Study of NEOM city-MSC Thesis-2018

DEGREE PROJECT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2018
Study of NEOM city

renewable energy mix and
balance problem
MAJED MOHAMMED G ALKEAID
KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Study of NEOM city
renewable energy mix and
balance problem
MAJED MOHAMMED G ALKEAID
Master in Electric Power Engineering

TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:655
Date: September 26, 2018
Supervisor: Rahmatollah Khodabandeh
Examiner: Rahmatollah Khodabandeh
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
iii
Abstract
It is important for NEOM management in the contemporary world
to put in place NEOM projects using the available resources. The re-
gion in which the NEOM project is spacious and vast with conditions
suited to generate energy from solar and wind. The NEOM project
is expected to be set up in the very resourceful state of Saudi Arabia.
The purpose of the study is to assist in setting up a sustainable city
through the exploitation of solar and wind energy. The aim of the
study was to assist in the generation of more than 10 GW renewable
energy to replace approximately 80,000 barrels of fossil energy. The
problem of coming up with renewable and sustainable energy from
the unexploited sources is addressed. The renewable city is expected
to be a technological hub based on Green Energy with 100% renewable
energy, which is correspond to 72.4GW . Freiburg and Masdar as re-
newable cities are used as case studies in the research. NEOM power
generation capacity is capable to cover Saudi Arabia power genera-
tion capacity (approximately 71GW ), which is more than enough for
a city. The study reveals that the total power generation from wind
farms, tidal farms, solar stations, and solar power tower stations are
9.1373GW , 4.76GW , 57.398GW and 1.11GW respectively. Saudi Ara-
bia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17 GW each) for energy pur-
poses (total of 272 GW ), which will be part of Saudi Arabia national
grid and will be more than enough to cover NEOM electricity demand
in case NEOM does not reach demand capacity. In case NEOM en-
ergy does not meet the demand, electricity generation from 16 Nuclear
power plants generating 17GW each, and 6 Natural underground bat-
teries with a capacity of 120M W each are recommended. The study re-
sults can be applied in NEOM Institute of Science and Technology for
further research on renewable energy. The findings can also be used
for research extension of HVDC transmission lines between NEOM
and Saudi Arabia main grid, Egypt, and Jordan.
Keywords : NEOM, Renewable, Energy, Solar, Wind, System, 100% re-

newable, Sustainable, Futuristic, City, Saudi Arabia, Tidal, Solar Power
Tower.
iv
Sammanfattning
Det är viktigt för NEOM projektets ledning att planera och införa pro-
jektet med hjälp av förnybara energiresurser på plats. Regionen är
rymligt och stort och är en lämplig plats för att kunna generera tillräck-
lig med energi från sol och vind för energiförsörjning av området. Syf-
tet med studien är att studera en pågående planering och byggnation
av en hållbar stad med upp till 10 GW förnybar energi som motsvarar
cirka 80 000 fat fossil bränsle. Problem och utmaningar för att försörja
en hel stad med förnybara energiresurser kommer att diskuteras. Den
förnybara staden förväntas vara ett föredöme för 100% förnybar ener-
gi , vilket i kapacitetssammanhang motsvarar 72.4GW , vilket är mer
tillräckligt än behovet för NEOM staden. Freiburg och Masdar städer
används som fallstudier i examensarbetet. NEOMs kraftproduktions-
kapacitet kan täcka behovet av hela landet som uppgår till 71GW . Stu-
dien visar att den totala kraftproduktionskapaciteten från olika för-
nybara energiresurser såsom vindkraftparker, tidvattenanläggningar,
solcellkraftverk och soltornskraftverk med en kapacitet av 9.1373GW ,
4.76GW , 57.398GW och 1.11GW respektive kan uppgå till 72.4GW .
Saudiarabien har planer på att skaffa 16 kärnkraftverk (17GW var-
dera) med en total kapacitet på 272GW som kommer att ingå i Sau-
diarabiens nationella satsningar för framtidens elproduktion och det
kan täcka elbehovet om NEOM inte når efterfrågekapaciteten. Utöver
ovan har studien föreslagit 6 underjordiska batterier med en kapaci-
tet på 120M W per batteri. Studieresultaten kan användas för kom-
petensuppbyggnad och vidare forskning om förnybara energiresurser
för NEOM Institute of Science and Technology. Resultaten kan ock-
så användas för teknikutveckling och forskning inom HVDC- överfö-
ringsledningar mellan NEOM, Saudiarabiens huvudnät, Egypten och
Jordanien.
Keywords :NEOM, Förnybar, Energi, Sol, Vind, System, 100% Förny-

bar, Hållbar, Futuristisk, Stad, Saudiarabien, Tidvatten, Solkraft Tower.
v
Acknowledgement
I would first like to thank my thesis advisor Professor Rahmatollah
Khodabandeh of the Department of Energy Technology at KTH Royal
Institute of Technology. Prof. Khodabandeh immense contribution in
assisting me at different stages of my research writing has enabled me
to advance smoothly from one part to another. Meanwhile, whenever
I encountered any issue, Prof. Khodabandeh was always there to of-
fer guidance. Prof. Khodabandeh’s immense support, mentoring, and
advices allowed me to complete this thesis whilst removing all the hur-
dles I faced by applying his great advisory skills.
I would also like to acknowledge Engineer Soliman Almohimeed at

Bright Vision Trading as the second reader of this thesis, and I am
gratefully indebted for his very valuable comments on this thesis. Mr.
Almohimeed truly helped me to refine my work for conciseness and
better readability.
My sincere thanks also goes to Masdar City especially Faisal Alebri,

for offering me the opportunity to visit Masdar City, leading me to the
right sources, and answering my questions.
Finally, I must express my very gratitude to my parents and to my

siblings for providing me with unfailing support and continuous en-
couragement throughout my years of study and through the process
of researching and writing this thesis. This accomplishment would not
have been possible without them. Thank you.
Author
Majed Mohammed Alkeaid
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Relevance of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Review of the Literature 6

2.1 Renewable Energy Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Renewable Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 100% Renewable city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.1 Solar system projects in the Middle East . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Solar system projects in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.1 Wind Power Projects in the Middle East . . . . . . 14
2.5.2 Wind Power Projects in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Solar Panels and Wind Turbines Compared . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Methodologies used to Complete the Renewable Energy
Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.1 Generating Capacity of the Wind Turbine . . . . . 18
2.7.2 Generating Capacity of Solar Panel . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.3 Combined Generating Capacity of the Wind Tur-
bine and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Smart Energy Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Challenges on the Implementation of Renewable Energy 20
2.10 Solution to the Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.11 Renewable Energy Projects and Initiatives: Best Project
Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
vi
CONTENTS vii
2.12 The Equipment that Make Wind Turbine and Solar Cells
Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.12.1 Wind Turbine Equipment Output during sum-
mer and winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.12.2 Solar Cells Equipment Output During Summer
and Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.12.3 Wind Turbine versus Solar Cells and their Out-
put During Summer and Winter . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.12.4 Amount of Power from Solar Panels and Wind
Turbines in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.13 What to Do If Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reach
the Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.13.1 Dealing with the Situation when there is no Wind
and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.14 HVDC Transmission System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Case study of Freiburg, Germany renewable energy 30

3.1 How Germany Became a Clean Energy Efficient Country 31
3.2 Challenges Encountered in Implementing Renewable En-
ergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Capacities of Renewable Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 The Best Energy Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation of renewable
energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6 Freiburg, Germany Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Challenges that Faced the Implementation of Renew-
able Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7.1 How the Challenges were Solved . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.8 The Best Renewable Energy Projects that Freiburg has
Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.9 Equipment that made the Green Revolution Possible . . 42
3.10 Power to be Supplied to other Cities by Freiburg . . . . . 43
3.11 Power Needed by Freiburg in Certain Situations . . . . . 43
3.11.1 Wind systems fail to reach the capacity . . . . . . 44
3.11.2 Solar system fails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.11.3 Both wind and solar systems fail . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.12 Dealing with the Problem of Shortages during Nights . . 44
3.13 HVDC Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.13.1 Germany’s HVDC Transmission Cable Length . . 45
viii CONTENTS
3.13.2 Electric Design of HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . 46

3.14 Electricity Pricing in Freiburg, Germany . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.15 Contingency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.16 Use of Clean Energy Solutions to Reduce Long-term En-
ergy Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4 Case study of Masdar city renewable energy 54

4.1 Challenges in Implementing Renewable Energy in Mas-
dar City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Methodologies Masdar city used to complete the renew-
able energy project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Masdar Generating Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3.1 Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3.2 Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
bine and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4 Best Energy Solution for Masdar City that Made it Pow-
ered by Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation of renewable
energy in Masdar City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.1 Masdar City Renewable Energy Projects and Ini-
tiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5.2 The Challenges that Faced the Implementation
of Renewable Energy in Masdar City . . . . . . . 63
4.5.3 Solutions to the Challenges Facing Masdar City . 63
4.5.4 The best Renewable Energy Projects that Masdar
City has done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6 Assessment of the Equipment that made the Project Pos-
sible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6.1 Kind of Wind Turbine and Solar Cells Equipment
Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6.2 Assessment of the Wind Turbine Equipment and
their Output during Summer and Winter . . . . . 65
4.6.3 Assessment of the Solar Cells Equipment and Their
Output During Summer and Winter . . . . . . . . 66
4.6.4 Comparison of the Equipment of the Wind Tur-
bine Versus Solar Cells and their Output During
Summer and Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
CONTENTS ix
4.7 The Amount of Power that Masdar City can Deliver to

the State (other cities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.8 The Amount of Power Masdar City Can Receive from
the State (other cities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.8.1 Wind Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity . . . . . 68
4.8.2 Solar Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity . . . . . 68
4.8.3 Both Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reach
the Required Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.9 How Masdar City can Deal with this Scenario where
there is no Wind and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.10 HVDC Transmission between Masdar City and Other
Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.10.1 How much time the Transmission occurs . . . . . 69
4.10.2 Electrical Design of HVDC Systems in Masdar City 70
4.11 Masdar Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.11.1 Transmission Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.11.2 Transmission Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.11.3 Access to Parties Wanting to Connect to the Grid . 72
4.12 The Contingency Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5 Results and Analysis 75

5.1 Assumptions and considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2 Challenges in implementing renewable energy in NEOM 77
5.2.1 Challenges and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3 NEOM Generation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.1 Wind Turbine Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3.2 Tidal Turbine Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.3.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3.4 Solar Power Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4 In case NEOM does not reach demand capacity . . . . . . 122
5.4.1 Natural battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4.2 Nuclear Power Plants in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 127
6 Conclusions and Future Work 132

6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.1 NEOM Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Bibliography 137
x CONTENTS
A MathCAD Calculations 151

A.1 Wind Turbine Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.2 Tidal Turbine Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
A.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calculations . . . . . . . 159
List of Figures
1.1 NEOM location [137] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 Renewable energy mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Wind Power Generation and the Wake Interference [131]
8
2.3 Solar System [145] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 KAPSARC Solar Park [77] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 PNBARU’s solar thermal plant [116] . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Saudi Aramco Solar Car Park [133] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 KAUST’s 2 megawatts Solar-Plant [78] . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.8 Wind Power System [18] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.9 Renewable Energy Project Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.10 Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build [150] . . . . . . . . . 18
2.11 Multiple-Prime Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.12 Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System [4] . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13 Smart Energy Solutions [140] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.14 Smart Energy Solutions [140] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.15 Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant [34] . . . . . . . 24
2.16 Iced Wind Turbines [84] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.17 Ice on a Solar Panel [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.18 Section of the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis [54] . . . . . 28
2.19 Power flow From Generation to the Consumption Point
through the HVDC Systems [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.20 Detailed HVDC System [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg [61] . . . . . . . 32

3.2 Household renewable energy source in Freiburg [112] . . 33
3.3 The Solar panels installations on private and public re-
sources in Freiburg, Germany [58] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Wind turbines near the border of Freiburg, Germany [58] 37
xi
xii LIST OF FIGURES
3.5 Solar panels being installed on a house [79] . . . . . . . . 38

3.6 Heliotrope, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany
[58] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7 SolarFabrik, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany
[124] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.8 German citizens protesting against nuclear nukes [126] . 42
3.9 Design and equipment in Freiburg, Germany [60] . . . . 43
3.10 How energy is stored [144] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.11 Part of HVDC Baltic Cable [118] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.12 How a basic HVDC system works [30] . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.13 HVDC circuitry [67] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.14 Basic structure of a residential HVAC system [65] . . . . 51
3.15 Annual energy consumption of a green community (Ar-
lington, Massachusetts) [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1 The Knowledge Center at the Masdar Institute [86] . . . . 55

4.2 The view of concrete facade of the structures at the Mas-
dar Institute [86] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3 Wind and Solar intermittency [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Illustrations of dirty solar panels due to accumulation
of dust [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 The presentation of the master of Masdar City [86] . . . . 58
4.6 Wind turbines [101] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7 The feasibility comparison of various renewable ener-
gies within the GCC region [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8 Photos of the Masdar Institute Solar Platform [25] . . . . 62
4.9 Solar PV plant [49] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.10 The electricity demand comparison [138] . . . . . . . . . 66
4.11 A simple diagram showing transmission and distribu-
tion system of electricity [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.12 Losses at every stage of electricity transmission [1] . . . . 72
4.13 The feed-in tariffs that are used in different nations around
the world [38] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Artificial wind farm in NEOM [106] . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.2 Wind turbine: swept area, blade length, and hub height . 85
5.3 Singe wind turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds . . . 87
5.4 Singe tidal turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds . . . 94
5.5 PV Panel [90] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 . Components of PV system [90] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
5.7 PV system, its battery and grid connection [90] . . . . . . 99

5.8 Flow chart for PV module set-up [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.9 Compounds in solar panels [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.10 Wave functions [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.11 Basic circuit of PV [139] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.12 Grid connection [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.13 Overall classification and grid [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.14 Development of PV power generation in million kWh
2000-2012 [98] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.15 PV system prices decrease steadily [98] . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.16 Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum power
points current and short circuit current vs. range of volt-
ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.17 Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of cur-
rents vs. range of voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.18 Artificial solar station in NEOM [106]. . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.19 Solar Power Tower system [66] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.20 Thermal liquid heat storage capacity [46] . . . . . . . . . 119
5.21 Large-scale PV Integration study [91] . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.22 The Size of Heliostat Field and impact on Capacity [46] . 120
5.23 Aerial view of Ivanpah Project [32] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.24 PS20 solar thermal power plant, Spain [89] . . . . . . . . 121
5.25 Airier view of Solar Two Power Plant in Daggett, CA
[93] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.26 Artificial solar power tower in NEOM [106]. . . . . . . . 122
5.27 Design of Natural Battery Underground [102] . . . . . . . 123
5.28 The site on which brine4power is been constructed [71] . 126
5.29 The Design of brine4power [71] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.30 Design of Nuclear Power Plant [110] . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.31 How nuclear power plants work. [110] . . . . . . . . . . . 129
A.1 Wind turbine data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

A.2 Wind turbine matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.3 Power curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
A.4 Tidal turbine data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
A.5 Tidal turbine matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
A.6 Power curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A.7 Solar panel data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A.8 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
xiv LIST OF FIGURES

A.12 Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum power
points current and short circuit current vs. range of volt-
ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
A.13 Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of cur-
rents vs. range of voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
List of Tables
5.1 Variables definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.2 Wind Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3 Total power vs. different wind speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.4 Tidal Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5 Total power vs. different tidal speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.6 PV solar Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
xv
Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter introduces the background, problem statement, relevance of the

project, and the methodology of the thesis.
The world’s energy sector has been totally dependent on non-renewable

forms of energy for eons. The most used form being crude oil that so
far has been the major source of energy in major stages of industrializa-
tion. However, it is very evident with the forthcoming modernization
that the consumption of this black gold may lead to its depletion in
years to come. Several types of research have been done and its evi-
dent that the earth that we live in is blessed with a variety of energy
forms which is yet to be exploited and adopted in our modern day liv-
ing.
Renewable energy can be easily adopted. Also known as Green En-

ergy, it encompasses Solar Energy and Wind Energy, which is very free
and in abundance. The two can generate enough energy that would,
later on, supplement the monotonous use of crude oil with time if
properly implemented in modern civilization ranging from Industri-
alization to transport. Thus far, this project aims to bring about an
overview of this idea. We have seen so far how much crude oil and its
products run economies in cities. Then, why not come up with a city
that is totally dependent on green energy? NEOM will be the solution.
A city that will seem futuristic as possible to many, with technological
advancement far out much better than the current [137].
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
NEOM is a futuristic technological city that is to be built in Tabuk,
Saudi Arabia to be connected to Egypt and Jordan. In a bid to re-
duce the dependence on oil, being a non-renewable form of energy, the
project was introduced at the Future Initiative Conference in Riyadh
[137]. The city seems futuristic as possible to many, with technological
advancement far out much better than the current. It will be governed
differently with its separate laws and government systems. The Project
is worth $500 Billion Dollars and funding is to be propagated by the
Public Investment Fund of Saudi together with foreign investors [137].
The Mega City will be fully dependent on 100% renewable energy. It
would be almost comparable to cities like Norway and Iceland, which
is totally dependent on renewable electrical grids. In effect to that, it is
expected to lead to the construction of 100% green transportation.
1.2 Problem Statement

It is evident that ever since the dawn of industrialization that man has
been progressing exponentially and continuously improving himself
for efficiency. In the earlier years, we have been inclined to utilize
natural forms of energy so as to make our work easier by develop-
ing machinery and tools. This has brought forth total dependence on
it over time. For every action, there is a reaction and this evident by
the abuse and misuse of this limited resource. To add, ever since the
discovery of crude oil, we have seen the destruction of nature and en-
vironmental resources. The carbon emission from factories and our
automobiles is alarming. Cases of crude oil spillage have led to pollu-
tion of marine habitat leading to the death of aquatic animals. We can
say that the more we have been utilizing this form of energy, the more
we have lost our discipline in environmental conservation and yet we
are seemingly dependent on it.
With all this evidence, it necessary to say that apart from depletion of
that non-renewable form of energy, we are followed by the aftermath
effect of it by polluting where we live. This study is set to address this
problem by coming up with a unique approach to providing ourselves
energy, by using the free energy that we have in plenty. It also comes
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 3
with a futuristic approach to developing a new form of industrializa-

tion and new forms of governance. NEOM city will be a technological
hub totally dependent on Green Energy [23]. Thus should be able to
lift the weight faced on the usage of Crude oil by an estimated 5% per
year if it is to be implemented. Pollution will also be a thing of the past
as Green Energy is also clean energy. The main objective of the project
is to develop NEOM city in a manner that it can sustainably maintain
itself. The city should be self-reliant in terms of energy power and its
completion should give birth to a new blueprint of sustainable life.
1.3 Relevance of the project

NEOM project is expected to be set up in the very resourceful state
of Saudi Arabia. This region is very spacious and vast with condi-
tions best suited to generate volumes of energy from Solar energy and
wind energy. With Saudi Arabia expected to generate more than 10
GW per year of Renewable Energy from solar and wind, it is expected
to replace about 80,000 barrels per day from burned power. Solar en-
ergy has become extensively popular in Saudi Arabia ever since the
increase in oil prices over time. That is why the location best suits the
project.
The project is estimated to record an average of 5700W h/m2 to 6300W h/m2

from lowest areas and highest areas of the region. 7300W h/m2 in the
clearest of skies [51]. Though it has been extrapolated that most pho-
tovoltaic cells may degrade performance at the highest of temperature
(Above 30 ◦ C). The research above is inclined to the various measure-
ments in the radiation in the region. Wind Energy has already gained
popularity with companies like Siemens AG taking about most ma-
jor projects in Saudi Arabia. Many studies have been carried about
Saudi Arabia’s Wind energy potential. Though not extensively cov-
ered in major parts of the region. This is because challenges have been
posted on major parts of the Arabian Penisula with regards to integrat-
ing wind energy into existing power systems.
However, in the design consideration, wind energy is extrapolated by

wind power per air density meaning the size of the blade of the turbine
matters when one opts to incline with that form of renewable energy.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
With wind energy still an ongoing research at various institutes that

deal with Natural renewable energy, solar energy is arguably the most
convenient form of renewable energy that NEOM will rely on thus
far [24]. Solar Energy in Saudi Arabia is averaged to generate about
2000kW/h/m2 /year of energy [6]. One wind turbine is expected to en-
ergize about 250 homes which are equivalent to about 18000 barrels
of oil or about 2.75 MW thus reducing intake of electricity from the
national grid [152]. NEOM is expected to extend into the Northern
Egyptian territory thus far including Tiran and Sanafir Island as well
as North Sinai. It is expected that both Jordan and Egypt will benefit
from the extent of energy generation in this city since both countries
are allies. Due to lead dissimilarities in the load times, both parties
will have a fair share of the cake by sharing electricity in both coun-
tries thus improving each country. Figure 1.1 shows the location of
NEOM city.
Figure 1.1: NEOM location [137]
Therefore, with an onset of renewable energy utilization on the trend, I

feel that NEOM is the future and most nations should follow suit with
the abundance of renewable energy yet to be explored deeper.
1.4 Methodology
The NEON project being carried out by Saudi Arabia is still in its in-
fancy stages as the government is in the process of laying the ground
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 5
for kick off. Therefore, this project will involve a qualitative study
where most of the information will be based on non-numerical and
unquantifiable elements obtained from secondary sources. In that, the
core mode of conducting research will involve literature review study.
The study will be used to collect information regarding such projects
globally and compare it with what Saudi Arabia is trying to accom-
plish.
The thesis is divided into 6 chapters. After this introduction, Chap-

ter 2 surveys the literature on sustainable Energy, renewable energy
mix, renewable energy balance. It also remarks the concepts of 100%
renewable city, solar and wind systems.
Chapter 3 intends to describe Freiburg, Germany renewable energy. It

starts by presenting the challenges that encountered in implementing
renewable energy in Freiburg, Germany. Then the methodologies used
to complete the renewable energy project and the generating capacity
are highlighted. The chapter ends by talking about the electricity pric-
ing and contingency plan.
Chapter 4 introduces the case study of Masdar city renewable energy.

