It must be mentioned that at the beginning of 2010 the Swedish TSO has informed that it
will withdraw from the project, mainly due to uncertainties concerning the construction of wind
turbines in the Swedish zone of Kriegers Flak during the near future [62].
The North Sea Offshore Grid is another project included in the European supergrid. The relatively
high wind energy density area – North Sea – is chosen for the offshore wind power plants. Up to
70 GW of new offshore wind generation is planned to supply the Europe’s wind resources to the
northwest and middle part of Europe by international networks in Ireland, the UK, Norway,
Germany, Denmark, and the Benelux countries [58]. During high wind speed in the North Sea area
and at low energy demand, the wind power could be stored in hydro reservoirs located in the North
Europe countries mainly in order to balance wind power fluctuations.
Significant increase of the renewable energy generation and share in Europe could be achieved by
the Mediterranean Energy Ring project with the idea of the electrical connection around the
Mediterranean Sea ensuring energy import in Europe from the Middle East and Sub-Saharan
Africa [58]. Developing the ring and interconnection across the sea would enable mutual support, a
common Europe and Mediterranean energy market, and exploitation of the regions vast solar and
wind energy potential [62].
From the offshore wind experience in literature [52], the future generation of offshore wind farms,
being mostly of larger capacity, will be connected into and regulated by the transmission rather than
distribution systems.
6.2 Green energy power import
6.2.1 Desertec Foundation
The Desertec Foundation was created in 2009 by the German association Club of Rome and the
Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC) network. Aim of the foundation is to
serve as a hub for realizing the Desertec concept, which describes the perspective of forming a
sustainable supply with electrical power from renewable energy resources located in the
Mediterranean EUMENA (Southern Europe, Middle East, and North Africa) regions until 2050.
The main RES is decided to be solar radiation from the deserts in North Africa and the Middle East,
where the majority of electrical power will be generated by concentrating solar thermal power
(CSP) technologies [34].
In the CSP plant, the solar radiation is concentrated by a receiver in order to heat up the working
fluid. This heated working fluid is used in a thermoelectric generator to produce electrical power.
Solar heat can be stored in molten salt tanks and used for the thermoelectric generation of electrical
power during the nighttime. However, the thermoelectric generators can also be powered by
conventional fuel, such as fossil fuels, biomass, and others [37].