It starts by explaining the challenges that encountered in implement-
ing renewable energy. Then the methodologies used to complete the
renewable energy project and the generating capacity are highlighted.
The chapter ends by talking about Masdar electricity (transmission
losses and tariff) and contingency plan.
Chapter 5 concentrates on results and analysis. It starts by explain-

ing the assumptions and considerations. It also shows the calculations
of Wind Turbine and Solar Power.
In the last chapter, it shows the derived conclusions with recommen-

dations on future work.
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
The literature review describes and analyzes previous research on the topic.
This chapter surveys the literature on sustainable Energy, renewable energy
mix, renewable energy balance. It also remarks the concepts of 100% renew-
able city, solar and wind systems.
Energy plays a critical role in human life and development; its genera-
tion, supply, and usage have significant impact on social, political, and
economic needs. However, fossil energy, which includes coal, is not
only unsustainable but also lead to environmental degradation [145].
Therefore, it is imperative to look for alternative sources of energy that
are sustainable and environmentally friendly to reduce the risks asso-
ciated with global warming and climate change.
Sustainable energy sources such as wind and solar are the way to go
if the world is to be more stable for the current and future generations
[145]. The concept, in this case, indicates the application of systems,
technology, and resources that support the production and supply of
unconventional energy. The shift from the non-renewable to renew-
able energy sources is driven by three fundamental objectives. The
first intention is to facilitate the preservation of the essential natural
systems upon which catastrophic climate change would be avoided.
The second objective is to assist in making it possible for a large num-
ber of people who have no access to conventional energy to enjoy the
basic energy and related services. The third objective of upholding
the sustainable energy is to reduce the security risks arising from the
competition for energy resources such as oil and natural gas.
6
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 7
2.1 Renewable Energy Mix

Renewable energy is the form/type of energy derived from natural
processes such as sunlight and wind power. The percentage of the
world energy sourced from renewable sources in 2012 was around
13.2% of the total supply, which increased to 22% in 2013 and is pro-
jected to be about 26% in 2020. According to International Energy
Agency, the goal to achieve efficient energy supply, which is depen-
dent on the renewable energy mix exploited [69]. Therefore, the stake-
holders should seek to exploit the different sources of renewable en-
ergy, including wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, and biomass. The op-
timal exploitation of the mix is necessary because of the variability of
the power generation due to changes in weather patterns. The sources
would, therefore, complement each other. For instance, at the seasons
when the sunlight is relatively low, the wind energy can be relied up.
The diversification of energy mix through the increased investment in
renewable energies is considered as the opportunity to increase energy
security. Figure 2.1 shows the renewable energy mix.
Wind
Power
Geothermal Biomass
Renewabe Energy Mix
Hydro-
Solar
electric
Power
Power
Figure 2.1: Renewable energy mix

8 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.2 Renewable Energy Balance

The optimal exploitation of renewable energy requires the balancing
act to avoid the underlying areas of conflict. In regard to wind en-
ergy, a significant attention is drawn in regard to disputes over wind
rights, wind severance statutes, and the conflict between wind plant
and wildlife. The wildlife concerns entail the likelihood of unneces-
sary noise from the wind power plants, which is likely to scare away
wild animals and interfere with their bleeding patterns. The turbine
blades may harm birds and bats by injuring or killing them. The so-
lar panel systems are also associated with the interference with the
wildlife and their habitats, including the desert tortoises, squirrels,
lizards, and toads [131]. The ambition to generate energy should be
done in consideration to the need for wildlife conservation.
In the wind energy production, parties are involved in many conflicts,

including the right to tap the power and the associated interference.
Different parties may be interested in exploiting the potential blowing
along a given line. In other cases, the downwind developers expe-
rience relatively weak strength of wind due to wake-based setbacks
from other developed setups. For instance, in figure 2.2, the Predom-
inant and strong wind flow to Plant A hence able to drive the turbine
and generate a substantial amount of energy. However, the turbines
in Plant A break the strength of the wind and hence Plant B does not
get the strong wind to generate electricity. The strength of the wind
stabilizes after Plant B and blow predominantly strong. The investors
or owner of Plant B and Plant A are likely to engage in disputes [131].
However, the primary issue, in this case, is that the plants were not set
in consideration to the need for the balance between the distances be-
tween the plants such that the wake impacted wind can stabilize and
regain the strength. Figure 2.2 shows the wind power generation and
the wake interference.
Figure 2.2: Wind Power Generation and the Wake Interference [131]
2.3 100% Renewable city

Cities or urban centers contribute to the increased environmental degra-
dation due to commercial activities, including transportation, industri-
als operations, and residential wastes. According to the City of Van-
couver, renewable city is associated with the consumption of renew-
able energy while at the same time respecting the principles of sustain-
ability [123]. The renewable cities are particularly driven by the matu-
rity in the renewable energy technology. The focus areas upon which
renewable cities are built include buildings, transportation, economy,
people, and environment. Buildings for both residential and commer-
cial operations are consumption points to a large portion of energy for
light, powering machines, heating, and cooling. Meeting the electric
needs in the buildings from solar panels, wind, and hydro projects
is highly recommended as a component of 100% renewable energy.
Transportation in a renewable city is largely powered through envi-
ronmentally responsibly sourced fuels such as biofuels, electricity, and
renewable natural gas.
A 100% renewable city is also characterized with the support from

the people. In this case, the residents in their diversity are required
to support the development of relevant technology, energy generation
and supply and consumption of the alternative/renewable sources of
energy. Furthermore, the economy of the given city should be strong
and dynamic to facilitate the investment in renewable energy gener-
ation and consumption. The economy must be attractive to both the
local and foreign investors in the energy sector. Lastly, the environ-
ment must be favorable with the abundance of the necessary natural
resources to support the generation of alternative energy [123]. For
instance, the solar energy should be exploited for all the number of
hours the city is under sunlight while the wind strength should be re-
liable for effective generation of wind energy. At times, a 100% renew-
able city is required to collaborate with the neighboring communities
in which landscape and natural resources are viable for the generation
of the renewable energy.
The City of Vancouver provides the guidelines on the three key com-
ponents and strategic approaches collectively required in facilitating
transition to energy and later to 100% renewable cities. The first pillar
is the reduction of the energy use for the purpose of conservation and
reduction of greenhouse effect [123]. For instance, the management
in the city should improve bike network and encourage residents to
use the bicycles for transit purposes. The second pillar is the increase
in the use of renewable energy by switching to the already available
forms of renewable energy to the full potential. The third pillar is to
increase supply of the renewable energy to make it accessible to both
the commercial and domestic users.
2.4 Solar system

A solar system is a structure used in converting the heat and light from
the sun into energy. The light energy is generated using the Solar PV
[145]. The solar cells are made of PV material, which when exposed
to light tend to transfer electrons between the different bands in the
material. Consequently, the differences between two electrodes arise,
leading to the flow of the direct current. The solar PVs are used in
various applications, including buildings, solar farms, and auxiliary
power supply. However, the utilization of the PVs requires that the
direct current be run through an inverter and a corresponding relay
protection. In addition, since the PV energy can only be generated only
during the daytime specifically when there is sunlight, the reliability
of solar PV is, therefore, relatively low. However, technology is used
such that the energy generated during the pick hours and seasons is
stored in batteries and consumed during the off-peak hours when PVs
are not available. Figure 2.3 shows a solar system.
Figure 2.3: Solar System [145]

The solar panel is also used in the conversion of solar energy into ther-
mal/heat energy. In this case, the panels are made of three collectors,
including the low, medium, and high thermal collectors. The differ-
ent collectors depend on the temperature levels. According to Borlase,
low-temperature collected through the low thermal collectors is used
in heating swimming pools, and the middle collectors are used in heat-
ing water and air in a building, while high-temperature collectors are
largely used in electric energy production [18]. Importantly, the solar
panels are able to produce electricity even during the daytime when
there is no sunlight as long as the temperature is high. The electricity
generated is transferred through conduction to the point of use, stor-
age, or connection to the grid.
2.4.1 Solar system projects in the Middle East

According to Majzoub, solar energy is gaining ground in the Middle
East. In 2015, Dubai launched a 200 MW solar plant targeted to gener-
ate 3,000 MW by 2030, which will be 15% of the total energy demand
[95]. At the same time, Jordan awarded contracts for 12 solar projects,
whose completion in 2018 will contribute to 1,800 MW into the na-
tional grid. These are among the projects in the Middle East coun-
tries, which are a clear indication of the fact that the exploitation of the
solar energy would lead to significant diversification of energy from
primarily fossil energy-dependent to a system mixed with substantial
sustainable energy.
2.4.2 Solar system projects in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has mega projects in which solar system plans are be-
ing carried out. The Saudi Arabia Solar Industry Association (SASIA)
identifies four of the projects which would be used as benchmark de-
velopments that will come up in the country and beyond in the future.
The first project is the KAPSARC (King Abdullah Petroleum Studies
and Research Center) Solar Park. It is located in Riyadh and has the
peak power generation capacity of 3.5 megawatts. The project is the
largest grounded scheme in the country. After the project completion
and full capacity, the park is expected to generate about 5,800 MWh of
energy. Consequently, it will offset about 4,900 tons of carbon released
in the atmosphere annually. Figure 2.4 shows KAPSARC Solar Park.
Figure 2.4: KAPSARC Solar Park [77]
The second solar system project identified is Princess Noura Bint Abul
Rahman University’s (PNBARU) solar thermal plant. It is a fully oper-
ational project with about 36,305 square meters of panels. The project
produces heat energy used in providing over 900,000 liters of hot wa-
ter. About $14 million were spent in investment, which serves more
than 40,000 students and staff in the university. Figure 2.5 shows PN-
BARU’s solar thermal plant.
Figure 2.5: PNBARU’s solar thermal plant [116]
The third solar system project in Saudi Arabia is Saudi Aramco Solar
Car Park. It is the largest solar plant in the country. The project is lo-
cated in Dhahran and produces about 10 megawatt Photovoltaic Car-
port System occupying 4,500 parking spaces. Figure 2.6 shows Saudi
Aramco Solar Car Park.
KAUST Solar Park is the other significant project in Saudi Arabia. The
solar park has a capacity of 2 megawatts. The panels are placed on
Figure 2.6: Saudi Aramco Solar Car Park [133]
the rooftop of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology

(KAUST). It is the first project in the Kingdom to be LEED Platinum
certified. Figure 2.7 shows KAUST’s 2 MW Rooftop Solar-Plant.
Figure 2.7: KAUST’s 2 megawatts Solar-Plant [78]
2.5 Wind Power

Wind power is generated through the conversion of wind energy by
the turbines into electricity. According to Borlase, wind power has
been used over the centuries notably for the sailing of ships [18]. How-
ever, the appetite for renewable energy has increased the generation
and utilization of the alternative energy in recent times than any other
time in the past. The primary success factor for the wind power gener-
ation is the speed of the wind. The technology is preferred because it
offers 100% green energy, but it is not a reliable source of energy, par-
ticularly because of the fluctuations in the speed of wind. At the time
when the wind is not powerful, the power is not generated. However,
when it is peak hours and seasons, a lot of energy can be produced.
In fact, with the appropriate installation of battery energy storage, the
reliability of wind power system is enhanced. The energy stored in
the batteries is usable during the wind -off-peak period. On the other
hand, the energy can be connected to grid to complement electricity
from other sources. Figure 2.8 shows Wind Power System.
Figure 2.8: Wind Power System [18]
2.5.1 Wind Power Projects in the Middle East

Tafila Wind Farm in Jordan is one of the mega wind power projects in
the Middle East. The 117MW wind farm produces 400 GWh of electri-
cal energy annually. The project was a step towards the target of 10%
of energy from renewable energy by 2020 [114]. Wind turbines in the
project will supply about 3.5% of the annual electricity consumption in
the country. Besides, the wind power plant is expected to save about
US$50 million every year as a result of reduced importation of electric-
ity by the Jordanian government.
The second mega power project in the region is the Gulf of ElZayt
Wind Farm in Egypt. The project is regarded as the largest in the Mid-
dle East so far [35]. The other notable wind project in the Middle East
is located in Oman. The project is undertaken by Masdar in collabo-
ration with GE and Spain TSK. The 50 megawatt Dhofar Wind Power
Project is expected to serve more than 16,000 homes [2]. Consequently,
it will reduce about 110,000 tons of carbon dioxide emitted every year.
According to Kassem, the project was compelled by the economic im-
plication felt by Oman during the oil glut.
2.5.2 Wind Power Projects in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is in the early stages of exploiting wind energy. It re-
ceived the first wind turbine in 2016, which was the collaboration with
Saudi Aramco and GE. The turbine was located in Turaif Bulk Plant,
in the north-west region of the country. According to Saudi Aramco,
it was a groundbreaking project towards the continuous exploration
and generation of wind energy in the country. Subsequently, the coun-
try offered a contract for the building of 400 megawatts wind power
plant in the northern area of Domat al-Jandal. The project is one of 30
renewable energy projects the Ministry of Energy is willing to invest
to achieve 10% of the total power consumed from the sustainable en-
ergy sources [94]. Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia does not have in place
as much wind power projects as the solar power projects which are
already functional, which is because the Gulf region has the highest
solar potential in the world.
2.6 Solar Panels and Wind Turbines Com-

pared
The exploitation of solar and wind power is a noble course, with a
lot of benefits, including reduced cost of energy generation and the
conservation of the environment. However, the two sources of energy
are different in various ways, including the underlying cons and pros.
The pairing of the two sources of energy can assist an investor or a
residence in deciding on the option to uphold. The wind turbines can
be considered advantageous because of the capability to produce elec-
tricity during the day and night. Contrary to this, solar panels would
only be used in power generation during the day when there is ample
sunlight. Therefore, solar panels are not economical for power gener-
ation in areas where there is a lesser exposure to sunlight. However,
the wind turbines should be located at high heights above any possi-
ble obstacles. Furthermore, wind turbines are not suitable in regions
with a large number of birds and bats. The moving turbines can cause
injuries and death, and hence a threat to the ecosystem.
The solar panels do not require substantial maintenance. They are

usually stationed with no movable parts, hence no issues of wear and
tear. The only important aspect required is to clean the panels to re-
move possible particulate elements on the surface. Conversely, wind
turbines require regular maintenance and repair. The system has mov-
able parts, particularly the joints between the vertical posts and the
propellers where wear and tear takes place substantially.
The two power generating systems are dependent on weather pat-

terns, and hence their capacities would fluctuate. As wind turbines
cannot generate power when the wind strength and speed is low, the
solar panels, on the other hand, are unreliable without adequate sun-
light. The effectiveness and reliability of the two systems in electric-
ity supply is enhanced by installation of power storage batteries. The
power generation of the two systems does not require storage after
the production because it is regarded as a renewable source. Increased
scale of production from the system should be encouraged and the
excess amount connected to the grids. Evidently, neither of the two
systems is perfect, hence the investors and residences interested in the
alternative energy should consider the nature and weather patterns to
determine the most appropriate method.
2.7 Methodologies used to Complete the Re-

newable Energy Projects
The methodologies required in the completion of renewable energy
projects involve the assessment to determine the viability and the se-
lection of the project delivery system. The first phase is eligibility as-
sessment, which can be positive or negative. A project that is consid-
ered illegible is avoided while the one that has positive outcome is sub-
jected to the next step of the assessment [33]. In the second phase, as-
pects of concentration include technical, economic, and social-environmental.

Data is collected from the various stakeholders or interested parties
through a survey to assist in decision-making on whether the project
would attract the necessary support for its effective implementation
and consequently to completion [33]. Figure 2.9 shows Renewable En-
ergy Project Assessment.
Figure 2.9: Renewable Energy Project Assessment
Just like any other project, a renewable energy project requires the
adoption of the best project delivery method. A project owner is ex-
pected to understand the available methods upon which the imple-
mentation contract would be based. The three primary delivery meth-
ods include design-bid-build, design-build, and multiple-prime meth-
ods. In the Design-bid-build model, the project owner designs the
project through its experts or external engines and call for bids from
contractors to complete the project. The competitive bid attracts in-
terested contractors where the owner selects the contractor who meets
the intended needs and quality [150]. The method is considered ap-
propriate when the project owner is certainly aware of the intended
project features and that there are numerous contractors with the ca-
pability and interest in the project.
The Design-build is adopted when the project owner can only describe
the project, but unable to design appropriately. The contractor, in this
case, is required to design the project and build it accordingly. The
selection of the contractor is primarily based on their ability to design
and build the project; hence no competitive bidding is required. Fig-
ure 2.10 shows the Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build.
Lastly, multiple-prime method involves several players in the three
phases of project. The players include the owner who engages the de-
signer and specialty contractors [83]. The owner has the control over
the entire project; all the contractors report to the owner. It is impera-
tive for the owner to have the detailed aspects of the technical specifics
of the business. Figure 2.11 shows the Multiple-Prime Method.
Figure 2.10: Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build [150]
Designer/architecture
Owner
Project Manager
Contractors
Figure 2.11: Multiple-Prime Method
2.7.1 Generating Capacity of the Wind Turbine

The power generating capacity of a wind turbine is fundamentally in-
fluenced by the speed of wind. According to Stiebler, the amount of
power a turbine is able to deliver is a function of the tip speed ratio
[143]. This aspect implies that the wind velocity and rationality are
critical determinate of the energy output. In addition, to the velocity
of the wind, the flexibility of the wind turbine to rotate at the mini-
mum flow of the wind plays a central role. The ability rotation capa-
bility and speed is critical because it determines the strength of kinetic
energy created and transferred into direct current (D/C) energy. In
other words, the wind turbine should be positioned in a strategic place
where there is a constant flow of wind at high speed and for a rela-
tively long time. Furthermore, the system can give the optimal output
in places without wind flow obstacles such as trees or buildings.
2.7.2 Generating Capacity of Solar Panel

The solar panel capacity in power generation is dependent on three
factors. First, the sunlight and solar radiation should be adequate.
Therefore, a panel is expected to have a high output during the sunny
and hot day, and a relatively low output at night and on cloudy days.
The second fact is the selection of the site. For instance, a panel on the
rooftop of a build surrounded by tall trees is likely to have a relatively
low power generation due to the obstruction of the sunlight and radia-
tion by the shadows of the trees. The other fact is the internal capacity
of the solar panel cells. Breeze states that a single silicon solar cell can
produce about 2 to 3 W of power equivalent to about at least 3 to 5 A
batteries at 0.6 V [21]. It means that the capacity of a panel can be de-
termined by the size and number of silicon cells. It implies that a solar
panel of 40 solar cells in a series has the capacity of output of about
24W.

bine and Solar
The capability of both the wind turbine and solar fluctuate depend-
ing on weather patterns. The implication is that the supply of energy
from the two sources may not be relied upon. Consequently, a hybrid
system combining the solar and wind power systems has been devel-
oped. According to Tog, the two sources of power are intermittent
generation due to periodic fluctuations. The hybrid system comple-
ments the output of the two systems for steady energy supply [45]
[146]. For instance, at night when the power generated from the so-
lar panel is relatively low, or there is none, the wind turbine would be
relied upon. Besides, the system is arranged in such a way that when
the two systems are generating power, the excess is stored in batter-
ies and used during the low generation intervals. The combination,
in this case, is also triggered by the amount of energy needed for the
load/work for which the power is needed. For instance, a utility that
cannot depend on the generation capacity of one of the sources can
combine the two for better results. From figure 2.12, it is clear that the
energy generated from both the solar panel and wind turbine is put to-
gether in a combined converter and transferred into the battery bank
ready for consumption or transmission into a grid. Figure 2.12 shows
Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System.
Figure 2.12: Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System [4]
2.8 Smart Energy Solutions

Smart energy solutions are the initiatives adopted to ensure that the
renewable energy sources are exploited and that the usage of energy
takes place efficiently. From figure 2.13 below, the renewable energy
is associated with diversification of energy sources for self-sufficiency.
Efficiency in energy consumption is a function of energy management
system, storage, and charging system [140]. Figure 14 identifies smart
energy solutions such as engineering, tools and software, procurement
expertise, and planning in construction among others.
2.9 Challenges on the Implementation of Re-

newable Energy
Despite the increased awareness of the need for the shift from the con-
ventional sources of energy to the renewable and sustainable sources,
the implementation is faced with challenges. The challenges reduce
the rate at which the renewable resources are exploited [53]. The first
challenge is the fluctuation or lack of supportive natural components
required for power generation. For instance, some countries, partic-
ularly in Northern Europe have weather patterns, which are largely
cold with limited sunlight. Consequently, it would be challenging or
Figure 2.13: Smart Energy Solutions [140]
impossible to generate solar energy. Similarly, the fluctuation in wind

and sunlight intervals makes it hard for a steady generation of energy.
The second challenge is the lack of knowledge and skills . The im-
plementation of the renewable energy systems is a technical undertak-
ing. Individuals and firms without the knowledge of the technology
required and from where to outsource reduces the opportunity for its
implementation [53]. Consequently, potential exploiters of the alterna-
tive energy sources are discouraged.
The shift from the conventional to renewable sources of energy is dra-

matic and interruptive to systems build over the years. The stakehold-
ers in the conventional energy consider the sustainable energy as a
threat to their business and hence politicize renewable energy projects.
Some of the stakeholders are highly influential due to the wealth ac-
cumulated over the years through the conventional fuel sources. As a
result, investors are discouraged due to the threat of project failure as
a result of such forces.
The governments across the world have immense influence and role to
play in regard to the uptake of the renewable energy in their respective
jurisdiction. Government policy on the concept should be supportive
to enhance the uptake of technology for optimal utilization of the en-
abling resources [53]. However, governments in many countries do
not have in place the policy framework to attract potential investors
Figure 2.14: Smart Energy Solutions [140]
in renewable energy resources. Furthermore, as it is evident from the

analysis, large-scale renewable energy projects require huge amount
of capital and would largely depend on the financial support of the
government. The absence of the policy framework is a challenge be-
cause it hinders public-funding on projects while the private sectors
are unable or unwilling to fund.
Lack of social acceptance and support of the renewable energy projects

is the other challenge. Some of the natural renewable energy resources
are inaccessible because they are owned by communities and families
who are not willing to allow investors to set up resources. Besides,
there is the absence of social pressure to the government and private
firms to invest in the renewable energy plants [53]. The society is yet
to devise mechanisms of rewarding entities upholding sustainable en-
ergy technology and exploiting the available resources while punish-
ing noncompliance.
2.10 Solution to the Challenges