The planned transmission system provides the connection of the electrical energy generators from
20 to 40 different locations in the Middle East and North Africa to the main consumers in Europe
(see Figure 12), where the energy transmission distance can be around 3000 km (or even higher).
The power rating of this network is planned to be 100 GW until 2050 [36].
Figure 12: Power transmission network as proposed by Desertec [35]
In [36], there are three electrical energy transfer options described: via hydrogen, through HVAC,
and through HVDC. Using hydrogen as electrical energy carrier requires two energy conversions
between two types of energy: at the sending end of the transmission line electrical energy is
transformed to chemical energy (hydrogen) and vice versa at the receiving end. This conversion
together with the hydrogen transport and storage processes would lead to about 75% of losses of
energy in transmission system over a distance of 3000 km. The energy transfer with conventional
HVAC over the mentioned distance also has relatively high losses: about 45%. By contrast, only
some 10% of the generated electricity will be lost using HVDC transmission from Middle East and
North Africa to Europe over 3000 km distance.
Therefore, three possible future HVDC power transmission lines for the main energy transfer are
described in [36]. Additional interconnections between the western part of Algeria and Germany,
the southern part of Libya and Italy, and the central region of Egypt and Poland (see in the
following for further details) are proposed for the purpose of exporting solar power from CSP in the
desert areas of North Africa to Europe. The areas for electricity generation from solar radiation
were simply found by looking at the solar irradiance map of the Middle East and North Africa
regions and selecting three sites with major solar irradiance potentials of over 2800 kWh/m²/y
mentioned above. The distribution ends of the power transmission lines are placed in the major
centers of electricity demand in central part of Europe, in order to effectively backing and taking off
some load from the main existing mainly HVAC transmission grids and effectively using local
transmission and distribution grids for the further transfer of imported electrical power. The major
centers of electricity demand in Europe were found looking at the density of the electricity grid, the
people population density and the nightly light emission concentration as major indicators for
electricity demand. The Ruhr area in Germany, London in the UK, Milan in Italy and Warszawa in
Poland were selected as possible headers of the HVDC links coming from North Africa [Ref.].
The first HVDC power transmission line path begins in sending end converter station in Algeria and
leads through Morocco, Spain, France, Belgium until receiving end substation in Germany. The
total overhead line length is calculated 3099 km plus 18 km submarine cable in the Strait of
Gibraltar [36]. The second HVDC power transmission line with sending end converter station in
Libya transfers energy through Tunisia, Sardinia, Corsica, Italy (continent) with the total overhead
line length of 2735 km and 373 km submarine cable [36]. The third HVDC power transmission line
is planned to be installed through east coast continental part of the Mediterranean Sea. With the
sending end station in Egypt the energy flows as follows through Israel, Jordan, Syria, Turkey,
Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Austria, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland with the total overhead
line length 5113 km and 30 km submarine cable [36].
The benefits of such a large grid interconnection described in this subchapter are the gain of
additional reserve capacity and the compensation of local power and plant outages respectively.
Within a large grid there is a higher utilization of the single power plants, and the electricity
exchange over the national borders is easier [36].
There are indications in the literature [38] that 90% of the present world people population could be
supplied by necessary electrical power only by electrical power generated by CSP in potential
desert areas in a distance not longer than 3000 km through HVDC transmission technologies. Less
than 0.4 and 2.8% of the electricity potential of worldwide potential CSP areas would be required
for electric and non-electric energy needs, respectively, on the today’s European energy
consumption level. CSP potential areas were assumed by a direct normal irradiance greater than
2000 kWh/m²/y with territory larger than 9000 km².
6.2.2 OffshoreGrid initiative
OffshoreGrid is a techno-economic study initiated by the European Commission within the

Intelligent Energy Europe programme [51]. The target of this study is to develop the fundamentals
for an offshore power grid that comprises the regions around the Baltic and North Sea, the English
Channel and the Irish Sea. For this purpose, OffshoreGrid builds on information initially gathered
by 3E for Greenpeace and for the Belgian Federal Public Service for Economy, which has been
complemented with inputs from the German Energy Agency (dena). Already proposed power grid
configurations, such as e.g. Czisch’s SuperGrid [Ref.], the Eumena / Desertec backbone grid, and
the Power Cluster are considered, see Figure 13. The findings were updated and extended by the
research and the inputs of offshore grid experts [53].
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 13: Selected power grid configurations under consideration by OffshoreGrid [53]
While a number of the proposed network configurations under consideration by the OffshoreGrid
initiative already form a complete overlay power grid and therefore do not rely on transmission
capacities provided by the European ENTSO-E transmission network, offshore network
configurations such as presented in Figure 13 (c) have a significant impact on the European
ENTSO-E transmission system since they rely on the ENTSO-E transmission network to distribute
the power that has been generated offshore and fed into the onshore connection points. In particular,
electrical power fed into the connections points CS15, CS16, CS17, and CS18 needs to be
transmitted from the coast areas to the load centers. This requires the construction of additional
transmission lines since the transmission capacity of the existing power grid within this area has
already reached the upper limit.
6.3 Proposals for long-distance transmission in Europe

Especially grid configurations as shown in Figure 13(c) in section 6.2.2 result into an increased
need for transmission capacity within the ENTSO-E transmission network. Therefore, the
construction of new transmission lines becomes necessary. A proposed power grid extension [55] is
shown in Figure 14: three HVDC lines pick up the power fed into the connections points located in
coast of Germany and transmit it to the load centers in Central and Southern Germany, i.e. the
Ruhr-Basin, the Rhine-Main-Basin, and the city of Stuttgart [55].