The challenges identified should be addressed to assist in boosting the
uptake of the renewable energy technology. The first solution is that
governments should put in place favorable legal and policy frame-
work in regard to exploration, investment and exploitation of renew-
able energy resources. Consequently, both the domestic and foreign

investors would be attracted to the sector, hence increasing the gen-
eration and usage of the green energy. The governments should also
be committed to research and engage in development activities with
the purpose of facilitating appropriate mapping of the resources to be
exploited. The findings from the research will also provide the input
to the policy and legal framework and form the basis of supportive
infrastructural development to make the resources accessible.
The public-private partnership approach is a potential solution to the

challenge associated with the high initial cost of renewable energy
projects. The partnership would make it possible to raise huge amounts
of capital for the investment on mega projects producing large amount
of sustainable energy [53]. Furthermore, financial institutions should
redesign their credit facilities to assist in financing both the domestic
and commercial (small and large) renewable energy projects. The ac-
cessibility of the funds would increase the demand for the renewable
energy equipment and systems, which is likely to attract more suppli-
ers. In other words, this means that the challenge of reaching out to
suppliers would be addressed.
Lastly, the efforts to increase the exploitation of green energy would

be futile if the people in the society are not enlightened. The efforts
to enhanced public awareness are therefore an imperative solution to
the problem going forward. Nongovernmental organizations and the
relevant government agencies should work together in ensuring that
members of the public are aware of options or opportunities of sus-
tainable energy [53]. The knowledge would also assist in triggering
the social demand for compliance to green energy requirements to the
private sector operators.
2.11 Renewable Energy Projects and Initia-

tives: Best Project Done
Despite the challenges identified as hindrances to the exploitation of
renewable energy, various projects have been done across the world.
However, one of the best projects is the Ouarzazate solar power plant
in Morocco, within the Sahara desert. The first phase of the project was
completed in May 2016, with the capacity of producing 160 megawatts

of power [34]. The project was projected to occupy about 6,000 acres by
2018, with the output of 580 megawatts. The energy produced would
be adequate for 1.1 million people, making it the largest renewable en-
ergy project. Each of the solar panel mirrors is 40 feet tall, focusing
light and radiations into steel pipeline carrying synthetic thermal oil
solution. In this case, the oil solution is heated to about 740 ◦ F; the
head is used in creating steam, which is then used in driving turbines
used in the creation of electricity [34]. The plant is strategically orga-
nized such that the heat can be maintained at high levels and creates
electricity even at night making it a reliable source of energy. Figure
2.15 shows Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant.
Figure 2.15: Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant [34]
2.12 The Equipment that Make Wind Turbine

and Solar Cells Possible
Apart from the differences in the type of the solar cells and wind tur-
bines, the amount of power generated is dependent on the number
and size of panels and turbines. However, the two systems require
similar equipment for the power generation from the wind and sun-
light to be possible. First, the systems require batteries, which are used
for the storage of electricity as it is generated from the panels and tur-
bines for later usage. The second component is the charger controller
used in directing the amount of power flowing into the batteries to

prevent overcharging [39]. The system meter is also relevant, and it is
used in monitoring the amount generated and consumption rate. The
inverters and converters are used in the conversion of the current from
the AC to DC or vice versa. AC breaker panel is part of the solar and
wind power systems to break the high voltage power from the grid as
it enters into the consumption point (homes and utilities).
2.12.1 Wind Turbine Equipment Output during sum-

mer and winter
The output from the wind turbine equipment during the winter sea-
sons is relatively low compared to during summer. The low temper-
atures and icing during winter affect the electrical equipment and lu-
bricant at the propelling joints. The propellers covered by ice become
relatively heavier and inflexible. Furthermore, the cold weather is con-
sidered heavy, hence reducing the speed of wind [84]. Therefore, the
output from wind system is significantly lower during winter com-
pared to summer where the wind blow at fairly high speed and the
turbines perform optimally. Figure 2.16 shows Iced Wind Turbines.
Figure 2.16: Iced Wind Turbines [84]
2.12.2 Solar Cells Equipment Output During Summer

and Winter
If we take the state of California as an example, we can see that the so-
lar cells in a good day in summer are 14-kilowatt hours [136]. During
winter, an average output on cloudless day will yield about 7.5 kWh,
but in a rainy day, the average production drops to as low as 2.1 kWh.
However, at times, it is hard for the solar cells to generate even 1 kWh
of power. The poor output during winter is associated with low sun-
light exposure and radiation as well as obstruction by snow as shown
on figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17: Ice on a Solar Panel [56]
2.12.3 Wind Turbine versus Solar Cells and their Out-

put During Summer and Winter
Evidently, the generation of power from wind and solar systems is
highly influenced by the changes in weather patterns. However, apart
from the mechanical issues, the wind turbines are likely to generate
power during the winter as long as the wind speed is appropriately
high. However, clouds, rain, and icing reduces the capability of solar
panels significantly, to as low as below 1 kWh, which is the case in the
state of Alaska [26].
2.12.4 Amount of Power from Solar Panels and Wind

Turbines in Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is highly committed to the exploitation of renewable en-
ergy with an aggressive investment of $109 billion. The objective of
the investment is to ensure that about a third of the domestic energy
demand is generated from the renewable energy. Although the cur-
rent output from solar and wind are not published, the national en-
ergy plan in 2013 was to generate 41 GW and 9 GW from solar and
wind power respectively [107]. The statistics, in this case, reveal that
although the country was dependent on conventional energy sources,

the commitment is changing towards bringing on board the renewable
energy into the national energy mix.
2.13 What to Do If Wind and/or Solar Sys-

tems Fail to Reach the Capacity
It is important to note that both the wind and solar systems may fail
to reach the energy capacity as expected. In case the solar systems do
not meet the expectations, the first step is to establish whether the so-
lar panels are made of the materials required for optimal output. The
assessment can lead to the replacement of the panels. However, if the
panels have the capacity required, the setting in terms of the exposure
to sunlight should be evaluated and rearranged. Wind data should
be used to evaluate a potential location of wind power plant before
setting up a location and if the wind turbines are not efficient in gen-
erating power to their capacity, then this may require the evaluation
of possible changes in the environment, including new structures ob-
structing the flow of find to propel the turbines. In such a situation, the
turbines may be placed higher or relocated. Besides, the systems may
be in need of maintenance to enhance the generation capacity. Never-
theless, the failure of the hybrid system can be addressed by checking
whether the flow of the power generated from each of the sources is
converted effectively and stored or transmitted to the grid or point of
consumption.
2.13.1 Dealing with the Situation when there is no Wind

and Solar
In retaliation, there are times when the solar and wind systems are un-
able to generate electricity. The sources of energy would require some
enhancement to ensure that there is a steady supply of energy even
when there is no wind or sunlight, particularly at night. Two options
are available to assist in ensuring the steady supply of power. First,
high capacity storage batteries should be in place such that the excess
energy during the peak hours is conserved and used during the low
or no power generation hours. In addition, technology at a higher
level behold the concept of storage in batteries can be developed. For
instance, Ouarzazate solar power plant in Morocco directs sunlight

and heat radiations collected by the solar panels into oil-solution filled
pipes. In this case, the solution is heated to high temperatures and
used to generate hot steam to drive turbines used for power genera-
tion. The most important aspect is that the heated oil retains the high
temperatures and ensures constant energy generation even at night.
Such innovations would be required in a situation where there are no
other sources of renewable energy other than Wind and Solar.
2.14 HVDC Transmission System

HVDC transmission lines are used in the transmission of high voltage
direct current electricity from one city or region to the other. One of
the best HVDC systems is the power line transmitting wind energy
generated in Oklahoma to Memphis in Tennessee. The project spent
$2.5 billion, and is 720 miles in length [54]. Figure 2.18 shows a Section
of the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis.
Figure 2.18: Section of the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis [54]
The electricity from different sources is converted from the Alterna-

tive Current to Direct current (DC) and then connected into the HVDC
lines for transmission. The power from the HVDC system is then con-
verted to AC and connected to consumption. Figure 2.19 shows Power
flow From Generation to the Consumption Point through the HVDC
Systems.
Figure 2.19: Power flow From Generation to the Consumption Point

through the HVDC Systems [3]
From figure 2.20, the power from the source is carried on the AC bus
and converted into DC after passing through the converter transformer.
The smoothing reactors assist in the safe transfer of the high voltage
DC into the HVDC lines through the AC filter to ensure that the two
currents are separated [130].
Figure 2.20: Detailed HVDC System [3]

Chapter 3
Case study of Freiburg, Germany

renewable energy
This chapter intends to describe Freiburg, Germany renewable energy. It

starts by presenting the challenges that encountered in implementing renew-
able energy in Freiburg, Germany. Then the methodologies used to complete
the renewable energy project and the generating capacity are highlighted. The
chapter ends by talking about the electricity pricing and contingency plan.
More than thirty percent of the electric power being supplied around
Germany comes from naturally occurring sources of energy such as
the wind and sun [48]. This is considering that the country has well
laid strategies for going green. Solar panels and wind turbines started
being introduced in 2000 after a clear-cut energy bill that demanded
clean energy was passed. Like their neighbor, France, the country had
the option of using nuclear power, which produces a lot more energy.
However, one would notice that nuclear energy is not only expensive
but is also not as clean as other renewable energy sources that Ger-
many opted. At the center of the revolution towards green energy is
Freiburg, a town in southwest Germany [103]. It is easy to notice the
numerous solar panels that have been mounted on the roofs of houses
and the wind turbines when you get into the town. Many refer to the
town as Germany’s solar heartland. In fact, the strategic location of
the town is an advantage because it results in too much sun and blue
skies.
30
CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDY OF FREIBURG, GERMANY RENEWABLE
ENERGY 31
3.1 How Germany Became a Clean Energy

Efficient Country
To become a clean energy efficient country, Germany first passed a bill
that resolved to make the country opt for renewable sources of energy.
With nuclear power taking root in most economies, especially those
competing with Germany, there are increased concerns to whether the
country should go for nuclear energy too [135]. As one of Europe’s
biggest economic powerhouses, it was expected that Germany would
follow suit in the race for nuclear power.
However, the country decided not to do this. Protests in the 1970s that
were held to prevent the construction of nuclear power plants. The
biggest incentive that propelled Germany to begin exploring naturally
occurring sources of energy was the anti-nuke movement. The 2011
meltdown in Japan made Germany resolve to completely do away
with all of its nuclear plants within ten years. This happened as the
country also struggled to do away with coal, which was not only un-
clean but also tended to emit high amounts of carbon dioxide to the
environment. The anti-nuke campaign also brought people together,
with the will to go green being diversified among communities. Peo-
ple were determined to change the future of energy in the country to-
day more than ever before. Green and clean sources of energy include
solar power and the use of wind turbines. Freiburg was then iden-
tified as the place to lead this revolution. The selection was because
of its suitable location [64]. Experts like to argue that the happenings
in Freiburg were an initiative not brought by the government but by
people. The decisions by the locals arm-twisted the government to im-
plement green energy. The solar panels have been installed in the city,
making it to be considered a green city as shown in figure 3.1.
Germans naturally have a tradition of self-reliance developed by the

fact that most people have independently practiced farming and sur-
vived through it. The government took advantage of this and decided
to give green power to the people by allowing themselves to produce
it. In 2000, the bill was set up in such a way that anyone that provided
power to the grid was paid a fee, which was labeled a feed-in tariff
[15]. With technology, rapidly advancing, wafer-thin solar panels that
32 CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDY OF FREIBURG, GERMANY
RENEWABLE ENERGY
had just been developed at that time became cheaper. The cost of go-
ing green was to be significantly huge for the economy. However, the
contributions by the people to the green power grid, even though the
government paid them the feed-in tariff, made it a lot cheaper for the
government. The win-win situation made it easy for the penetration of
green energy in towns like Ontario and Freiburg. Figure 3.1 is show-
ing solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg.
Figure 3.1: Solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg [61]
Green power can, however, be highly unreliable since the sun and
wind have unpredictable patterns most of the times. However, Ger-
many figured a way to store excess power produced by the citizens,
mostly from Freiburg. This way, the stored energy would be used to
supply the country with electricity in case the power output from the
naturally occurring sources becomes too low at any point. The amount
of stored energy has since been too high in such a way that there is al-
most zero electricity downtime in Germany [100]
3.2 Challenges Encountered in Implement-

ing Renewable Energy
Depending on naturally occurring energy is a gamble that most coun-
tries are afraid to risk because of the numerous challenges that come
with it. These challenges include how to implement the generation
and distribution, how to merge the alternative sources to the main
grid, where to implement the structures. However, the current solar
panels have been implemented and widely used by households as a
ENERGY 33
preferred source of renewable energy in spite of these challenges as

seen in figure 3.2.
Those who criticize alternative sources of energy base their arguments

on the fact that the whole system is unpredictable as it depends on the
shining of the sun and blowing of the wind [115]. While this is fact,
Freiburg shows a case in which these problems have been intensively
handled which indicates that the intermittent nature of alternative en-
ergy sources is something that has been exaggerated. However, this is
not to say that there were no problems when implementing renewable
energy in Freiburg, Germany. These problems will be discussed below.
Figure 3.2 is showing household renewable energy source in Freiburg.
Figure 3.2: Household renewable energy source in Freiburg [112]
The biggest problem lies in how to integrate alternative sources to the

main grid since the alternative sources are highly variable. Thus, the
power grid was designed in such a way that sources of power were
large and could be controlled. The system even evolved into a three-
phase system that was planned is such a way that at any time, the
right, and sufficient amount of power was produced. The upgrade
is because storing such power proved to be difficult and, therefore,
the supply of power at any instant had to meet the demand to avoid
blackouts and related problems. The challenge that renewable energy
sources introduce is that they are disruptive in that they make plan-
ning for the normal methods difficult. The power coming from such
source fluctuates heavily as mentioned before. The fluctuation means
that anyone operating the main grid has to adjust it a day before or
several hours and in real time [62]. For instance, the energy from the
RENEWABLE ENERGY
solar panels was available only during the day when there is sunlight.
The grid operator, therefore, was forced to adjust the plan on a daily
basis to enable the generators to be included since one could easily
adjust their outputs. This activity was done since they could compen-
sate for the increase in power production over daytime and decrease
in production during the night. At times, the generators, which pro-
duce powers at any given time, may be forced to shut down at times
when the production from the panels is too high such as in the after-
noon [135].
In addition to the fluctuations that occur daily due to the rising and set-
ting of the sun, the power output solar panels can unpredictably and
suddenly change due to an increased amount of cloud. The weather
change is the most difficult variable to comprehend by the grid oper-
ator as it is difficult to predict the amount of cloud cover. Therefore,
there is a need for the correction to be done to ensure efficient and ef-
fective supply of electricity to the grid.
The above case only aims at slowing fluctuations that can be predicted
and as well give time for the adjustments to be made. However, there
are always possibilities of fast fluctuations, which have to be dealt with
when they happen. This means that the planning of hourly load on
phase system tends to be disrupted most of the times, meaning that
the balance has to be done in absolute real time, every second. As of
now, operators in Freiburg have to send signals to the power grid after
every four seconds. These signals are sent with the aim of ensuring
that the amount of power that the various power sources pump into
the main grid equals the amount of power that is being consumed at
any instance. If this is not the case, an auto-corrective action runs in
which the difference between the supply and demand is established
and the difference compensated as required. The more the alternative
sources of wind and solar energy, the greater the amount of shortage
or increase of power into the grid at any particular time. This situation
means that the correction that has to be done increases as the number
of alternative sources increases in bulk [151]. However, to help with
this, there are energy storage points that help cater for the downtime
of renewable energy sources.
This problem came in majorly when the country wanted to fix wind
ENERGY 35
energy. The terrain in Freiburg is not suitable for mounting of wind

turbines and hence making it difficult to install them. Therefore, it is
important to have an understanding of the capacities of the renewable
sources of energy in Freiburg as discussed below.
3.3 Capacities of Renewable Energy Sources

The main naturally occuring energy sources in Freiburg include solar
power and the use of wind turbines. However, as mentioned before,
wind energy has been difficult to capture because of the nature of the
terrain. Wind turbines are suitably installed in plain areas such as the
coast. However, Freiburg is not only hilly but also has a lot of woody
trees which act as windbreakers [5]. However, there are still five wind-
mills that have been strategically placed on top of the hills. There are
also other greater naturally occuring sources of energy such as biomass
and hydropower. All of these alternative energy sources account for
different amounts of power in the main grid, as discussed below.
Solar energy
Solar panels use photovoltaic cells to capture solar energy [20]. There
are just over 400 installations of photovoltaics across Freiburg. These
installations have been made on both private and public resources as
shown in figure 3.3. The biggest of these installations include:
1. The roof of the convention center.
2. The solar factory known as SolarFabrik.
3. The roof of the soccer stadium.
4. The Heliotropie, a structure that rotates so as to follow the rising

and setting of the sun.
5. The façade of the main train station that has 19 floors.
6. The solar settlement also known as the Solarsiedlung and the

business park or Solarshiff next to it known as the Solar Ship.Figure
3.3 shows the Solar Settlement and Business Park in Freiburg,
Germany.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
7. The town’s waste control offices’ roof and the recycling station
next to it.
Figure 3.3: The Solar panels installations on private and public re-
sources in Freiburg, Germany [58]
These are just but a few of the most prominent installations. In total
Freiburg has a photovoltaic accumulation of over 150, 000m2 , which
is responsible for the generation of over 10 million kW h every year.
There are over 60 homes where these installations are located. These
homes generate more energy than the residents can ever consume. The
total feed-in tariff that is paid to the resident’s amount to 6, 000euros
every year. There also exist solar thermal panels that convert energy
from hot water. They cover a combined are of 16, 000m2 although the
amount of power that they contribute to the main grid each year is yet
to be quantized.
Wind
As mentioned before, the town’s terrain does not allow for proper in-
vestment in wind turbines due to the hilly and woody nature it has.
This however, did not stop Germany from installing 5 windmills at
the boundaries of the town as seen in figure 3.4. The turbines produce
an estimated 14 million kWh every year. This is more than the pro-
duction from solar energy despite the potential for wind energy being
low. Figure 3.4 shows the wind turbines near the border of Freiburg,
Germany.
ENERGY 37
Figure 3.4: Wind turbines near the border of Freiburg, Germany [58]
Hydropower
There is only one river that flows through Freiburg, and only a little
section of it flows through there, explaining the reason for only a few
hydropower stations in this part of the country. These facilities have
been placed on streams and canals, and in total, they have been able
to generate 1.9 million kW h every year.
Biomass
This is the biggest alternative energy source in Freiburg, accounting
for close to 17 million kW h every year. This has been facilitated by
the existence of the Black Forest that supplies the town with wood
pellets and chips from the trees. These pellets mostly come from in-
dustries that process these woods. The solar factory has a Combined
Heat and Power (CHP) plant that it uses to bun rape seed hence pro-
ducing energy. However, this is not what is responsible for the huge
amount of energy being produced this way. The innovation and de-
velopment of biogas are what opened doors for a generation of the
high amounts of naturally occurring energy. The companies within
the city dealing with waste management decided to gang up, forming
a joint venture. The goal of the venture was to collect organic waste
from houses within the town that was to be directed into a digester
for the production of compost and biogas with the biogas placed in a
CHP plant for combustion to produce more than seven million kWh of
RENEWABLE ENERGY
power annually [82]. Heat is also a byproduct of the CHP plant. The
combined generating capacity of the wind turbine and solar. The total
energy produced by wind and solar amounts to 24 million kW h every
year.
3.4 The Best Energy Solutions

The use of natural source of energy as a substitute for clean power has
helped Freiburg and, by extension, Germany solves its energy prob-
lems. This bold initiative has finally borne fruits as the city has been
termed to be among the world’s greenest cities.
The country has already invested enough in solar energy and its en-
ergy sector as a whole [15]. The investment can be proved by the fact
that citizens are being paid to supply the country with energy to an
extent in which energy companies in the area are crying foul. How-
ever, the population in Germany is increasing. In the next ten years,
the energy being supplied currently will not be enough to cater for the
power needs then. The population growth means that, despite already
having good structures, the country needs to obtain better energy so-
lutions for future purposes. Thus, the installation of the solar panels
in Freiburg is as depicted in figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Solar panels being installed on a house [79]

ENERGY 39
3.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation

of renewable energy
The start of the implementation phase was difficult for Germany due
to the complex system that had to be put in place. To begin with, the
prices of solar panels at that time were high. The interesting thing is
that the residents were determined to acquire solar panels for their use
making the prices to go low [14].
The biggest challenge, however, came in the integration of the natu-

rally occurring energy system to the main grid. Germany’s main grid,
like many other grids, had been set up to receive power from gener-
ators and such stable sources. However, naturally occurring energy
sources are completely unstable as they fluctuate intensively. For in-
stance, solar power depends on the sun and hence can only be pro-
duced during the day, while the levels of solar power go down at
night. Integrating such a system into a grid that has been designed
to take in stable continuous power was a big challenge.
3.6 Freiburg, Germany Renewable Energy

Popularly referred to as the sustainable city, Freiburg is among the
world’s leading green city. This achievement has been realized as a
result of the policies that were implemented to make it a green city
[11]. It was the targeted town due to its high solar radiation [82]. The
government would take advantage of this to come up with projects
that involved installing huge solar panels and structures to support
them. One of these projects is shown in figure 3.6. In addition to the
solar panel projects, there are wind turbines installed in the town to
capture wind energy used to produce electricity.
3.7 Challenges that Faced the Implementa-

tion of Renewable Energy
To begin with, the country had to be arm-twisted by the citizens to
agree to come up with the policy that resolved to make Freiburg a
green city [121]. The main challenge, however, arose from integrating
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Figure 3.6: Heliotrope, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany [58]
the power from naturally occurring energy sources to the main grid.
As result, many people have raised complaints to an extent of protest-
ing as shows in figure 3.8.
3.7.1 How the Challenges were Solved

The government had to sit down and agree to lay policies that gave
the go-ahead for them to begin the implementation of the naturally
occurring energy projects [55]. This step helped in cooling down the
political temperatures that were high at that time, as some lawmakers
wanted the country to invest more in nuclear energy.
To solve the problem of integrating electricity from naturally occur-

ring energy sources to the main grid, methods to adjust the power
output were devised. Additionally, energy storage facilities were also
designed to enable excess energy to be stored and used at the time that
the naturally occurring energy sources produced less power.
ENERGY 41
Figure 3.7: SolarFabrik, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany

[124]
3.8 The Best Renewable Energy Projects that

Freiburg has Done
The wind turbine project has to be the best project so far. This is be-
cause of the high amount of energy the turbines produce despite the
fact that there are only a few of them. They produce more energy
than the extensive solar panel project does. However, the solar panel
projects give the town a rare beautiful sight. The structures build cur-
rently act as landmarks for the town. Figure 3.7 is showing one of the
solar panel projects.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Figure 3.8: German citizens protesting against nuclear nukes [126]
3.9 Equipment that made the Green Revolu-

tion Possible
The main source of naturally occurring energy in Freiburg is the wind
turbine. This is despite there not being too much wind in the area. The
area has been covered by woody trees making the amount of wind
there moderate. However, five wind turbines have been installed with
two more on the way, where each of the wind turbines has a height
of 98 meters and diameter of 66 meters [80]. Altogether, they generate
a total power of 10,800 kW. The success of naturally occurring energy
penetration in the city can be attributed to the massive installation of
solar panels and energy storage facilities in the area. Almost every
household in the area has a solar panel that it uses to produce electric-
ity for domestic use. The residential solar panels measure 65 inches
long and 39 inches wide, and every solar panel has 60 solar cells in-
stalled in it [80]. Moreover, there are mega solar panel structures in-
stalled in the city by the government. There are over ten structures that
produce energy that supplies the town and other parts of the country.
Each structure is made up of commercial solar panels with an average
length of 78 inches and width of 39 inches. Each of the solar panels has
72 solar cells. Since solar energy is not dependable as its levels drop
at night, there are storage batteries that store excess energy produced
during the day and which is used to meet the demand at night. Com-
paring the amount of energy produced by the panels during winter
versus during summer, expert analysis states that more wattage and
ENERGY 43
amperage is achieved during summer due to the longer periods of ex-

poser of the panels to the sun. However, the exact amount of power
output during these times cannot be defined as the periods of expo-
sure tend vary [134]. This is also the case for the wind turbines as the
amount of wind during different seasons vary, thus the variation in the
amperage produced by the turbines. Therefore, the design and equip-
ment of these renewable energy resources in Freiburg is as illustrated
in figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: Design and equipment in Freiburg, Germany [60]
3.10 Power to be Supplied to other Cities by

Freiburg
The total power produced by Freiburg is excessively much to be used
within the town. The town supplies most parts of Germany with elec-
tricity [47]. About 5% of the power is used locally whereas 95% is sup-
plied to other cities. There is also a HVDC line that connects Freiburg,
Germany to Sweden.
3.11 Power Needed by Freiburg in Certain

Situations
There are situations when the power generated by the various natu-
rally occurring energy sources do not meet the minimum threshold
[75]. This situation, however, rarely happens concurrently for all the
RENEWABLE ENERGY
energy sources. This means that there are times when the city depends
more on wind than solar and also the vice versa. The following situa-
tions may exist.
3.11.1 Wind systems fail to reach the capacity

The solar panels would, in such a case, sufficiently Freiburg without
necessarily having to receive power from other cities. The amount of
energy generated by the solar panel plants and households can sustain
the city in case wind systems fail.
3.11.2 Solar system fails

The five wind turbines in Freiburg will supply the town with enough
power in the case that all solar panels, including the ones installed
in all households, fail [148]. This achievement is realized because the
amount of power produced by the five turbines is sufficient enough to
do this.
3.11.3 Both wind and solar systems fail

In case this situation happens, the hydropower will sufficiently supply
the electricity that the town needs. It is impossible to quantize the ex-
act amount of electricity that would be needed in all the above cases. It
occurs because the amount of energy supplied by these sources of the
energy that occurs naturally mixes up in the grid. One can, therefore,
not know the exact amount of energy, like solar power, that is supplied
to Freiburg [50].
3.12 Dealing with the Problem of Shortages

during Nights
As discussed before, with solar and wind being among the largest con-
tributors of energy that naturally takes place, there are times that the
production of power from these sources goes down as they depend on
the sun and wind. To solve this, the excess power produced as these
systems run especially during the day is stored in batteries. The stored
power is then used to make up for the downtime by the wind and solar
ENERGY 45
sourced at night. However, with an increase in the penetration of wind

and solar energy, there has been a need to develop other technologies
that would be used in place of having bigger batteries to store more
energy as this would be expensive for the country. These technologies
are rising to give long-term solutions to the problems of battery stor-
age. The first solution is chemical energy storage. In Germany, experts
argue that providing storage thought chemical means is the best way
to store energy from natural sources. The use of electrolysis plays a
fundamental role, and several projects seek to apply this principle to
save energies from solar and wind. The likely electrolytes are methane
and hydrogen [11].
The second one is the use of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES).
According to experts that are developing this technology, this storage
is suitable for a utility-scale lying between 10 to 100 megawatts. It
works well with storing energy from wind. The technology requires
storage below the ground. This storage places naturally occur although
there is a possibility of there being a man-made one. This technology
aims majorly at making energy from the wind turbine to behave like a
gas-fired power station that is flexible and able to provide a base load
and peak generation whenever needed [153]. The technology would
be able to store energy for use days or weeks later. The storage period
can even be extended to a month.
The Pumped hydro is the other technology that is being pursued by

researchers. However, this one is looking to store energy produced
from hydropower. All these technologies are meant to deal with sit-
uations when there are several hours such as at night when there is
not enough solar or wind [81]. Storage, though an expensive idea, is a
good idea and thus this phenomenon is presented in figure 3.10.
3.13 HVDC Transmission

3.13.1 Germany’s HVDC Transmission Cable Length
There are several reasons that one would prefer High Voltage Direct
Current (HVDC) transmission with the example of Freiburg case (See
figure 3.11). The currently used transmission in Freiburg, Germany, is
a line known as the Baltic Cable, which runs from German to Sweden
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Figure 3.10: How energy is stored [144]
and is 250 km long [97]. The line carries a voltage of 450 kV and power
of 600 MW. The HVDC transmission line has been in operation since
1994. This line is in the form of a submarine cable, which means that it
runs under water.
Figure 3.11: Part of HVDC Baltic Cable [118]
3.13.2 Electric Design of HVDC systems

The principle behind the working of the HVDC system in Freiburg,
Germany, is as simple as the basic system shown in figure 3.12. To
ENERGY 47
begin with, there are the various energy sources, renewable and non-
renewable, that generate electricity that is an alternating form. HVDC
transmits electricity in direct current form. This condition means that
the excess power in the form of an alternating current which the coun-
try does not need is first altered to direct current before being trans-
mitted. Before the conversion, the alternating current is first stepped
up using a transformer so that its magnitude is increased to high levels
that the HVDC transmission line demands [113]. The conversion from
alternating current to direct current is then done using rectifiers. The
power is then fed into the HVDC line for transmission. Upon reaching
the other end, power is first converted back to alternating current and
is then stepped down to levels that can be distributed to consumers.
Figure 3.12: How a basic HVDC system works [30]
When transmitting over longer distance like from one nation to an-
other, High Voltage Direct Current transmission is preferred to High
Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) transmission [29]. In the case of
the transmission line from Germany to Sweden, the cable had to run
underwater. Cables that run underwater are known to experience very
high capacitances, which, in turn, lead to added AC losses [29]. For
this reason, HVDC is a better alternative. To add to this, if the distance
of transmission is long and yet there are no consumers in the middle,
then HVDC is preferred. Furthermore, there are situations when one
would want to increase the capacity of a power grid that already ex-
ists. In such situations, wires may be difficult to install and at times
will be expensive. HVDC comes in handy in such situations.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Another application is that one would want to transmit power from

one country to another yet the AC frequency of these countries is not
synchronized. HVDC will help to transmit power in this instant. Higher
voltages have higher peaks and cause corona losses. HVDC has little
of these losses compared to HVAC. For long distances, the number of
conductors used in HVDC is way fewer than those used in HVAC.
This greatly reduces the cost of the lines. Figure 3.13 shows the circuit
involved in HVDC.
Figure 3.13 is a model showing a system of 320 kV, 200 MW HVDC

that is part of the Freiburg HVDC line. It has two modular multi-level
converters (MMC) interconnecting two AC girds of 110 kV. The MMCs
illustrated above works in both directions, which means that they con-
vert AC to DC and vice versa. To get a harmonic performance that is
desired, one can use the sets of switching modules in each arm. The
modules have been connected in series.
Figure 3.13: HVDC circuitry [67]
3.14 Electricity Pricing in Freiburg, Germany

Not a single citizen in Freiburg, which is Germany’s solar village, is
paying electricity bills because people are producing their electricity.
This aspect, coupled with the fact that the area has massive solar elec-
tricity plants that generate excess energy, means that there is an over-
ENERGY 49
production of electricity. In fact, the locals are being paid to supply

electricity to the grid [41].
3.15 Contingency plan

Most electronic devices currently depend on the existence of power.
In the case that there is an outage, the everyday routine of people and
businesses would be hugely disrupted due to the massive dependence
on power. Outages can be caused by unforeseen causes which may
include natural disaster. Some outages may also be humanmade. All
in all, it is important that one should have a contingency plan for such
a situation. There are steps which Freiburg has taken and that one
could take to be prepared for an unprecedented power outage, and
they include:
• The first step is to prepare a contingency plan. Such a plan entails

how one should back up data and the frequency of the backup
operation. After this, one needs to establish the appropriate ac-
tions that should be taken in the case that equipment fails or
power is lost.
• If one has critical power issues, it is important that he plans with

facilities and services in advance.
• One should have an emergency power outlet on standby. The

purpose for this is it allows that operating equipment to always
plug them into the outlet when the power outage lasts for a long
time.
• Computer systems and any other equipment that are sensitive to

surges and brownouts should be connected to surge protectors.
• There exists equipment that requires no downtime at all even for

seconds. Such equipment should be connected to uninterrupt-
ible power supplies.
• There are alarm systems that have been designed to notify one
in case of a power outage or when a system malfunctions. The
alarm system should be installed on equipment that is sensitive
to power loss.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
• It is advisable that one should continually save data and fre-

quently back it up even as the work is in progress.
• It is important that there should be laid procedures that have

been established to enable critical functions to keep running when
a power loss occurs. These procedures need to be centered on
three main conditions. The first is whether on has a plan to miti-
gate the losses that come with the outage of power. The second is
whether there exists a backup freezer arrangement for situations
where there are specimens that require frozen conditions. Lastly,
one needs to establish whether the plan will ensure that critical
functions keep on running even if the power outage period is
lengthy.
• The next step is to prepare a budget for the electrical back up

plan and put it in a budget proposal.
• An audit of the electrical system, especially the most critical parts,

should be carried out frequently.
3.16 Use of Clean Energy Solutions to Re-

duce Long-term Energy Costs
The use of sources of energy that occurs naturally provides solutions
for the reduction of power costs and for strengthening the economies
in a long-term, and this process requires dedication [41]. Fortunately,
there are green cities in the world that have led the way and imple-
mented processes that have allowed them to attain this goal. There are
several approaches that can be used to cut energy costs in any particu-
lar place. One of them could be to focus on optimizing the operation of
HVAC and related equipment using control systems and also upgrad-
ing equipment that performs heating, air conditioning, and ventilation
functions. Figure 3.14 indicates how HVAC works in the low and high
sides.
To begin with, energy audits have to be carried out. Concerned per-

sonnel can implement the knowledge of energy efficiency to audit fa-
cilities of a local place. This aspect requires the audit of places that
they are known to consume a lot of power. These include places such
ENERGY 51
Figure 3.14: Basic structure of a residential HVAC system [65]
as schools, public meeting places like the town hall, and any other
public facility that uses a lot of power. The next step is to then imple-
ment energy efficiency measure [149]. The approach discussed above
can be used and the procedure can be undertaken as follows:
• Upgrade of HVAC and Control Systems: The facilities on a lo-

cal area can have their HVAC equipment improved extensively
through several methods. The first is by installing new and en-
ergy efficient natural gas boilers. This is done in places that use
oil boilers that are outdated. The next step is to install an overall
energy management system. This could be a combination of soft-
ware and structure that are meant to monitor HVAC systems in
the local area by providing a central area for control and schedul-
ing. With this done, the fan motors used in all these places need
to be checked and their motors properly sized in terms of how
efficient they are. There are currently new models of motors
for fans that are energy efficient. All of the motors operating in
the area also need to be fitted with variable frequency drives.
The purpose of these drives is to adjust the speed of the mo-
tors according to the demanded output hence ensuring efficient
use of energy by the motors [14]. This may seem expensive at
first. However, variable frequency drives are meant for long-
term use and efficiently save energy and hence would help cut
costs by huge margins in the long run. Lastly, the ventilation se-
tups within all public property need to be controlled. This means
that control systems should be installed which allow the desired
RENEWABLE ENERGY
amount of air to flow in and out while at the same time optimiz-
ing the energy used.
• Steam System Maintenance: Areas that utilize steam for their

day to day functions need to have their steam traps checked and
those that are not working efficiently replaced.
• HVAC System Monitoring and Testing: With all HVAC equip-

ment upgraded and their control systems put in place, it is im-
portant to optimize how the control systems operate. For in-
stance, the local area has to make sure that the EMS (Energy
Management System) has been programmed to plan scheduled
maintenances. However, the EMS too needs maintenance. Be-
ing highly software-based prevents it from losing its functional-
ity easily. The maintenance of an EMS can be done once a year
to ensure that it controls the system as it should. Furthermore,
there exists a fault detection and diagnostic software that can be
used on the HVAC equipment. This software works by giving
one feedback on how the equipment is operating in real time. It
is also able to detect whether there is a problem that is causing an
equipment not to work properly and even diagnose the problem.
• Upgrade of Interior Lighting and its Controls: Current technol-

ogy allows one to design the interior lighting of buildings to
make them go off automatically when no one is using them and
turn on when one gets into a room. When installed in public
buildings, this would greatly cut electricity bills.
• Upgrade on Exterior Lighting and its Controls: Exterior lighting

refers to equipment such as parking lot lights and streetlights.
These lights can be set up in such a manner that they can auto-
matically control their intensity depending on the amount of nat-
ural light present during the day and night. Furthermore, LED
bulbs, which are more efficient through their ability to save en-
ergy can be used. LED bulbs also bear the advantage that they
can be installed with the automatic light intensity control tech-
nology.
• Major Building Renovation: Most of the ancient buildings, es-

pecially in major towns, were constructed with their design not
allowing them to fully utilize natural light. This way, those in the
ENERGY 53
buildings were forced to switch on lights even during the day. A

renovation of these buildings would allow them to take advan-
tage of natural light. This can be done by appropriately placing
the windows and also using the reflective material on the shelves
and anywhere that is possible. Sensors can also be placed in the
buildings to control the light intensity of the lights based on the
time of the day in the case that they are switched off. This allows
them to use less power more efficiently.
The results of this approach are overwhelmingly good. The approach

may seem expensive at first as it requires major renovations that would
cost a lot of money. However, the energy to be saved by this approach,
in the long run, would be more. The cost of energy would reduce
significantly. Figure 3.15 shows how a green community that imple-
mented this approach reduced its annual energy consumption over
the years [132]. This reduction in consumption and cost significantly
boosted the local economy of the green community.
Figure 3.15: Annual energy consumption of a green community (Ar-

lington, Massachusetts) [9]
Figure 3.15 indicates that the energy costs reduced by $354,000 in 6 fis-
cal years. The local area took a loan and grants to run the approach
discussed above. In the long run, the monies saved from less cost of
energy were used to repay the loans in a span of less than two years.
Chapter 4
Case study of Masdar city re-

newable energy
Chapter 4 introduces the case study of Masdar city renewable energy. It

starts by explaining the challenges that encountered in implementing renew-
able energy. Then the methodologies used to complete the renewable energy
project and the generating capacity are highlighted. The chapter ends by talk-
ing about Masdar electricity (transmission losses and tariff) and contingency
plan.
Masdar city has pair solar panels and wind turbines to sufficiently
light up huge as well as vast extensions of energy grids that can store
power for generations. To achieve this sustainability objective, various
strategies have been put in place. Firstly, Masdar’s developers have
shown this dedication in its architectural features to innovative urban
planning, where they have taken advantage of the environmental ben-
efits of traditional Arabian architecture and employing costly techno-
logical solutions. These efforts must have started from some time back
before the onset of the modern era, where the design of the settlement
by people permitted the moderation of the desert heat, capitalizing on
the advantage of stronger winds. They constructed tall wind towers
for channeling the currents in the streets of the city. There is also ev-
idence that the city is already running the biggest solar photovoltaic
plant in the Middle East [73].
Moreover, the design of the modern buildings in the city and the Mas-
dar Institute, such as the Knowledge Center (shown in figure 4.1), has
54
CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY OF MASDAR CITY RENEWABLE ENERGY
55
iconic spherical roof which is covered with solar panels as well as zinc
cladding [86]. In spite of the residential buildings being designed to
meet the norms of Middle Eastern personal privacy, their wavy façade
nature of concrete latticework (depicted in figure 4.2) have shielded
the interior from direct sunlight and trapping solar energy using solar
panels. To advance the renewable energy vision for many generations
to come, the Masdar Institute has been utilized as a center of engineer-
ing and research in sustainable technology. In general, the developers
of the city have ensured diversification of the sources of renewable en-
ergy to ensure that there is enough power that will sustain the future
generation.
Figure 4.1: The Knowledge Center at the Masdar Institute [86]
4.1 Challenges in Implementing Renewable

Energy in Masdar City
As regards to where the challenges come from, technical factors have
been among the factors that affect implementation of renewable sources
of energy in the city. The technological challenges comprise the is-
sue of scaling up of the upcoming technologies to commercial level,
storage, land use, and intermittency and back-up capacity [57]. For
instance, renewable energy like solar and wind are believed to be vari-
able, though they can be predictable and are cyclical as presented in
figures 4.3 (a) and (b).
Notwithstanding a large amount of solar radiation produced the city,
56 CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY OF MASDAR CITY RENEWABLE
ENERGY
Figure 4.2: The view of concrete facade of the structures at the Masdar
Institute [86]
(a) Wind Power (b) Solar Power
Figure 4.3: Wind and Solar intermittency [57]
many issues related to the movements of dust and sand and their ac-
cumulation on the solar panels have been experienced. As a result,
the implementation of solar energy in the city and the entire Middle
East has been affected since the installed solar panels are covered by
dust, which in turn reduce their efficiency of absorbing solar energy.
In most cases, the dust combines with fog and mist throughout the
year and thus hampering the output of the solar power stations, as il-
lustrated in figure 4.4.
Another issue is associated with the formation of small networks, known

as microgrids, of the distributed generators (DG) of renewable energy.
These networks need to constitute a key component of the incorpo-
ration of the sources of renewable but variable energy into the elec-
57
Figure 4.4: Illustrations of dirty solar panels due to accumulation of

dust [57]
tric grid [119]. Nonetheless, the variability and uncertainty can be ad-
dressed by switching in the fast-acting conventional reserves the way
it is required based on weather forecasts. Additionally, this challenge
can be dealt with by energy storage systems aiding the facilitation of
the smooth or seamless transitions and offering great robustness to the
local supply.
In terms of how much power, the implementation of the renewable

energy in the city has been affected by the fluctuations in production
of wind energy and thus making it difficult to attain a target of 10 MW
from the solar power plant.
4.2 Methodologies Masdar city used to com-

plete the renewable energy project
Because of diversity of its projects, Masdar City has acted as a show-
case for unconventional planning approaches and the technologies of
renewable energy which other communities may have found hectic
to implement without a vast oil wealth of Abu Dhabi. One of the
methodologies that used by the city realized the benefits of the renew-
able projects was the environmental protection. The developers of the
city have held that this strategy can be tangibly and firmly integrated
ENERGY
coupled with the development of and urban community that is more

attractive and livable. With this approach, there has been a substantial
progress in reducing the international ecological effect of cities since
there has been a greater public support, leading to the improved qual-
ity of life of the city residents.
Undoubtedly, the city has also employed a master planning method-

ology that has been a presentation of its ambitious and immense un-
dertakings to ensure sustainable energy for all the residents in Masdar
City as represented in figure 4.5. In Masdar, the design of all the build-
ings is aimed at maximizing the utilization of natural light, adhering to
strict regulations on the use of insulation, energy-efficient appliances,
and low-energy lighting [86]. This approach has resulted in the city’s
projected requirement of only 25 percent of the energy supply needed
by a normal city having the same number of occupants [13]. Another
benefit of this approach is that it has brought about the reduction of
the consumption of water by installation of appliances and fixtures of
high efficiency and the incorporation of a network of meters that is ad-
vanced. Such considerations have also helped in the low consumption
of energy in the city.
Figure 4.5: The presentation of the master of Masdar City [86]
In the renewal project implementation, the city has also established the
largest solar photovoltaic plant, whereby mounting of solar panels on
the rooftops and projected over the streets and thus providing more
energy to Masdar [104]. Additionally, there has been a plan of putting
up a geothermal energy project, which would be useful in pumping
59
water into the crust of the earth to generate steam for the production of
electricity. Another methodology will be recycling of the wastes from
the city, and some of it would be incinerated in the process of electric-
ity generation that has significantly low emissions of carbon dioxide
gas. There was also massive hydrogen plant provided electricity for a
desalination facility that supplied water to the residents of the city.
4.3 Masdar Generating Capacity