Figure 14: HVDC power grid extension with three direct connections [55]
Furthermore, on a north European scale, HVDC interconnections between Norway with its large
capacities of hydro-pumped storages and wind farms located in Northern Europe could help to
exploit hydro-pumped storages as a compensation for wind power fluctuations and therefore – from
the economic point of view – to exploit and promote arbitrage transactions between complementary
markets.
However, while the above presented example constitutes only a local solution for Germany and the
North Sea Region respectively, and while similar solutions need to be developed for the
Netherlands, Belgium, and France, the construction of multinational long-distance transmission
lines or a multinational HVDC overlay grid seems to be a more viable and more comprehensive
solution. On this background, the HVDC overlay grid presented by the Desertec Foundation already
constitutes the most promising transmission infrastructure. Also, the future development of the
OffshoreGrid initiative, the Kriegers Flak project and the North Sea Offshore Grid should be
followed.
However, the opportunity of big investments in supergrids and transmission highways in Europe
should be always carefully evaluated on the basis of costs and benefits, so as to achieve a clear view
and to co-evaluate these projects in perspective with less costly initiatives (like reinforcing the
existing network punctually tackling the most limiting bottlenecks). From this point of view, the
cost-benefit analysis proposed in the REALISEGRID Deliverable D3.3.1 ([61]) appears as an
important decision tool in the hands of the European Commission and of the European TSOs.

7 CONCLUSIONS
From the technical point of view, HVDC transmission has proven its advantages over conventional
HVAC transmission when it comes to the transmission of bulk power over long distances:
• no need for reactive compensation along the transmission line and therefore practically no
limitation in line length,
• lower losses as well as less environmental impact compared to conventional HVAC
transmission with same ratings,
• no stability problems.
Today, existing long-distance HVDC transmission systems are primarily in use for the point-to-
point interconnection between highly urbanized areas (e.g. Los Angeles, Mumbai, and Shanghai)
and remote power generation (mainly hydro and offshore wind power). Almost all long-distance
HVDC transmission systems in operation to-date are overhead lines, for the most part carrying
between 1500 and 3000 MW of active power over distances between 500 and 1500 km. Most of the
lines are bipolar with two conductors and with DC voltages in the range of ±500 kV (+500 kV in
one conductor and -500 kV in the other, with respect to ground). The main purpose of the existing
long-distance transmission systems described is the bulk-power transmission from the sending end
to the receiving end of the line, hence, from areas with high generation but low load to areas where
additional power support is needed.
From the description of existing HVDC transmission systems in the Chapter 5, the following
conclusions that are of special interest for TSOs can be deduced: HVDC technologies are essential
in efficient long-distance electrical bulk-power transmission. Low losses and less harm to the
environment are the main choice reasons with respect to conventional HVAC transmission. In
addition, the experiences as well as the reliability records presented underline the feasibility of
HVDC for long-distance transmission.
These advantages of HVDC technologies can be the key solution of the many international
electrical energy transmission lines worldwide. The future trends in the European energy supply
show an increased need for the transmission of large amounts of power over long distances from
remotely (partly offshore) located RES to the load centers all over continental Europe. In the
European supergrid project the HVDC technologies offer efficient energy transmission from the
north-west areas with relatively high wind potential to the whole Europe wherever the supply is
needed, and also efficient energy import from the remote North Africa and the Middle East regions
is possible. Besides, the international long-distance transmission lines can lead to increase the wind
power share in the Europe’s electrical energy generation system due to efficient supply of remote
load and/or remote energy accumulator (e.g. hydro reservoir, battery electric vehicle). Ongoing
initiatives, such as Desertec, OffshoreGrid, Kriegers Flak or the North Sea Offshore Grid projects,
show that a comprehensive solution for the power grid of the future cannot be found on a national
level: multinational transmission projects in the form of long-distance point-to-point HVDC
transmission lines comprising more than just one country or in the form of a multinational HVDC
overlay grid are necessary. Furthermore, the idea exists to create an extra high voltage backbone to
connect wind generation in the North Sea (with a possible future interconnection between the wind
farms of the United Kingdom and Ireland) to the load centers in south-continental Europe. This
requires the cooperation among all European TSOs in order to coordinate the construction of the
proposed infrastructure.
Of course, the opportunity to put in place in Europe infrastructural reinforcements requiring very
significant investments, like supergrids and transmission highways, should be always carefully
evaluated on the basis of costs and benefits, so as to achieve a clear view and to co-evaluate these
projects in perspective with less costly initiatives (like reinforcing the existing network punctually
tackling the most limiting bottlenecks). From this point of view, the cost-benefit analysis proposed
within REALISEGRID ([61]) appears as an important decision tool in the hands of the European
Commission and of the European TSOs.