4.3.1 Wind Turbine
Wind energy has been used to diversify energy sources in the Masdar
city, leading to the realization of a tremendous growth worldwide of
more than 30 percent [74]. The first size of horizontal axis wind turbine
is the HAWT that is characterized by the Weibull distribution that en-
hances its annual energy production to about 3307.08 MWh at a height
of 50 m for large turbines. To have an understanding of wind capac-
ity, the annual wind data was gathered and analyzed through models
comprising the available wind power, normal wind speed probability
density, distribution of Weibull wind speed, Wavelet analyses, Fourier
Transform (spectrum), and turbulence intensity. The wind turbines are
represented in figure 4.6.
4.3.2 Solar
The city of Masdar utilizes clean energy which is produced on site
from both the solar power plant of 10MW and rooftop solar panels in-
stalled on the buildings of Masdar Institute giving 1MW, constituting
a predominant supply of the national grid [74]. Janajreh, Su, and Alan
([74]) also holds that the current energy production occurs through
concentrated photovoltaic and thermal solar energy in the city exceed-
ing the energy consumed by approximately 10 MW [74].

bine and Solar
When the two source of energy are combined, the energy generated is
nearly 19,100MWh of electricity on an annual basis, with the displace-
ENERGY
Figure 4.6: Wind turbines [101]
ment of 11,450 tonnes of carbon emissions per annum. This energy is

sufficient to power 500 households in the city.
4.4 Best Energy Solution for Masdar City that

Made it Powered by Renewable Energy
The best solution that Masdar City offered with its renewable energy
projects is the implementation of solar energy projects. This choice is
based on the fact Masdar is powered by a huge field where numerous
solar panels have been installed with additional panels on rooftops of
houses with façade designs [92]. The annual insolation, which is the
aggregated sunny hours adjusted for solar intensity, indicates that the
Gulf region has the highest solar potential in worldwide. The city has
shown commitment in investing in solar projects, which are split be-
tween solar thermal and solar photovoltaic applications. In this case,
what is depicted in the entire GCC region is a replica of what is hap-
pening in the Masdar City in terms of preferences of the sources of re-
newable energy [22]. This situation is indicated in the feasibility com-
parison of diverse renewable energies in the GCC area as illustrated in
61
figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: The feasibility comparison of various renewable energies

within the GCC region [57]
Based on figure 4.7, it is important to note that both the solar PV and
thermal appliances have been widely used in the region, including
the Masdar City. In spite of the fact that wind energies are the most
promising resources of renewable energy, solar energy is the potential
resource in the city. Furthermore, it has proved to be more efficient
to construct solar panels in the middle of the desert where the city is
located. The International Energy Agency reports that the utilization
solar PV technology is current widespread, and as well involve the de-
velopment of the roofing tiles with PV cells incorporated in them. This
condition has made it possible for the maintenance of the traditional
designs and functions of roofing.
ENERGY
4.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation

of renewable energy in Masdar City
4.5.1 Masdar City Renewable Energy Projects and Ini-
tiatives
It is worth noting that Masdar City has taken part in various renew-
able energy projects and initiatives. The first one is the solar energy
projects, which includes PV and thermal solar energy. There is evi-
dence that the city has invested in Masdar Institute to bolster the ad-
vances of research and engineering in the aspects of renewable energy
sustainability [31]. The initiative has helped the institution develop
a new solar platform that is dedicated to researching and develop-
ing concentrated solar power (CSP) and thermal energy storage sys-
tems [25]. With this platform, the institute seeks to establish the cost-
efficient solutions of CSP, boost and as well test solar energy technolo-
gies in adverse desert conditions, and also come up with local exper-
tise in this field. The pictures of the platform are as shown in figure 4.8
(a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8: Photos of the Masdar Institute Solar Platform [25]
Another project is the wind energy project, which has capitalized on

the sizeable wind resources, though at less advanced stage as com-
pared to the solar energy technologies. Stronger winds have been
trapped and tall wind towers have been built for channeling air cur-
rents in the streets. Additionally, the residents of the city have con-
63
structed wind turbines in the area to convert wind energy into elec-
tricity for use. Masdar City is also known for its initiatives of diver-
sification and thus has diversified these forms of renewable resources
of energy with geothermal power generations plants. The water from
the desalination plants has been directed to earth’s crust to produce
steam, which is turn used to generate electricity.
Another part of the Masdar Initiative is the Carbon Management Unit

(CMU). This initiative is involved in two key activities, which com-
prise reduction and monetization of carbon emissions and carbon cap-
ture and storage (CCS). CMU has enhanced value creation by moneti-
zation of greenhouse gas emission minimization and the Clean Devel-
opment Mechanism (CDM) framework of the United Nations of the
Kyoto Protocol controls its operations. Moreover, Masdar’s plan has
been to establish a large-scale CCS project in Abu Dhabi, which com-
prises a network of carbon capture plants at the sites and pipelines of
emission to transport the carbon dioxide to oil-fields at the onshore.
This process could also be performed by injection system that pumps
the carbon underground for the enhancement of oil recovery in the
region.
4.5.2 The Challenges that Faced the Implementation

of Renewable Energy in Masdar City
One of the greatest challenges facing the implementation of the renew-
able energy in the city is remoteness, which has affected the produc-
tion and delivery of power. Seeking to developing solutions to make
this area self-sufficient for energy has become challenging too because
of extremely high costs of fuel delivery and grid extension for the con-
sumer base [87]. There has also been the issue of blowing sand for
the solar panels of Masdar City. Masdar City is using smaller pores to
clean the solar panels.
4.5.3 Solutions to the Challenges Facing Masdar City

The sand and or dust problem has been solved with the City’s ad-
ministration has brought other stakeholders on board to develop solar
surfaces with small pores similar to dust particles. The objective is to
prevent sand and dust from sticking on the solar panels. Researchers
ENERGY
have further been involved in developing bacteria repellant coatings

as well as those resistant to sand and dust specifically used in enhanc-
ing the effectiveness of the solar panels.
4.5.4 The best Renewable Energy Projects that Mas-

dar City has done
The best renewable energy project that Masdar City has ever done is
solar energy project. This idea is evidenced by the city’s commitment
adopting innovative solar energy technologies such as the use of solar
panels and the buildings that are designed to contain solar panels as
well the zinc lagging to tap the solar energy. Additionally, many solar
panels have been mounted on the roofs of the buildings to utilize solar
energy. Because of these approaches, the city has emerged the leader
in the Middle East in terms of solar photovoltaic energy production
[86].
4.6 Assessment of the Equipment that made

the Project Possible
4.6.1 Kind of Wind Turbine and Solar Cells Equipment
Needed
It is notable that wind energy appears to be a mature technology that
offset a large part of power in the world using diverse kinds of wind
turbine sizes and configurations. The two forms of turbines that have
been used to produce power in the regions are the small size and
large size horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT). These turbines are
coupled with the Weibull distribution equipment. The collection and
analysis of the annual wind data has been through models that in-
clude turbulence intensity, available wind power, Fourier Transform
(spectrum), normal wind speed probability density, Wavelet analyses,
and Weibull wind speed distribution [104]. "The wind turbines are
developed in a manner that they are between two to three wooden
composite blades on a horizontal axis"[104]. The position helps them
drive a generator using a rotor or a gearbox. This design is useful in
the reduction of the noise as well as the levels of maintenance. The
effectiveness of the strategy is attained using direct electricity from the
65
grid or batteries. "Smaller generators can also be used to generate al-

ternate current (AC) that is thereafter converted to direct current using
the battery’s system controller" [138].
In the perspective of solar cells, Masdar City utilized both solar photo-
voltaic and solar thermal equipment. The solar PV plant has been con-
sidered as the biggest of its kind in the Middle East region. The plant
has the capability of generating about 17,500 MWhs of clean electric-
ity and offsetting about 15,000 tons of carbon emission annually. The
plant has an inbuilt 87,780 thin-film and multi-crystalline modules that
are developed and supplied by SunTech and First Solar. Many solar
panels have been installed in this plant as shown in figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Solar PV plant [49]
4.6.2 Assessment of the Wind Turbine Equipment and

their Output during Summer and Winter
It is no secret that wind energy has the potential to meet the ever-
increasing energy demands in areas that are making efforts to min-
imize carbon emission, including Masdar City. The first step in the
wind energy project deployment has been to measure and analyze the
wind data at a given site. It is worth noting that the production of wind
energy varies depending on the season. For instance, some renewable
energy sources such as wind and solar have issues with energy vari-
ability especially in instances of increasing energy supply to match
electricity demand as illustrated in figure 4.10. "Figure (a) shows an
ENERGY
elevated demand of electricity during winter (depicted as MWh per

half hour intervals within periods of a day)" [138]. The peak is reached
in July during evenings and reduces at night and mid-afternoons [138].
The displayed outcome is in line with the nature of the local wind re-
source as illustrated in figure (b) on the right side below. "The mean
annual wind speeds for the intervals of a half an hour are usually high-
est in summer evenings while the autumn and spring seasons realize
their peaks in the afternoons"[138].
(a) (b)
Figure 4.10: The electricity demand comparison [138]
4.6.3 Assessment of the Solar Cells Equipment and

Their Output During Summer and Winter
The city has abundant insolation during the winter and thus has high
performance indicators of solar energy. In this region, the Global Hor-
izontal Irradiance (GHI), which is a measure of the average electricity
produced from the solar PV power station, approximately amounts to
2,160 kWh per m2 per year [12]. On the other hand, while the Direct
Normal Irradiance (DNI), which is important for the systems of Con-
centration Solar Thermal Power (CSP), nearly amounts to 2,050 kWh
per m2 per annum. Thus, during the midwinter, solar PV generation is
almost 50 percent of the amount realized during summer. Depending
on location, a house design that is energy efficient and passive dur-
ing the winter, whose consumption is nearly 4,500 kWh/year (Abu
Dhabi consumption is nearly 52841.037 GWh/year [142]). of electric-
ity for supplying all the power required for various purposes [138].
Such functions include the appliances, heating or cooling, hot water
back-up, and lighting.
67
4.6.4 Comparison of the Equipment of the Wind Tur-

bine Versus Solar Cells and their Output During
Summer and Winter
The solar energy equipment performs highly during the winter where
there is no a lot of wind that disrupts the reception of the solar energy
by the panels [12]. On the other hand, the wind energy equipment
works efficiently during summer since it is the time characterized by
increased production of wind power. In spite of these differences, still
solar energy equipment perform better in terms of output as compared
to the winter equipment in both seasons because of the designs of the
building with façades which have the solar panels at the rooftops.
4.7 The Amount of Power that Masdar City

can Deliver to the State (other cities)
To address this question, is quite unclear how much power is delivered
to the state or other cities by Masdar, but the city has played a substan-
tial role in ensuring sustainable energy in the cities within Abu Dhabi
state and the neighboring nations in the GCC. The research findings re-
veal that in 2009, Abu Dhabi exported power up to 1,356 MW to other
emirates in comparison with what was delivered in 2008 at a maxi-
mum of 854 MW. Masdar City is known to be one of the largest solar
PV plant in the world and thus immensely solves the power shortages
that are experienced in other cities as well as other neighboring coun-
tries within the GCC region [122]. Currently, Masdar City is placed
among the outstanding cities that supply a large amount of clean en-
ergy to the state as opposed to its consumption. Perhaps, Masdar had
invested substantial amounts of resources in the approaches of pro-
ducing clean energy in Masdar and other cities such as Shams that are
most cost-effective. It is worth noting that Masdar has worked in part-
nership with Shams since 2013 in the CSP plant, whose effects have
been felt in other parts of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
region. Because of this association, a 100-MW solar thermal project
was initiated between Total and Abengoa, in which Masdar had a lion
share. Masdar’s has also delivered power to the state through the ini-
tiative of the Carbon Capture, Usage, and Storage (CCUS), which has
been a joint business between the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company
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and Masdar. A huge amount of carbon dioxide (800,000 tonnes) has

been captured on a yearly basis from the existing emissions in steel
plants in Emirates, and carried through the pipeline network for the
use in oil fields of Abu Dhabi [49]. The gas has been injected into the
reservoirs to improve the recovery of oil. In general, carbon dioxide
has been utilized as a media of power deliver in such parts of the state.
4.8 The Amount of Power Masdar City Can

Receive from the State (other cities)
4.8.1 Wind Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity
It is not clear about the amount the Masdar City receives from the state
or other cities when the wind systems fail to reach the required, but the
alternative sources have been identified. The main source to supple-
ment wind energy has been solar power and geothermal power. It is
notable that there are advanced geothermal plants in the state which
are driven by water supplied by desalination plant to produce power
that helps in meeting the demands of the city residents.
4.8.2 Solar Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity

Other cities within Abu Dhabi have solar PV plants which supply
power to the city in case both wind and solar systems fail. It is also
reported that the country is putting up the largest solar farm in the
world in Dubai, and to construct the solar panels at the tops of roof of
each house in the emirate by the year 2030. It is also undeniable that
Shams is among the largest CSP plants in the world and thus has sup-
plied substantial amount of power to Masdar in case the solar systems
do not attain the required capacity (10 MW).
4.8.3 Both Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reach

the Required Capacity
There is evidence that the electricity consumption in Abu Dhabi, and
particularly in Masdar has been increasing year for over one-and- a
half decade ago. This situation has led to the need for more generation
of power to ensure sustainability is the city. In case both systems fail,
69
the Abu Dhabi also has other sources of energy such as oil and elec-
tricity generating plants. The UAE has also invested huge amounts
of money in a nuclear power plant, though still under construction,
which is expected to generated about a quarter of its electricity in the
next two years.
4.9 How Masdar City can Deal with this Sce-

nario where there is no Wind and Solar
The issue of this nature may be dangerous to the entire city as well
as the state or other cities that rely on wind and solar energies from
Masdar. In this case, Masdar can address this problem by ensuring
there is energy sustainability, implying that, it has to produce what
is enough to take care of any future eventualities during the day or
night. However, there is a need for a back-system to be put in place
that will continue created electricity using the available wind and solar
power. Such systems should be connected to the main grid to supply
power in case there is power failure for some hours. It might also
require the city to have automatic back-up generators, which use oil
to supplement power when there is no wind and solar power at all for
some hours, though this is deemed a costly option.
4.10 HVDC Transmission between Masdar City

and Other Cities
4.10.1 How much time the Transmission occurs
The lines of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission from
Masdar City to other cities have been utilized to facilitate the reduc-
tion of the loss of power when transmission is taking place, and is
expected not to go beyond nearly 3 percent for every 1000 km. Fur-
thermore, there is elevated radiation of solar in the deserts of UAE,
and particularly double the one in Southern Europe, which is more
by between 10 to 15 percent of the transmission losses between Eu-
rope and MENA region. This implication of this scenario is that the
solar thermal power plants in the states and cities of MENA that are
occupied by deserts are economic than the similar ones in Southern
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Europe.
4.10.2 Electrical Design of HVDC Systems in Masdar

City
The HVDC transmission systems have been used in the established
cost-effective renewable energy resources to provide electricity as well
as renewable hydrogen to the areas of demand like large urban areas
in developing and industrialized nations. HVDC transmission lines
are viewed as the most efficient means of transmitting electricity for
long distances with no power losses realized in the lines of alternat-
ing current (AC) power. The cables of HVDC, on the other hand, can
transport more power in comparison with AC lines of similar thick-
ness. Nevertheless, they can only be appropriate for transmission at
long distances since they need costly devices for the conversion of elec-
tricity (produced as AC), into DC. The contemporary HVDC systems
are designed to reduce the energy losses to nearly 3 percent for ev-
ery 1,000km. Another important function of HVDC systems to trans-
fer electricity between different nations that might use AC at differing
frequencies, and because of this role, Masdar City has been able to ef-
fectively and efficiently use this system. Further, HVDC cables have
been utilized in synchronizing AC generated by the sources of renew-
able energy in the city.
4.11 Masdar Electricity

4.11.1 Transmission Losses
Every part of the utility transmission as well as the distribution sys-
tem is associated with losses. Thus, there is a need to avoid a loss at
the end-use or meter compounds of the customers by backing up the
system to the level similar to generation point as indicated in figure
4.11. An understanding of the typical line losses at every stage below
the transmission point of reception as indicated in the table in figure
4.12 is important.
It is worth noting that the losses in the transmission system line occur
in two or more additional transformation stages, together with one or
more additional group of lines. In this case, transmission line losses
vary from two to five percent, based on distance and voltage.
71
Figure 4.11: A simple diagram showing transmission and distribution

system of electricity [1]
Some losses occur in the step-up transformers during the process of

converting the generated at the production plant to the voltages that
are needed for the lines of transmission. Such transformers are sized
to the production units, associated with losses at normal levels of op-
eration. This situation occurs because they move more power as com-
pared to their initial expected capacity, leading to a rise in power losses
[1]. In addition, at the distribution stations, there are transformer losses
that arise twice at the substations. "While first loss is encountered in
power transformation from the high-voltage transmission to an inter-
mediate voltage, the other one occurs at the substations when trans-
forming the power down to the original voltage" [1]. Therefore, the
principal losses in distribution stations turn out to be transformer losses.
Additionally, voltage regulators have power losses because they have
transformers that also cause some power losses during the transmis-
sion. There are also losses emanating from the transmission system
conductors. "The conductors have low resistance, but the sizing of the
conductors and the length of the lines create power losses" [1].
4.11.2 Transmission Tariff

Currently, there is a global push cut down the price of CSP to 6 US
cents per kilowatt-hour by the end of the next two years from its cur-
rent average of nearly 20 cents. "This price would put the power pro-
duced from the technology in the United Emirates (UAE) at grid par-
ity, or similar price to of the power from natural gas. It is worth notic-
ing that solar (PV) has already reached grid parity at the projects like
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Figure 4.12: Losses at every stage of electricity transmission [1]
the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park project being un-
dertaken in Dubai" [38]. There is a need for the governments of Abu
Dhabi to select an appropriate feed-in tariff rate, which is high enough
to attract the public, though not to an extent that would need high gov-
ernment expenditure as well as a demand that cannot be controlled.
Figure 4.13 below shows the feed-in tariffs utilized in various coun-
tries of the world since 1990 to 2011, which shows that around 63 %
more countries are choosing to use feed-in tariffs than quota systems
(i.e. Renewable Portfolio Standards).
4.11.3 Access to Parties Wanting to Connect to the

Grid
Where there is a need for the utility firms to pay feed-in tariffs, partic-
ularly if such tariffs are higher as opposed to their conventional power
tariffs, it is likely that they will be required to increase their overall
prices to cover such costs. Nonetheless, the increase in the demand
for the installations of solar power, resulting from increased incentives
gained by consumers in terms of feed-in tariffs and because the de-
cline in the prices of PV panel, may lead to a drop in the cost of solar
power generated. In this case, the decreasing costs of solar power and
73
Figure 4.13: The feed-in tariffs that are used in different nations around
the world [38]
the increasing prices of electricity converge for the prices of electric-

ity yielded from PV panels to be competitive with the prices of grid
electricity. In effect, this phenomenon offers an opportunity for a huge
demand increase [38].
4.12 The Contingency Plan

There are ten major steps describing the actions that will be taken
into account if the power is lost or the equipment stops working [70].
The contingency plans starts with reviewing of the different functional
components of the facility, their reliance on power, and the potential
effect of the loss on the equipment or users. This step helps in un-
derstanding the operations of the facility and quantifying its financial
effect to determine the areas that need to be dealt with [59]. In the
next step, which is the equipment identification, all the power systems
or equipment, together with the conditions of operation will be docu-
mented with the help of the account manager. Through this action, it
will be possible to identify the weaknesses of the system that should
be tackled before the plan implementation. The subsequent action will
be to conduct an evaluation of the facility loads that are most critical as
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well as the requirements of the process for the imperative operations.

They comprise those having the highest financial implications for a
person’s business. Load polarization or load shedding may be taken
into account at this stage for the reduction of the amount of capacity
needed. The system connection is then done, involving determining
how and where connections to cut down money and time requirement.
The other steps of the contingency plan include documentation of power

availability, electrical connection, location of temporary equipment,
creation of the plan, and implementation and reviewing of the plan
[70]. The action of electrical connection involves the establishment of
the location of temporary connection of the electrical wires and other
appliances and the manner in which they have to be made. Plan cre-
ation, is the second last step, which involves a plan proposal. Finally,
implantation and review are done to in the ordering as well as deliv-
ering the temporary system in a state of emergency.
Chapter 5
Results and Analysis
Chapter 5 concentrates on results and analysis . It starts by explaining the as-

sumptions and considerations. It also shows the calculations of Wind Turbine
and Solar Power.
5.1 Assumptions and considerations

The main assumptions and considerations made during the study of
NEOM city renewable energy mix and balance problem:
1. Assume the size of the wind power farm is 110km2 . We assumed

110km2 in order to reach to the desired power capacity based on
the wind turbine parameters and their effects on dynamic behav-
ior.
2. Ideal wind speed (an average of 10.3m/s). This assumption is

taking from the NEOM Facts Sheet [51].
3. Assume a wind farm contains 240 wind turbine units. We as-

sumed 240 wind turbine units in order to reach the desired power
capacity based on the wind turbine parameters.
4. Assume we are using MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW model for the

wind turbines [68]. We assumed MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW based
on the best current technology so far.
5. Assume that we are building 4 wind farms with total capacity of

9.1373GW .
75
76 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
6. Assume Power coefficient for wind calculations is Cp = 0.267

because the power coefficient in the limit real world is well below
the Betz Limit. The Power coefficient is taking from MHI Vestas
V164-9.5MW data sheet [68].
7. Assume we are using AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Re-

sources model for the tidal turbines. We assumed AR1500 TIDAL
TURBINE - Atlantis Resources model based on the best current
technology so far [8].
8. Assume Saudi–Egypt Causeway is 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3m

Width) for tidal power calculations [7]. We assumed the Saudi–Egypt
Causeway size after the Egyptian minister of transport Ibrahim
Al-Dimairi (the project mastermind) announced the size [7].
9. Assume Power coefficient for tidal calculations is Cp = 0.428.

The Power coefficient is taking from AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE
data sheet [8].
10. Perennial solar resources (20M J/m2 ), which is equal to 5555.5W h/m2 .
This assumption is taking from NEOM Facts Sheet [51].
11. Assume the size of the solar power station is 100km2 . We as-
sumed 100km2 in order to reach to the desired power capacity
based on the solar panel parameters.
12. Assume we are using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM 2 model for

the solar panels [88]. We assumed LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM 2
model based on the best current technology so far.
13. Assume a single solar panel has a capacity of 375W .
14. Assume a solar station contains 51.02 Million solar panel units.
This assumption is based on the calculation in Appendix A.3.
15. Assume that we be building 3 solar power stations with total

capacity of 57.398GW . We assumed 3 solar power stations in
order to reach to the desired power capacity.
16. Assume that a single solar tower power is 370M W through three
towers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towers is surrounded by about
100,000 heliostat mirrors. This assumption is based on the case
study of Ivanpah Project in south-eastern California.
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 77
17. Assume that we be building solar tower power plants with a total
capacity of 1.11GW .
18. Assume we are using brine4power battery with a capacity of

120M W [117]. This assumption is based on the case study of
brine4power battery in Germany.
19. Assume that we be building 6 brine4power batteries with total

capacity of 720M W .
20. Saudi Arabia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17GW each).
This assumption is after the announcement of the Gulf Coopera-
tion Council in December 2006 [108].
21. Saudi Arabia nuclear plants will give a total capacity of 272GW .
5.2 Challenges in implementing renewable

energy in NEOM
Renewable energy is a solution to climate change because it reduces
the greenhouse gases emitted. However, it is evident that a wide range
of challenges and issues derail the exploitation of the alternative en-
ergy. Consequently, renewable energy resources are not exploited to
their full capacity. It is important to identify the issues and come
up with solutions to enhance the utilization of the resources in com-
plementing and where possible substitute the fossil energy sources.
Therefore, the discussion seeks to provide solutions to various issues
faced in the process of generating the energy and setting up of wind
and solar resources.
5.2.1 Challenges and Solutions

The Problem of Variability in Alternative Energy and the Integration
of Alternative Sources to the Main Grid
The variability of the output from the wind and solar energy arise from
the changes in the weather patterns and the time of day. Variation, in
this case, refers to the challenges involved in the integration of the
output from the alternative sources into the grid [19]. The issue arises
from the fact that the grid is expected to supply the energy consis-
tently to the consumers for stable economic productivity. In addition,
the variations can be a threat to the main grid because the massive de-
viation can de-capacitate the systems.
Some strategies can be used to reduce the implication of the challenge.

The first solution would be based on the improved planning and co-
ordination, such that the demand for energy is matched with the pro-
duction capacity. For instance, since the solar energy output is at max-
imum during the day, solar-powered plants should optimize their pro-
duction capacity at that time. The matching of the demand and supply
would enhance the reliability of the alternative energy sources.
The second solution is the application of the storage technology [43].

The essence, in this case, is to assist in matching the output to the
demand during the high production intervals and release the stored
energy during the low or no output intervals. The technologies that
are likely to be used in this setup include the molten-salt storage and
the underground natural batteries. The storage facilities are connected
to the production plant to store the excess energy. The stored energy
would then be released at the appropriate intervals to fulfill the de-
mand during the no/low output intervals.
The third solution is the interconnected transmission networks. The

solution entails to the aggregation of power output from plants located
in a broader region [76]. For instance, a country with a vast land mass
where different regions have diverse sunlight intensity patterns can
have solar plants in the various regions to have a complemented out-
put level. The same approach can be adopted with the wind plants
being located in different regions. As a result, a variation in output
from either of the plants does not entirely affect the power supply into
the grid.
Challenge of the Weather Change, Inability to Predict the Amount

of Cloud Cover by The Grid Operator
A grid operator is concerned about the weather patterns because it
affects the output capability of the wind and solar power plants. Re-
garding the solar energy, the difficulties experienced when predicting
the cloud cover is a significant concern because it leads to variation

in sun light and lays reaching the surface of the solar panels. Amid
the difficulties in predicting the cloud cover, it is important to mitigate
the variation of the solar plant output by installing solar panned with
the capability of converting both the heat and light from the sun into
energy. At the time of cloud cover, the heat from the sun remains in
the air and hence could still be converted into electric energy [141].
The second strategy will be achieved by interconnecting energy out-
put from the solar plants from different regions or locations that are
far apart. Therefore, at the intervals when some of the solar plants
are affected by the clouds, the other plants would be producing a high
amount of energy to achieve the needs of the main grid.
Furthermore, a grid operator, where possible, can recommend or as-

sist in the installation of hybrid plants. In this case, the solar pan-
els and wind turbine are placed in the same location and their output
combined before being connected to the grid or being used for inter-
nal purposes within the system. In a most likely incidence, especially
at the cloudy intervals, the speed and strength of wind could be high
and hence yield high output from the wind turbines [141]. At the time,
the wind strength would be weak, but optimal sun radiations would
reach the solar panels. Therefore, the hybrid system would assist in
reducing the impact of variation of output from the solar panels on a
cloudy day.
The Difficulty of Capturing Wind Energy Due to Nature of the Ter-

rain
Wind energy is best exploited in terrain that the speed and strength of
the wind can drive the turbines consistently and effectively for the out-
put level to be reliable. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that before
setting a wind power plant, the wind patterns should be comprehen-
sively explored. First of all, it should be clear about the leeward and
windward side of the terrain. The leeward side is the terrain facing the
wind, while the windward side is the area facing the wind. Therefore,
to optimize the amount of wind utilized, a wind plant should be set on
the windward side of the terrain [85][105]. The second solution to the
problem is setting up of the energy plants in a terrain characterized by
a few number obstacles, including trees, building, or mountains/hills.
In fact, this consideration is important because it will ensure that the

speed and strength of the wind driving the turbines remain high at
all times for optimal energy generation. Thirdly, sometimes it is not
possible to avoid some obstacles due to lack of control on property
rights by other parties. As a result, it is advisable for a wind power
plant management to elevate the wide turbines in heights higher than
the obstacles to reduce the impact of the obstruction. According to
Quaschning, turbines placed 10 meters higher than the obstacles can
trap the optimal energy output [120]. In another approach, a turbine
placed at a distance 35 times the height of an obstacle away is preferred
for optimal energy output [120].
Challenge of Dust and Sand Accumulation on the Solar Panels

Dust and sand are inevitable in arid and semi-arid areas. As a result,
the output from the solar panel plants in the cities in the entire Middle
East has been adversely affected. The dust and sand on the surface
of the solar panels reduce the effectiveness to generate electric energy
because the absorption levels are reduced. The issues should be ad-
dressed to assist in optimizing the energy output from the solar plants.
First of all, the problem could be addressed effectively by having in
place a system that would assess and detect the accumulation of the
dust and sand on the panels.
Energy solution firms have come up with technology-driven gadgets

that can be used in the evaluation of the amount of radiations absorbed
by the solar panels. For instance, Kipp and Zonen company have man-
ufactured a gadget regarded as CHP1 Pyrheliometer, which is a ra-
diometer system connected to the solar panel to evaluate the changes
in the amount of solar energy absorbed. The data from gadgets such as
CHP1 Pyrheliometer can be transmitted to the control center through
the GPS system. In case there is a significant reduction of energy, the
management can check out to find out whether the capacity of the pan-
els is affected by the accumulation of dust and sand particles [28]. The
subsequent step, in this case, would be to undertake a cleanup exer-
cise to remove the obstacles on the service of the panels. The dust and
particle removal exercise can best be undertaken using dry blowers for
effective removal with no effect of moisture on the electric system. It is
important to note that the exercise should be done regularly to ensure
that the solar panel plants are at their optimum levels.
In larger scale projects, removing dust obstacles through blowers would

be expensive and tedious. The problem can be addressed using the
robot technology for the cleanup. For instance, a company named No-
madd has successfully designed and marketed waterless robots with
the capability of crawling over the panels [36]. The robots are effective
in undertaking the cleaning exercise fast and at limited cost. The fact
that they do not need to be manned leads to saving on labor costs [36].
Furthermore, since no water is required, it makes the gadgets effective
in water-scarce areas such as in major parts of Saudi Arabia. Therefore,
the robots are effective in cleaning panels in large solar projects. With
the technology such as CHP1 Pyrheliometer identified above, projects
managers can detect accumulation of dust remotely and undertake the
cleanup exercise using robots effectively and efficiently. The combina-
tion of the technology is considered effective in addressing the dust
and sand accumulation on the panels.
Challenges in the Implementation of the Renewable Energy in a

City in a Remote Area
The implementation of renewable energy in some cities are adversely
affected by the aspect of remoteness. In fact, grid extension costs and
resources required to deliver fuel to such areas would be astronomi-
cally high. Therefore, it is difficult for such cities to become self-energy
sufficient. Nevertheless, there are two strategies upon which the issues
can be addressed. First, small-scale renewable energy firms should be
licensed to set up wind and solar plants in the remotely located cities.
The energy produced from such plants should be supplied within the
cities without necessarily being connected to the national grid. Sec-
ondly, the consumers, including homes, commercial business, and in-
dustries in such a city should be encouraged to install their solar pan-
els and where possible wind turbines to generate energy at the capac-
ity of their needs [129]. As a result, the demand for energy from the
local suppliers would be reduced. Overall, the city would become self-
sufficient, and the high cost of supply from the national grid would be
reduced.
5.3 NEOM Generation Capacity

5.3.1 Wind Turbine Power
Wind Turbine Power Analysis
The operation of wind turbines is based on the transformation of the
kinetic energy into electrical energy for public use. Wind turbines con-
vert the kinetic energy into rational kinetic energy in the turbine. Then
they convert rational kinetic energy into electrical energy [16]. The
national grid supplies electrical energy to the public and corporate
use. The wind speed and the swept area of the turbine determine the
amount of available energy for conversion. The planning of a wind
farm requires an estimation of the expected power and energy output
of each turbine. These data are crucial for economic viability calcula-
tion. Figure 5.1 shows an artificial wind farm located in NEOM.
Figure 5.1: Artificial wind farm in NEOM [106]
NEOM management is using wind data to evaluate the potential of

location Facts Sheet, NEOM [51]. It is necessary to know the expected
power and energy output of each turbine in different conditions for
economic purposes. The analysis includes calculations related to the
production of the rotational kinetic in a wind turbine according to its
wind speed [125]. It is the lowest wind speed that is necessary for a
wind turbine to operate and produce power.
The mathematical model includes different variables. Table 5.6 in-

cludes the definition of these variables: The kinetic energy of a body
with a mass m, maintaining a constant acceleration, while moving at
Table 5.1: Variables definition

Definition Variable Unit
Kinetic Energy E J
kg
Density ρ m3
Mass m kg
Swept Area A m2
m
Wind Speed v s
m
initial velocity u s
Power Coefficient Cp unitless
Power P W
Radius r m
dm kg
Mass flow rate dt s
Distance x m
Energy Flow Rate dE dt
J
s
Time t s
a velocity v can be equated to the work accomplished W when the ob-

ject was being displaced from rest to a distance s with a force F [17],
according to Newton’s Law, we have:
F = may
Hence,
E = mas (5.1)
Using the third equation of motion:
v 2 = u2 + 2as
we obtain:
v 2 − u2
a=
2s
considering that the initial velocity of the body, which is at rest, is zero,
i.e. u = 0 , we obtain:
v2
a=
2s
The above expression is then substituted in equation (5.1), where we
obtain the kinetic energy of a moving mass to be:
E = 0.5mv 2 (5.2)
The degree in which the energy changes gives us the power in the
wind:
dE dm
P = = 0.5v 2 (5.3)
dt dt
While the mass flow rate is represented by:
dm dx
= ρA
dt dt
And the degree of shift of distance is depicted by:
dx
v=
dt
We obtain:
dm
= ρAv
dt
Thus, deducing from equation (5.3), the definition of power is given
by:
P = 0.5ρAv 3 (5.4)
In 1919, Albert Betz, a German physicist, indicated that any wind tur-
bine cannot convert more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy into
mechanical energy that is capable of turning a rotor [16]. Nowadays,
the Betz Limit or Betz‘ Law serves to calculate the kinetic energy. The
theoretical maximal power efficiency of any wind turbine is 0.59. It is
called “power coefficient” (Cmax = 0.59).
Moreover, it is impossible for the wind turbines to run at this topmost

limit. Each turbine possesses a distinct Cp value, which also repre-
sents the function of the speed of wind that the turbine is working in.
After the incorporation of different engineering necessities of a wind
turbine, particularly durability and strength, the conventional world
threshold reduces well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35 to 0.45
depicted even in the best designed wind turbines [17]. Moreover, by
taking into consideration all the attributes inn a comprehensive wind
turbine system such as the generator, bearings, and gearbox, only ten
to thirty percent of wind power is really turned into useful electricity
[125]. Therefore, the power coefficient needs to be incorporated into
equation (5.4) resulting in an extractable wind power represented as:
Pavail = 0.5ρAv 3 Cp (5.5)

Making use of the equation for the surface area of a circle, the area
being swept by the turbine can be computed by from the length of the
turbine blades as depicted below:
A = πr2 (5.6)
As depicted by figure 5.2, the length of the blade is equated to the ra-
dius.
Radius= Blade length
Hub height=80 or 100 m
Figure 5.2: Wind turbine: swept area, blade length, and hub height
The resulting value always stipulated by the manufacturers of the tur-

bines. However, it is significant to comprehend the association be-
tween all these factors and to make use of the equation to compute the
power at the speed of wind other than the stipulated wind speed. It
is important to have ample information regarding the behavior of tur-
bines in varying wind speeds, as it will help to understand the amount
of money lost by any downtime of the turbine [125]. Understanding

the power that a turbine should produce is also important because it
will allow picking up of any problem signaled by a lower then esti-
mated energy values. It is vital to predict the amount of energy that
will be generated by a turbine in an energy market considering that
energy is valued and sold to consumers before being generated. This
implies that precise computations of the energy are very significant to
harmonizing the energy in the market and to projecting a firm’s in-
come.
Wind Turbine Power Calculations

The calculations is for one wind farm (110km2 ) and we assumed we
have 240 wind turbines. The data below is provided as an example of
the calculation [68]:
Table 5.2: Wind Example Data

Definition Variable Value
Diameter d 164m
d
Radius r 2
= 82 m
Blade length L 82m
kg
Air density ρ 1.23 m 3
Power Coefficient Cp 0.267

Ideal Wind Speed vwind.ideal 10.3 ms
Rated Wind Speed vwind.rated 14 ms
Cut-out Wind Speed vwind.cutout 25 ms
Number of total wind turbines T urbinetotal 240 units
To calculate the area, we first have to replace radius r of the swept

area in equation (5.6) with the length of the blade L as shown below:
A = πL2 = 21124.069m2
Therefore, the power coming from the ideal wind and transformed
into rotational energy can then be computed based on equation (5.5):
3
Pwind.ideal = 0.5ρAvwind.ideal Cp = 3.7903M W
The following equation shows the power with rated wind speed:
3
Pwind.rated = 0.5ρAvwind.rated Cp = 9.5M W
Figure 5.3 shows the power curve for a range of wind speeds for a
singe wind turbine. Please see Appendix A.1: MathCAD calculation
for more information.
Figure 5.3: Singe wind turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds
Table 5.5 shows the total power with different wind speed:
Table 5.3: Total power vs. different wind speed

Total Power Equation Value
Pwind.ideal.total T urbinetotal Pwind.ideal 0.9097 GW
Pwind.rated.total T urbinetotal Pwind.rated 2.2843 GW
Pwind.total.4f arms 4 Pwind.rated.total 9.1373 GW
NEOM Wind Turbine Capacity

Assume the size of the wind power farm is 110km2 and we have rated
wind speed (an average of 14m/s). Assume that we have 4 wind farms
and each one of them contains 240 wind turbine units and we are using
MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW model for the wind turbines [68]. With this
scenario, NEOM will have a capacity of 9.1373GW from wind turbines.
5.3.2 Tidal Turbine Power

Tidal Turbine Power Analysis
Tidal power is known as an effective tool which can be used in gen-
erating electricity process. In this section, various methods which use
tidal power are discussed and analyzed. In addition, the most efficient
methods of calculating tidal power are introduced. The potential of
this method and possibility of its implementation in the near future
are also discussed widely in this section [147].
Tidal power, or tidal energy, converts the energy of tides into electric-
ity or other forms of power. The energy was first harnessed by Rance
Tidal Power Station in 1966 [147].
Tidal power is less typical; however, it becomes rather clear that such
power has considerable potential for the further use [37]. There are
several causes of such trend. First of all, tides are more predictable
in comparison with wind energy and solar power. Secondly, it now
becomes much more available than previously. Until recently, tidal
power was expensive to use in addition to the limited availability of
sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, which made
the possibility of their use even less [27]. Nowadays, however, design
improvements (such as dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) along with
the turbine technology introduction (for instance, new axial turbines,
cross-flow turbines) made tidal power both more available and more
cost-efficient.
To harness tidal energy, a dam is built at the point where the tidal
basin opens. In the dam, there is a sluice through which the tide can
flow into the basin [147]. Electricity is generated through processes
that follow after the basin water rises as a result of closure of sluice
and drop of sea water.
Tidal power is the only in its essence as it appears directly from the
motions of Earth-Moon system rather than from the Earth-Sun one,
which is more typical for other forms of energy. Tides are caused by
the forces produced by the rotation of both the earth and the moon as
well as the sun [27]. Nuclear energy is derived from fossil remains.
Geothermal power is harnessed from 80% Earth’s heat caused by ra-
dioactive decay and 20% residual heat produced through planetary

accretion [147].
The movement of large volumes of water in oceans and seas is caused

by gravitational forces of the sun and the moon [37]. Several factors
which determine the magnitude of the tide include the following: the
varying position of the moon and sun in respect to the position of
Earth, the rotation of planet the earth, and the physical attribute of
the floor of large water bodies where the tides are forming.
In its essence, tidal power is considered renewable energy resources

as it is practically inexhaustible. Such classification is received because
tides emerge only from gravitational interaction with the Sun and the
Moon and the Earth’s rotation, which is itself eternal process.
A tidal generator is used to harness this kind of energy. It produces

more power when the variations and speeds are huge [27].
The movement to tides is associated with the loss of earth’s mechanical

energy which is as a result of dissipation at the bottom of the sea and
barriers on the edge water bodies. The Earth has been slowed down
by 4.5 billion years since the time it was formed and its rotation energy
stands at 83% in the past 620 million. There is an increase of period of
rotation which means the tidal power will become noticeable in time.
There are three methods of tidal power: Tidal barrage, Dynamic tidal
power, and tidal stream generator [147].
Tidal stream generator, also known as tidal turbine, is based on the

extraction of the moving masses of water. It works similarly to an un-
derwater wind turbines. Among all the major forms of tidal power,
tidal stream generators are proved to be the most cost-efficient and
ecologically friendly [37].
Due to the considerably short time of tidal stream generators use, this
technology faces lots of experiments in its utilization and, therefore,
many varieties in its design and functions [27]. As a result, although
there are several types close to large-scale deployment, there is still
no specific winner among different kinds of tidal stream generators.
Nowadays, there exist several successful prototypes with high possi-

bility of implementation in the nearest future. At the same time, this
type of tidal power is still not commercialized and produced in large
amounts [37].
Various designs of turbines have different efficiencies and power out-

put. If the efficiency of turbine is known, equation (5.5) can be used to
determine the available energy from the kinetic systems [99].
The tidal barrage is used to generate energy from the moving in and
out water masses, pushed out of river or bay because of the tidal forces.
Although it has a dam-like structure, tidal barrage does not dam water
on only one side as it releases water to the bay or river when the tide is
high. When the tide subsides, it allows the water to flow out. Control-
ling the sluice gates at crucial moments and measuring the tidal flows
enable this process. Turbines are strategically placed where the sluices
are placed to tap the energy.
As stated earlier, a barrage is built across a water body. When the

water flow in and out of the water area, the barrage turbines start gen-
erating power. The process is identical to that of the hydro power as
power generation takes place only when there is a difference in vol-
ume of water on either side of baggage to allow it to flow. The most
significant parts of the system include the turbines embankments of
the baggage, sluices, caissons, and the ship locks [99].
Ebb generation is named in such a way because it presupposes gen-

eration of power through the change of tidal direction. Water flows
through the sluices during high tides; and then the sluices are shut.
When the sea level falls to the sufficient level, the turbine gates are
opened so that the turbines could generate the power. This process
takes place until the head becomes low again: then, the basin is filled
again when the sluices are opened, and the turbines are disconnected.
In such a case, the cycle is continuously repeated [99].
In flood generation, the tide flood is used, caused by the filling the
basin through the turbines. A bigger volume of water on the upper
side of basin allows formation of a flood. The difference in water level
between basin and sea side of baggage lowers faster than it would
have done in the ebb generation. The challenge is dealt with by using
the “lagoon” model [147].
The basin water is increased when the tide is high by reversing ex-
cess energy. As power output is connected to the head, the energy in
such a case is returned. When pumping of a high tide is raised by 10
feet, the water is raised by 2 feet. Consequently, the revised low tide is
increased by 12 feet [63]. The linear relationship is related to square of
the differentiation of tidal height.
The dual basin type is another form of energy barrage configuration.