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Draft for consultation, European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity

AC vs DC Technologies for Long-Distance Power Transmission

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D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 3

ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................................. 7

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Objectives of this deliverable..................................................................................... 13

2.2 Expected outcome ...................................................................................................... 13

2.3 Approach .................................................................................................................... 14

3 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF LONG-DISTANCE POWER TRANSMISSION...... 17

3.1 Traditional HVAC transmission ................................................................................ 17

3.2 HVDC transmission ................................................................................................... 21

3.3 Practical solutions for long-distance power transmission.......................................... 23

3.4 Parallel operation of HVAC and HVDC.................................................................... 24

3.4.1 HVAC and HVDC links in the same right-of-way ........................................ 24

3.4.2 HVDC link within a synchronized HVAC power grid .................................. 24

4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS ON LONG-DISTANCE

5 LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION PROJECTS IN OPERATION TO-DATE............. 31

5.1 North America: United States of America and Canada ............................................. 32

5.1.1 Pacific Intertie ................................................................................................ 34

5.1.2 Square Butte ................................................................................................... 34

5.1.4 Intermountain Power Project.......................................................................... 36

5.1.5 Quebec-New England .................................................................................... 37

5.2 South America............................................................................................................ 37

5.3.1 Rihand-Delhi .................................................................................................. 43

5.3.3 East-South Interconnector II .......................................................................... 44

5.3.4 Ballia-Bhiwadi ............................................................................................... 45

5.4 China .......................................................................................................................... 45

5.4.3 Three Gorges-Changzhou .............................................................................. 49

5.4.4 Three Gorges-Guangdong .............................................................................. 50

5.4.5 Guizhou-Guangdong ...................................................................................... 51

5.4.6 Three Gorges-Shanghai.................................................................................. 52

5.4.7 Guizhou-Guangdong II .................................................................................. 53

5.5 Russia ......................................................................................................................... 53

5.6 Africa ......................................................................................................................... 55

5.6.3 Caprivi Link ................................................................................................... 57

5.7 Lessons learnt from the operational experience described ........................................ 58

6 FUTURE TRENDS OF LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION WITHIN EUROPE ........ 59

6.1 Green energy power balance...................................................................................... 59

6.2 Green energy power import ....................................................................................... 61

6.2.1 Desertec Foundation....................................................................................... 61

6.2.2 OffshoreGrid initiative ................................................................................... 63

6.3 Proposals for long-distance transmission in Europe .................................................. 65

D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 6

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

CSC Current Source Converter

CSP Concentrating Solar thermal Power

EHVAC Extra High Voltage Alternating Current

EHVDC Extra High Voltage Direct Current

ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity

EUMENA European Union, Middle East, North Africa

HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

LCC Line-Commutated Converter

RES Renewable Energy Sources

TREC Trans-Mediterranean Renewable Energy Cooperation network

TSO Transmission System Operator

USA United States of America

VSC Voltage Source Converter

XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene

D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 7

D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 9

D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 10

D1.3.3: Comparison of AC and DC technologies for long-distance interconnections Page 11

2.1 Objectives of this deliverable