The two basins in this system work in the different regimes: when
the first one is emitted at low tide, the second one is filled at a high
tide. In such a way, the turbines placed between the basins provide
generation of energy appears with high flexibility and almost contin-
uously all over the time. However, it should be noted that two basin
schemes are expensive to create. At the same time, this scheme can be
constructed in a specific geography, where the costs could be lowered
significantly [27].
Tidal pools have the structure of the enclosing barrages. Those are
built on the high level tidal estuary land that generate power (approxi-
mately 3.3W/m2 ) from the trapped high water. Two lagoons which op-
erate at varying time intervals have the capability of producing 4.5W/m2 .
Tidal series of lagoons has an ability to raise the higher water level
than its alternative, high tide. They also deliver constant output of
7.5W/m2 , using intermittent renewable for pumping. They can be
used instead as an alternative to the Seven Barrage [147].
Being a relatively new method of tidal power generation, dynamic

tidal power is based on building specific structure, which is alike to
big dam. These kind of structures lead to ‘T’ shape that extends from
the position of the coastline [63].
Dynamic tidal power (DTP) dam extends for thirty to sixty kilome-
ters, built perpendicular to the coast without enclosing any area. The
DTP dam hinders the acceleration of tides. As in the majority of the
areas, tidal movements runs parallel to the coast, accelerating all the
water in one direction. The dam is extensive enough to create a size-
able impact on the movement of the tides[27].
With the capacity factor of about 30%, a single dam can generate over 8
GW (8000 MW) of installed capacity. As a result, the estimated annual
power of each dam equals 23 billion kWh (83 PJ/yr). For the better
understanding, the average European consumes around 6800 kWh per
year. Therefore, one dynamic tidal power dam can provide energy for
3.4 million Europeans. If to install two dams at 200 km distance from
each other, they can help each other to level the output. There is no
need in high natural tidal range, which enables considerably big num-
ber of suitable sites. The most suitable conditions are found in China,
Korea, and the UK [147].
The primary issue of dynamic tidal power presupposes almost no power

of the demonstration project, even situated on the long dams as the
power generation capacity increases as the square of the dam length.
Moreover, the economic benefit may arise with the dam length of ap-
proximately 30 km long. In addition, the issue with the marine ecol-
ogy, shipping routes, storm surges, and sediments may appear [147].
Nevertheless, this method has excellent potential for the future use
with several countries willing to utilize it in the nearest future.
Tidal Turbine Power Calculations

The calculations is for one tidal farm with the size of the Saudi–Egypt
Causeway 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3m Width) [7]). We assumed the
Saudi–Egypt Causeway size after the Egyptian minister of transport
Ibrahim Al-Dimairi (the project mastermind) announced the size [7].
Also, we assumed we have 1579 tidal turbines. The data below is pro-
vided as an example of the calculation [8]:
To calculate the area, we first have to replace radius r of the swept

area in equation (5.6) with the length of the blade L as shown below:
A = πL2 = 254.469m2
Therefore, the power coming from the ideal tidal and transformed into
rotational energy can then be computed based on equation (5.5):
3
Ptidal.ideal = 0.5ρAvtidal.ideal Cp = 0.447M W
Table 5.4: Tidal Example Data

Diameter d 18m
d
Radius r 2
=9m
Blade length L 9m
kg
Water density ρ 1025.18 m 3
Power Coefficient Cp 0.428

Ideal tidal Speed vtidal.ideal 2 ms
Rated tidal Speed vtidal.rated 3 ms
Cut-out tidal Speed vtidal.cutout 5 ms
Number of total tidal turbines T urbinetotal 1579 units
The following equation shows the power with rated tidal speed:
3
Ptidal.rated = 0.5ρAvtidal.rated Cp = 1.5M W
The Power coefficient Cp is estimated to be 0.428, which is taken from

AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE data sheet as an ideal value [8]. Figure A.6
shows the power curve for a range of tidal speeds for a singe tidal
turbine. Please see Appendix A.2: MathCAD calculation for more in-
formation.
Table 5.5 shows the total power with different tidal speed:
Table 5.5: Total power vs. different tidal speed

Total Power Equation Value
Ptidal.rated.total T urbinetotal Ptidal.rated 2.38 GW
Ptotal.2sides 2 Ptidal.rated.total 4.76 GW
NEOM Tidal Turbine Capacity

Assume the size of the tidal power farm is the size of the Saudi–Egypt
Causeway 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3m Width) and we have rated tidal
speed (an average of 3m/s). Since the Saudi–Egypt Causewa has two
sides, then we will be building one tidal farm on each side (total of
2 farms) and we are using AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Re-
sources model for the tidal turbines [8]. With this scenario, NEOM
will have a capacity of 4.76GW from tidal turbines.
Power curve for a single tidal turbine

1.7
1.53
1.36
1.19
Power (MW)
1.02
-6
P tidal.range 10 0.85
0.68
0.51
0.34
0.17
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vtidal.range
Tidal speed (m/s)
Figure 5.4: Singe tidal turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds
5.3.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power

Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Analysis
The sun provides four thousand times more energy every year on
Earth than the one consumed in the whole world. The German sci-
entists Gerhard Knies and Franz Trieb affirm that it would suffice to
cover with solar collectors a small part (0.5%) of the hot deserts to sat-
isfy the electrical needs of the whole world. As indicated by its own
name, solar energy is based on the use of radiation from the sun. One
of the possibilities is to transform this energy into electricity. However,
the generation of electricity is not the only way to take advantage of
solar energy. It is also possible to use it in the form of heat, that is,
to use it in heating systems or domestic hot water. According to the
aforementioned report, the installed global capacity was 77 GW at the
end of 2004. In spite of this, in the global calculation the contribution
of solar energy to electricity generation is still small, although it is ex-
pected that, due to its strong growth, it will become one of the energy
pillars in the world in the coming years.
Currently, there are two different technologies for generating electric-

ity from solar radiation. The first of these, called photovoltaic technol-
ogy, consists in transforming solar radiation directly into electricity.
The second possibility, called solar thermal technology, is based on us-
ing solar radiation to heat a fluid and use it in a conventional thermo-
dynamic cycle. A photovoltaic panel is a type of solar panel designed
for the use of photovoltaic solar energy [127]. The photovoltaic cell
is a device formed by a thin sheet of a semi-conductor material, of-
ten silicon. Generally, a photovoltaic cell has a thickness that varies
between 0.25 and 0.35 mm and a generally square shape, with a sur-
face approximately equal to 100 cm2 .Figure 5.5 shows a PV Panel. For
the realization of cells, the material currently used mostly is the same
silicon used by the electronics industry, whose manufacturing process
has very high costs, not justified by the degree of purity required for
photovoltaics, which are lower than those needed in electronics. Other
materials for the realization of solar cells are:
• Mono-crystalline silicon: Energy efficiency up to 15-17%.
• Polycrystalline Silicon: Energy efficiency up to 12-14%.
• Amorphous Silicon: With energy efficiency less than 10%.
• Other materials: Gallium arsenide, indium and copper di-selenide,

cadmium tellurium [139].
The photovoltaic system is defined as the set of mechanical, electrical,

and electronic components that concur to capture and transform the
available solar energy, transforming it into usable as electrical energy.
These systems, regardless of their use and power size, can be divided
into two categories: isolated (stands alone) and connected to the net-
work (grid connected). Isolated systems, due to the fact that they are
not connected to the electricity grid, are usually equipped with accu-
mulation systems of the energy produced. Accumulation is necessary
because the photovoltaic field can provide power only during day-
time hours, while often the greatest demand on the part of the user
is concentrated in the afternoon and evening hours. During the inso-
lation phase, it is, therefore, necessary to foresee an accumulation of
energy not immediately used, which is proportional to the load when
the available energy is reduced or even nil. A configuration of this type
implies that the photovoltaic field must be dimensioned in such a way
as to allow, during the hours of insolation, the feeding of the load and
Figure 5.5: PV Panel [90]
the recharging of the accumulation batteries. Networked systems, on

the other hand, usually do not have accumulation systems, since the
energy produced during the hours of insolation is channeled to the
electric network. On the contrary, during the hours of little or no inso-
lation, the load is fed by the network [127]. A system of this type, from
the point of view of continuity of service, is more reliable than one not
connected to the network which, in case of failure, has no possibility
of alternative power.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar PV In general, both solar

photovoltaic and, above all, solar thermal energy has a very good ac-
ceptance in modern world. However, it is convenient to know the
advantages and disadvantages of solar energy to reinforce or contrast

our opinion. When we talk about energy sources, most people are po-
sitioned in favor or against a certain type (solar energy, nuclear energy,
wind energy, etc.). The arguments for positioning are varied: energy
efficiency, pollution, safety, cost, etc. Therefore, we will try to analyze
the advantages and disadvantages of solar PV in the most objective
way possible [127]. These pros and cons are mentioned below:
Advantages Of Photovoltaic Solar PV
• It is inexhaustible: We can consider the sun as a source of inex-

haustible energy, its rays reach the earth while the planet exists,
so it is logical to consider it as an inexhaustible source of energy.
• It is clean: It does not emit any type of pollutant to the environ-

ment.
• Ideal for remote areas: It is the adequate technology to supply

electricity to areas where the power line does not reach or is in-
accessible, for example remote rural areas, islands or small cities.
• It is everywhere: In any part of the world where the sun shines,

we can have access to this technology, it is a very important ad-
vantage since it gives us independence from the important im-
plementation zone, if we compare it for example with the hydro-
electric dams that can only be installed on rivers that are highly
flowing, it represents a great advantage [96].
Disadvantages Of Photovoltaic Solar PV
• Great initial investment: The costs of the initial investment are

high, although over time they are amortizing, a large amount of
money is needed to face the first stage of investment, perhaps
for a small household with little demand the cost will be more
reduced but in the same way it represents a high value.
• Great territory for panel placement: Like wind energy, if people

want to implement a system for large consumption, at the level
of a small city for example, they need a large area of land for the
placement of solar panels. It can be a problem if they do not have
that space.
• Instability of solar radiation: Depending on the area, the time of

year and the climate the amount of radiation can only vary, thus
making the amount of solar energy that we can store unstable,
this can be a problem if we do not have enough storage capacity
(batteries) to cover the season of low solar radiation [96].
Functionality of System Components
PV Module Solar cells are an intermediate product of the photo-

voltaic industry: they provide limited voltage and current values, com-
pared to those normally required by conventional devices. They are
extremely fragile, electrically non-isolated and without mechanical sup-
port. Then, they are assembled in the proper way to form a single
structure: the photovoltaic modules. The photovoltaic module is a
robust and manageable structure on which the photovoltaic cells are
placed. The modules can have different sizes (the most used have sur-
faces ranging from 0.5 m2 to 1.3 m2 ) and usually consist of 36 elec-
trically connected cells in series. The modules formed have a power
that varies between 50Wp and 375Wp [Wp = Watt power], depending
on the type and efficiency of the cells that compose it [90]. Figure 5.6
shows components of PV system. Figure 5.7 shows PV system, its bat-
tery and grid connection. Figure 5.8 shows Flow chart for PV module
set-up.
Figure 5.6: . Components of PV system [90]

Figure 5.7: PV system, its battery and grid connection [90]
Figure 5.8: Flow chart for PV module set-up [96]
Photovoltaic Generator It consists of all the photovoltaic modules,

suitably connected in series and in parallel, with the right combination
to obtain the current and voltage needed for a given application. The
base element is the photovoltaic module. Several modules assembled
mechanically between them form the panel, while modules or panels
electrically connected in series, to obtain the nominal generation volt-
age, form the branch. Finally, the electrical connection in parallel of
many branches constitutes the field. The photovoltaic modules that
form the generator are mounted on a mechanical structure capable of
holding them and that is oriented to optimize the solar radiation. The
amount of energy produced by a photovoltaic generator varies during
the year depending on the insolation of the locality and the latitude
of it. For each application, the generator will have to be dimensioned
considering the following aspects:
• electric charge.
• peak power.
• possibility of connection to the electricity network.
• latitude of the place and average annual solar radiation thereof.

• specific architectural features of the building.
• specific electrical characteristics of the load [96].
Comparison Between Types Of Solar Panels The pollution produced

in the manufacture of the components of the photovoltaic panels and
the emissions of pollutants they produce depend on the technology
used. The most used photovoltaic systems are those based on silicon
(extremely abundant element in the earth) monocrystalline, polycrys-
talline and thin film. Variation in the constituent of silicon determines
the different panels of photovoltaic technology. It is a fact that around
90% of these panels utilizes silicon as a major constituent, especially
in those panels used for domestic purposes, the percentage of Si goes
higher. The silicon used in photovoltaics can have various forms. The
biggest difference between them is the purity of the silicon used. The
purer the silicon, the better aligned its molecules are, and the better
it converts solar energy into electricity. Therefore, when choosing a
good panel, it is best to consider the cost-efficiency ratio per m2 . Crys-
talline silicon is the basis of monocrystalline and polycrystalline cells
[96]. Figure 5.9 shows compounds in solar panels.
Figure 5.9: Compounds in solar panels [96]
Monocrystalline Silicon Cell Panels The solar cells of monocrys-

talline silicon (mono-Si), are quite easy to recognize because of their
coloration and uniform appearance, which indicates a high purity in
silicon. The monocrystalline solar panels are formed by solar cells are
obtained from cylindrical bars of monocrystalline silicon produced in
special ovens. These bars are cut into thin square wafers (0.4-0.5 mm
thick) to make the solar panel. If they are well oriented, they usually
manage to produce more energy than polycrystalline solar panels with
the same panel surface, so they are potentially more productive. They
are more expensive to manufacture, and therefore, their selling price
can sometimes be higher than polycrystalline solar panels [96].
Advantages of monocrystalline solar panels
• Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates

since they are manufactured with high purity silicon. The effi-
ciency in these panels is above 15% and, in some brands, it ex-
ceeds 21%.
• The lifespan of monocrystalline panels is longer. In fact, many

manufacturers offer guarantees of up to 25 years.
• They usually work better than polycrystalline panels of similar

characteristics in low light conditions.
• Although the performance in all panels is reduced with high

temperatures, this occurs to a lesser extent in polycrystalline than
in monocrystalline [96].
Disadvantages of monocrystalline panels
• They are more expensive. Assessing the economic aspect, for

domestic use it is more advantageous to use polycrystalline or
even thin-film panels.
• The damage is likely to happen if the panel is covered with dirt

or snow, and the damaging consequences become obvious if the
covering is around 50%. If it is decided to put monocrystalline
panels but could foresee that they may be shaded at some point,
it is best to use micro solar inverters instead of chain inverters
or exchanges. The micro inverters ensure that not all the solar
installation is affected by only one affected panel.
• As a result of the manufacturing process, cylindrical blocks are

obtained. Subsequently, four sides are cut out to make the silicon
sheets. A lot of silicon is wasted in the process [96].
Polycrystalline silicon panels The first polycrystalline silicon solar

panels appeared on the market in 1981. Unlike monocrystalline pan-
els, the Czochralski method is not used in its manufacture. The silicon
is taken in its raw shape which is then melted. This liquid silicon is
then molded into a square shape. After that, the last stage of circuit
making and cutting take place [96].
Advantage of polycrystalline panels Simpler manufacturing process

that reduces the overall production cost. Much less silicon is lost in the
process than in the monocrystalline [139].
Disadvantages of polycrystalline panels
• Polycrystalline panels usually have less heat resistance than monocrys-

talline ones.
• The efficiency of a polycrystalline panel is typically between 13-

16%, because they do not have a silicon as pure as monocrys-
talline.
• Greater need for space. It is necessary to cover a larger sur-

face with polycrystalline panels than with monocrystalline ones
[127].
Thin-film photovoltaic solar panels The foundation of these panels

is to deposit several layers of photovoltaic material in a base. “De-
pending on the material used we can find thin-film panels of amor-
phous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper, indium, gal-
lium and selenium (GIS / CIGS) or organic photovoltaic cells (OPC).
Depending on the type, a thin layer module has an efficiency of 7-13”
[139]. Because they have great potential for domestic use, they are in-
creasingly in demand.
Advantages of thin-film photovoltaic panels
• They can be manufactured very easily and in large shipments.

This makes them cheaper than crystalline panels.
• They have a very homogeneous appearance.
• They can be flexible, allowing them to adapt to multiple surfaces.

• Performance is not affected so much by shadows and high tem-

peratures.
• They are a great alternative when space is not a problem [127].
Disadvantages of thin-film panels
• Despite its low cost, it covers more space and produces less elec-
tricity than monocrystalline.
• When more panels are needed, it is utmost necessary to invest

more in metallic structure, wiring, etc.
• Prone to speedy degradation [127].
PV Combiner Box The PV combiner box is also known as array com-

biner which is used to parallelly combine the PV module strings. This
type of system is usually utilized in the off-grid connections. How-
ever, for the on-grid connection, the only condition for the incorpora-
tion of combiner box is if the connection is large. Each module strings,
as per the input functionality of the system, contains a positive and
negative terminal; whereas, the positive terminal connects with the
breaker of that string (commonly called as fuse). The output wires
from the breaker are also connected to the positive wires, and the neg-
ative ones are allocated and connected to the negative output known
as common bus bar. On the contrary, concerning the battery less grid-
tied inverters, the integration of this array combiner is completely dif-
ferent. In such case, the combiner box is already incorporated on the
input side; thereby, leaving out the necessity for any separate combiner
box. Apart from that, if there any on a few PV module strings, such
as less than or equal to 3, then the system does not require a combiner
box at all [127] [139].
Inverter The inverter is one of the most important components in

grid-connected systems, since it maximizes the current production of
the photovoltaic device and optimizes the passage of energy between
the module and the load. It is a device that transforms the continu-
ous energy produced by the modules (12V, 24V, 48V, . . . ) into alter-
nate energy (usually 220V), to power the system and / or introduce
it into the network, with which it works under an exchange routine.
The inverters for the connection to the electrical network are generally
equipped with an electronic device that allows to extract the maximum
power, step by step, from the photovoltaic generator. This device fol-
lows the point of maximum power (MPPT) and has just the function of
adapting the production characteristics of the photovoltaic field to the
demands of the load. The exchange device with the network serves
so that the electrical energy introduced into the network has all the
characteristics required by it. Finally, the energy meter measures the
energy produced by the photovoltaic system during its period of op-
eration [96]. Figure 5.10 shows wave function.
Figure 5.10: Wave functions [96]
Central inverter Central Solar Inverters are the most common option
for inverters currently. They can be recommended when the solar in-
stallation has a roof that is not shaded at any time during the day and
does not have multiple addresses (Roof with two waters). Their solar
panels are grouped and connected by "chains". Each series or chain
of panels is connected to a single inverter. This transforms the direct
current electricity produced by the panels, into electricity AC Alter-
nating current. It is a system with high conversion efficiency (DC /
AC). However, it is not prepared to work with shaded panels or dif-
ferent capacities or positioning. If they include monitoring system but
not very advanced since experts can only see how much the system
produced in total and not each individual solar cell [96].
String Inverter In String convertor, the chains are interposed between

centralized inverters. Furthermore, Only one string is connected to its
input, so that the maximum power point (MPPT) follower is indepen-
dent for each string. They allow the design of PV generators whose
strings do not have the same orientation or where there are shading
complications. On the other hand, its price is higher (in relation /
kW). They are further divided into two classifications: Single Chain
and Multi-chain. In the first type, each chain, composed of different
modules in series, has its inverter representing an independent mini-
installation; thanks to this configuration, higher yields are obtained
with respect to the centralized inverters by means of each MPPT de-
vice, reducing the losses due to shadows. It is suitable for articulated
solar fields with different radiation conditions. It can also be used for
installations made up of more geographically distributed solar fields.
However, in multi-chain typology is interposed between centralized
inverters and chain inverters allowing the connection of two or three
chains for each unit with orientations, inclinations and different pow-
ers. On the side of the DC generator the chains are connected to spe-
cific inputs controlled by independent MPPT and on the side of the
introduction in the network they function as a centralized inverter op-
timizing the performance [90].
Micro Inverter The photovoltaic microinverters are devices for in-

verting the energy generated by solar photovoltaic panels that can
only feed one or two panels. An inverter is a device needed to con-
vert electrical energy into direct current produced by solar panels.
Conventional inverters, to which a group of panels is connected, usu-

ally have a minimum power of approximately 1500 W, although there
are smaller ones, while these photovoltaic micro-inverters feed a panel
of approximately 250 W or two in parallel. For a correct operation of a
conventional solar inverter, each independent input (with solar track-
ing point) must have modules connected with the same inclination,
orientation and without shading problems of part of the panel field.
These devices are designed for use in photovoltaic installations that
meet one or more of the following characteristics:
• Small domestic installations, when the total power of panels is

less than 1000 W.
• Systems where any of the panels may have shading problems.
• Locations with different orientation or inclination for the panels.

• The microinverters are emplaced attached to the panels, which

avoids having a device of a considerable size in some other place
[90][139].
Power Optimizer Inverter Power optimizers offer many of the same

benefits as micro inverters, they tend to be a bit less expensive and
more efficient. Power optimizers combine the benefits of the most ex-
pensive micro inverters and the standard chain inverter. Power op-
timizers can be considered as a compromise between chain inverters
and microinverters. Like the microinverters, the power optimizers are
located on the roof next to - or integrated with - the individual solar
panels. However, systems with power optimizers continue to send
power to a centralized inverter. Power optimizers do not convert DC
electricity into alternating current at the solar panel site. Rather, they
"condition" the electricity in direct current by setting the voltage of the
electricity, at the moment it is sent to the photovoltaic inverter [139].
An installation of solar panels with power optimizers is more efficient
than one that only uses a chain inverter. Systems that use optimizers
tend to be more efficient and even more affordable than those that use
micro-inverters [127][139].
Types of Inverter Connection Figure 5.11 shows a basic circuit of PV.
Figure 5.11: Basic circuit of PV [139]
On-Grid Inverter The On-Grid inverter or installation connected to

the network convert the continuous electrical current of the solar pan-
els to alternating current (AC), it is a system designed to interact di-
rectly with the electrical network, that is, when the energy is distributed
in its home, business or industry, generates a significant saving in elec-

tricity consumption. This On-Grid system does not require the use of
battery banks, it produces energy directly to the network and from
there it feeds everything connected to it. It is used in small installa-
tions that only use electricity during the day, which means that it can-
not be installed in areas where the electricity grid does not exist. This
Photovoltaic Inverter also monitors the volume, frequency and phase
of the home line. It produces a pure Sine wave, whose frequency and
phase equals home electricity but with a larger volume [96].
Off-Grid Inverter Insulated inverters (with batteries) are used in in-

stallations without connection to the electricity grid. They are able to
convert the direct current (DC) of the battery to alternating current
(AC) of 110V-220V to feed the consumption of the house. They nec-
essarily require the use of batteries and are capable of generating a
modified or sinusoidal wave, directly extracting energy from the bat-
tery. They are used to provide light in locations without connection
to the electrical network such as country houses, ships, pumping sys-
tems, etc. For the sizing of an Off-Grid inverter, experts should have
parameters, such as the nominal power is the power that can be pro-
vided by the inverter in normal operation and use. While the peak
power is the one that the inverter will be able to provide for a short
period of time, and that some electrical devices will need which, when
switched on, need a high power at the start. This is the case of appli-
ances with engines, such as pumps, refrigerators, freezers, blenders,
drills, compressors, etc. Within this group we can find several types of
isolated inverters:
Isolated inverter Its purpose is to transform the direct current (DC)

of the batteries in alternating current (AC) to 110Vac - 220Vac to power
the appliances. To protect the battery are programmed to stop the sup-
ply when the battery voltage is too low and avoid over discharges.
They also incorporate protections against overvoltage, output short
circuit, reversal of polarity and excessive temperature. For inverters in
isolation , there are two types of inverters "Modified Wave and Pure
Wave."
• Modified wave. Modified wave inverters have a higher perfor-

mance compared to square wave, provide good value for money
in lighting, televisions, radiators or universal motors. These Mod-

ified Wave inverters are used for practically all types of devices
although in some high-tech or inductive loads they may not work
correctly since the wave is generated electronically (See Figure
5.10).
• Pure wave. Pure Wave Off-Grid inverters are designed not to

generate interference or noise in electronic equipment, such as
televisions, sound equipment, among others. They are gener-
ally used where there is no electricity or electrical network. Pure
sinusoidal wave inverters generate the same wavelength as the
one we receive at home. They are more expensive than the mod-
ified wave but can be used with all types of equipment [96].
Hybrid Inverter The hybrid inverters also incorporate an internal

charger able to charge the battery using an external 220V power sup-
ply, such as generator sets, mains or gasoline engines. The advantage
of the inverter-chargers is that the system becomes independent of the
weather conditions and can work even on rainy or cloudy days or
when the consumption in the home is much higher than expected and
the battery is discharged [139]. By incorporating the internal charger,
when an auxiliary power source is present, all the energy supplied to
the house comes from the auxiliary source and at the same time the
batteries are charged, in this way the auxiliary source energy is used
to the maximum. They allow the start of generator automatically [96].
Figure 5.12 shows the grid connection.
Figure 5.12: Grid connection [96]

Charge Controller The charge controller serves mainly to preserve

the accumulators of an excess of charge by the photovoltaic generator
and of the discharge by the excess of use. Both conditions are harmful
for the correct functionality and duration of the accumulators. Since
normally the power required by the user is not proportional to the so-
lar radiation (and, consequently, to the electrical production of a pho-
tovoltaic system) a part of the energy produced by the photovoltaic
field has to be stored in order to be reused when the user needs it [139].
This is the purpose of the accumulation system. An accumulation sys-
tem is formed by a set of rechargeable accumulators, dimensioned in
such a way as to guarantee sufficient power autonomy of the electric
charge. The batteries used for this purpose are stationary type accu-
mulators and only in very special cases it is possible to use automotive
type batteries. In this context, charge controller control and regulate
the system to not over charge [96].
DC Breaker This type of breaker is an essential component in a PV

solar system as it comprises the functionality to disconnect the flow
of electricity from the array modules safely. Integrating it plays a vi-
tal role, especially during troubleshooting process or if the system re-
quires any maintenance. These issues can be examined by the inspec-
tors and the corresponding action is taken. In DC circuits, the breaker
is usually integrated already in the system, which can further be com-
bined with the fuse or circuit breakers for more protection [96].
Charger A charger is a main part of the PV system. By its name, one

can perceive the meaning as if it is utilized to store the charge (the
photonic charge) from the solar source. However, in actuality, it is
completely opposite. The PV system, like other system, require some
potential to start working. The charger is the source that provide the
electric source to charge the system and enabling it to perform photo-
voltaic operation. It is usually a battery. This process is similar to the
UPS system, although the overall operation of PV is different [96].
DC/AC Inverter As discussed earlier in the description of the in-

verter. The basic principle of the inverter is to transform the DC cur-
rent to AC current, which means converting Direct Current to Alter-
nating Current. The DC / AC converters can convert the 12, 24, 48
V DC that produce the solar panels and stored in the battery, in al-
ternating current of 125 or 220 V (currently, 230 V), as the which is
normally used in places where the conventional electrical network is.
Main characteristics that define this type of inverter are following.
• Input voltage (VDC): This value must be equal to that of the ac-
cumulator (12, 24, 48 V).
• Output voltage (VAC): This value must be normalized (230 VAC).
• Stability of the output / input voltage: variations of up to 10%

for square wave converters and 5% for sinusoidal wave convert-
ers are allowed. They are values that the norms admit for the
voltage of the conventional electrical networks, independently
of the power demanded by the consumption. On the other hand,
in installations with accumulators, the input voltage may not be
higher than 125% nor lower than 85% of the nominal input volt-
age of the converter.
• Wave type: At present, inverters must present a standard AC

type format with a pure sine wave.
• Overload capacity (peak power) and thermal protection: Very

useful in installations with motors, since at the moment of start-
up, the power needed for nominal operation can be doubled,
even if only for a few seconds. It must be borne in mind that
any motor, when starting up, can consume a current up to five
times the rated current and that, as a rule, approximately three
times.
• The energy efficiency or performance of the converter is the ra-

tio between the energy that the converter facilitates to the con-
sumptions in alternating current and the energy that this input
(battery) converter needs. If the converter designed for a given
power works at a fraction of this power, the performance will go
down. A sinusoidal converter must be required to have a perfor-
mance of 70% working at 20% of the rated power and 85% when
working at a power greater than 40% of the rated power.
• Automatic start and standby state: Allows the power parts of the
same converter to be disconnected in the absence of consumption
and reconnected at the moment they detect an energy demand

above a previously fixed threshold.
• Protection against reversal of polarity and short circuits: Basic
options, given the possibilities of error or faulty operation of
the consumption circuits that are high during the life of the con-
verter.
• Low harmonic distortion: Parameter related to the quality of the
generated wave. Harmonics are normally eliminated by means
of filters, although this leads to losses. The variation of the fre-
quency of the output voltage will be less than 3% of the nominal.
• Possibility of being combined in parallel: It will allow a possible
growth of the installation and the power consumption.
• Good behavior with temperature variation: Operating range be-
tween -5o C and 40o C [96][139].
AC Breaker Like any other connections, the solar panel utilized breaker
(differential switch) at both AC source and DC source. The input and
output currents have a very small differential, when this differential
exceeds the sensitivity for which the switches are calibrated, a current
is created that activates the electromagnet which in turn enables the
opening of the switch contacts, preventing the current passage. If there
is no earth connection, or is not connected to the socket, the differential
will be activated when such a bypass occurs in the electrical appliance
through a person who touches its metal parts, and is on a conductor
floor, will cause a discharge that would be dangerous or even deadly
if the current exceeds 30mA. In the differential switch there is a test
button that simulates a defect in the installation and therefore, when
pressed, the installation must disconnect, it is recommended to test the
switch periodically. There are different degrees of sensitivity to estab-
lish the value of the current with which the flow will be disconnected:
• Very high sensitivity: 10 mA.
• High sensitivity: 30 mA.
• Normal sensitivity: 100 and 300 mA.
• Low sensitivity: 0.5 and 1A [96].
Figure 5.13 shows the overall classification and grid.
Figure 5.13: Overall classification and grid [96]
Best Examples
The Solar Schools project of Greenpeace In Spain, the environmen-

tal organization Greenpeace has launched the Solar Schools project
since 1997. The Solar Schools network is a group of educational centers
of all the autonomous communities interested in the installation of so-
lar roofs in their buildings. Although these facilities report economic
benefits, they open up a wide range of possibilities: pedagogical, cur-
ricular (allowing students to learn the operation and advantages of
solar energy and getting used to seeing it as a reality), and vindicating
(demonstrating that there is a demand for solar energy, requiring pub-
lic administrations to put in place the means to satisfy that demand,
and the electricity companies that facilitate their connection to the elec-
tricity grid). At present there are almost 300 educational centers of all
kinds: schools, institutes, faculties, universities, nurseries, etc. Some
have already made these installations, and others are interested in do-
ing so [40]. At the initiative of Greenpeace, the centers registered in
the Network act in three directions:
• Demonstrative: with the installation of a photovoltaic solar roof,

the viability of solar energy becomes evident in practice. Green-
peace provides the necessary information (Solar Guide) and of-
fers the centers of the Network the centralized coordination and

management necessary to achieve the project, including the search
for funding sources. For this, it has the collaboration of special-
ized entities.
• Claim: Realization of activities in support of the Greenpeace cam-

paign in favor of solar energy, such as: Manifesto in favor of solar
energy in schools, participation in Solar Week.
• Educational: Currently, different educational activities are being

prepared to give continuity to those already carried out [40].
Experience in Germany A simple project that proved to be extremely

effective in promoting the photovoltaic solar energy sector was carried
out in Germany, where, in the first months of 2000, a national program
began, characterized by:
• Does not provide for non-reimbursable grants.
• On the other hand, it foresees financing at a 10-year interest-rate

subsidized rate.
• Facilities related to the electric power produced by the photo-

voltaic system are granted: in fact, each kWh produced is sold
at a price of 0.5 (approximately 3 times the purchase cost of the
kWh of the network) [98].
This program has allowed the implementation of photovoltaic systems

conceived as an investment. Secondly, it has allowed the realization of
systems of high efficiency and quality so that they get the highest pos-
sible production. Finally, it stimulates a punctual and efficient mainte-
nance on the part of the users [98]. Figure 5.14 shows the Development
of PV power generation in million kWh 2000-2012. Figure 5.14 shows
PV system prices decrease steadily.
Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calculations

The calculations is for one solar power station (100km2 ) and we as-
sumed we have 51.02 Million solar panels (This assumption is based
on the calculation in Appendix A.3). The data below is provided as
an example of the calculation (using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM 2
model for the solar panels) [88]:
Figure 5.14: Development of PV power generation in million kWh

2000-2012 [98]
To calculate one solar power station capacity, we need to the product of

the total number of sol and ar s neededpanelModule Type (Maximum
Power Points) as shown below:
Ptotal.1station = P aneltotal Pmpp = 19.133GW
The following equation shows the power of 3 solar power stations:
Ptotal.3stations = 3Ptotal.1station = 57.398GW
Figure A.12 shows the maximum Power, maximum power points cur-
rent, and short circuit current for a range of voltages for a singe solar
panel. Please see Appendix A.3: MathCAD calculation for more infor-
mation.
Figure A.13 shows the maximum Power, range of currents for a range
of voltages for a singe solar panel. Please see Appendix A.3: Math-
CAD calculation for more information.
NEOM Solar Panel Capacity

Assume the size of the solar power station is 100km2 and we have Max-
imum Power Points of 375W . Assume that we have 3 solar power sta-
tions and each one of them contains 51.02 Million solar panel units and
Figure 5.15: PV system prices decrease steadily [98]
Table 5.6: PV solar Example Data

Length Length 1960mm
Width W idth 1000mm
Size of 1 solar panel Sizepanel =Length W idth 1.96 m2
Module Type (Maximum Power Points) Pmpp 375 W
Maximum Power Pmax = Pmpp 375 W
Maximum Power Points Voltage Vmpp 39.6 V
Maximum Power Points Current Impp 9.5 A
Open Circuit Voltage Voc 48.3 V
Short Circuit Current Isc 10.04 A
Number of total solar panels P aneltotal 51.02*106 units
we are using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM 2 model for the solar pan-

els [88]. With this scenario, NEOM will have a capacity of 57.398GW
from solar panels. Figure 5.18 shows an artificial solar station located
in NEOM.
5.3.4 Solar Power Tower

Solar energy is one of the renewable and sustainable sources of power
whose exploitation is assisting the world in reducing greenhouse ef-
fect and destruction to the environment. In the contemporary world,
technological advancements, including the development of solar pan-
Figure 5.16: Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum power
points current and short circuit current vs. range of voltages
els and solar towers are making it possible for the solar energy to be
trapped and used. Solar towers constitute an indirect solar power
technology system. Through the system, energy from the sun is cap-
tured and converted using a concentrated solar power tower [93].
Solar Power Tower Design and how it Works

In solar power tower system, the collection and concentration of solar
radiation is facilitated by two fundamental components, including he-
liostats and the thermal heat receiver. Heliostats are highly reflective
mirrors used in reflecting sunlight located in the thermal heat receiver
at the top of the tower. The heliostats are strategically arranged on the
ground around the solar tower such that the sunlight and heat is re-
flected to the tower throughout the day [42]. The thermal heat receiver
is trough-shaped to increase the surface on which reflected heat from
the heliostats is trapped.
The concentrated heat exceedingly rises in temperature to above 300◦ C.

The heat is used to heat thermal liquid, including oil or molten salt.
The thermal liquid is then used to heat water running into a boiler to
produce steam. In addition, the steam is used in turning turbines to
15 400
13.5
Irange2A
12
Irange4A 300
10.5
Irange6A
Current (A)
Power (W)
9
Irange8A
7.5 200 Pmax
Irange10.04A
6
Impp
4.5
Isc 100
3
1.5
0 0
0 5.4 10.8 16.2 21.6 27 32.4 37.8 43.2 48.6 54
V range
Voltage (V)
I.range.2A
I.range.4A
I.range.6A
I.range.8A
I.range.10.03A
I.mpp
I.sc
P.max
Figure 5.17: Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of currents
vs. range of voltages
produce electricity [52]. In this case, the electricity is then transmit-

ted into the grid or power storage facilities. After turning the turbine,
the steam is passed through a condenser and then to the boiler for an-
other cycle of the electricity generation. The heated thermal liquids
retain the temperatures, making it possible for the electricity produc-
tion even at night. Figure 5.19 shows a Solar Power Tower system.
Solar Power Tower Electrical Capacity

The solar tower electrical capacity is dependent on the sunlight trends
within the day. On a regular day, the electrical capacity of the system
starts in the early morning in which the amount of power generated
increase towards the afternoon. The production capacity in the morn-
ing hours is usually low because the heat from the sun is considerably
weak (see figure 5.20 and 5.21). The generation reaches the maximum
in the afternoon when the sun radiations are at the optimal heat levels
and start declining and reaches the lowest level at about 6.00 pm [91].
3/24/2018 How Power Tower Works | Cleanleap
How Power Tower Works
Power towers use large, flat mirrors called heliostats to reflect sunlight onto a solar receiver at the top of a
central tower. In a direct steam power tower, water is pumped up the tower to the receiver, where
concentrated thermal energy heats it to around 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The hot steam then powers a
conventional steam turbine. In this case, the medium that transfers heat from the receiver to the power block
is steam. Some power towers use molten salt in place of the water and steam. That hot molten salt can be
Figure 5.18: Artificial solar station in NEOM [106].
used immediately to generate steam and electricity, or it can be stored and used at a later time.
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In power tower CSP systems, numerous large, flat, sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats, focus sunlight
Figure 5.19: Solar Power Tower system [66]
onto a receiver at the top of a tall tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam,
UNDEFINED
which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.

With the thermal liquid heat storage capacity, the output of power ex-
A large power tower plant can require thousands of computer-controlled heliostats that move to maintain point
tends up focus
to thewith midnight
the central tower(see figure
from dawn 5.20).
to dusk. Because they typically constitute about 50% of the plant's
cost, it is important to optimize heliostat design; size, weight, manufacturing volume, and performance are
important design variables approached differently by developers to minimize cost.
The implication of this is that the electricity generation capacity of a
solar power tower would be optimal during summer but lower during
Prev pageNevertheless, it Up
the winter seasons. is important to note that optimal Next page
radiation reflection influences the capability of the solar tower power
plant by keeping the heliostat panels clean and reflective.
Despite the fact that the capability of solar is dependent on the amount
of solar radiation, technological innovation is used to assist in extend-
ing power generation even at night. The thermal liquid heated at the
solar tower trough is made up of oil or salt. By design, the salt liquid
http://cleanleap.com/2-power-tower/how-power-tower-works 1/3
is used in heating the water to steam and also as storage of heat to

Figure 5.20: Thermal liquid heat storage capacity [46]
Figure 5.21: Large-scale PV Integration study [91]
extend the generation into some hours at night. As a result, the solar
tower can produce electricity for about 20 hours a day. It means that
with the storage of power generated during the pick hours, the energy
from the tower system can be relied upon for 24 hours.
Solar Power Tower Size Versus Capacity

Evidently, the solar energy trapping takes place in two levels before
the radiation is converted into heat for power generation. The highly
reflective heliostats concentrate the reflected radiations into a single
point; the surface of the tower trough. The number of the heliostats/mirrors
and the surface areas of the trough are the first components to define
the size of a power tower [46]. The number of mirrors and the size of
the trough would, therefore, have a direct influence on the amount of
heat energy available for heating the thermal liquid (see figure 5.22).
The other aspect of size is the volume of the water boiler because it
determines the amount of steam produced and used in turning the
turbine for the generation of electricity. Therefore, a project developer
should consider the size of the power tower system to ensure that it
has the capacity to produce the target amount of electricity.
Figure 5.22: The Size of Heliostat Field and impact on Capacity [46]
Examples of Solar power Tower Projects

The first example of solar tower power plant is the Ivanpah Project in
south-eastern California (see Figure 5.23). The plant was completed
in 2010 and was designed to produce 370 Megawatts through three
towers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towers is surrounded by about
100,000 heliostat mirrors. The project is capable of supplying electric-
ity to 140,000 homes [52].
The second example is the PS 20 plant located near Seville, Spain (see
figure 5.24). The tower is 531 feet and is expected to produce 20 megawatts
of electricity. The project involves about 1,255 mirrors.The size of one
heliostat mirror is occupying 120 square meters.
The third example of a solar power tower is the Solar Two Power Plant
in Daggett, CA (see figure 5.24). The station had 1,926 heliostats, and
its tower is 300 feet tall. The electricity output from the plant is ade-
quate to meet the power demand for about 10,000 homes [93].
Figure 5.23: Aerial view of Ivanpah Project [32]
Figure 5.24: PS20 solar thermal power plant, Spain [89]
NEOM Solar Power Tower Plants

Assume that NEOM will build 3 solar tower power plants with a size
of 3,500 acres (14.164km2 ) each [72]. Each solar tower power plant is
370 Megawatts and has three towers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towers
is surrounded by about 100,000 heliostat mirrors. The 3 solar tower
power plants will have a capacity of 1.11GW . Figure 5.26 shows an
artificial solar power tower located in NEOM.
Figure 5.25: Airier view of Solar Two Power Plant in Daggett, CA [93]
Figure 5.26: Artificial solar power tower in NEOM [106].
5.4 In case NEOM does not reach demand

capacity
5.4.1 Natural battery
Design and how it works
Energy batteries play a critical role as storage facilities for excess en-
ergy when not in use. In addition, some batteries are used as portable
energy banks. Worth noting is that the battery expertise undergoes
technological advancement from time-to-time. Natural battery un-
derground is a recent technological advancement in which energy is
stored below the ground level. A battery, in this case, is used in the
storage of renewable energy using the carbon dioxide from the power
plant. The system involves the pumping of high-pressurized and con-
centrated carbon dioxide into porous and permeable sedimentary rock

[102]. The pressurized liquid, in this case, the carbon dioxide pushes
the brine on the rock. Consequently, the rock is also heated by energy
from the power plant.
The heated and pushed brine is forced to enter into the battery reser-
voirs to store the thermal energy [102]. The geothermal heat and the
huge amount of pressure, which is underground prevent the signifi-
cant loss of heat, hence the optimal storage of the thermal energy. The
process is continuous, particularly during the low demand for the grid
power. The energy stored, in this case, is ready for use when the de-
mand for electricity is high. When the power generated and supplied
to the grid falls below the demand, the thermal energy is converted
into electricity to bridge the gap. In this case, the brine is used in
turning steam-powered generator, while the pressurized and heated
carbon dioxide is used in driving turbines by itself. The two fluids
use up their heat after turning the turbine and hence are reheated and
pumped back into the reservoirs. However, it is important to note that
the electricity generated is connected to the grid (see figure 5.27).
Figure 5.27: Design of Natural Battery Underground [102]

The capacity of a Natural Battery Underground

The capacity of a natural battery underground is not yet ascertained
because the technology is still in the development phase. Neverthe-
less, it is important to predict that its capacity would be relatively
higher than on the open ground battery. The prediction is based on
the fact that energy loss from the underground facility would be low
compared to a storage placed on the ground. The use of pressurized
liquefied carbon dioxide in the combination of brine would optimize
the heat generation and storage [102]. A small sized underground bat-
tery can, therefore, be used in the storage of a relatively high amount
of thermal energy, which enhances its capacity. The potential capacity
of natural battery underground can be based on projected output of
brine4power battery [117]. The battery is expected to have a power
capacity of up to 700 MWh and the power output of up to 120 MW
[117].
The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Natural Battery Underground

The first advantage of the natural battery underground is that it is used
as a stabilizer between the demand and supply and electricity from
renewable energy plants. For instance, at the time the generation is
higher than the demand, the excess energy does not go to waste, as it
is stored in the batteries. On the similar perspective, when the energy
output goes below the average demand, the energy stored in the un-
derground batteries is used in complementing the shortage.
The second advantage is that the underground batteries do not occupy

the space on the ground, making it a space-friendly facility. The space
saved, in this case, can be used for other purposes. For instance, if the
battery is connected to a solar power plant; some panels can be placed
on the ground after the battery is installed. Similarly, a wind turbine
can be mounted on the saved space.
Thirdly, the batteries largely involve the use of carbon dioxide, the gas
largely associated with global warming and air pollution. Therefore, it
is an environmentally friendly project. With the optimal development
and absorption of the technology, at least four million tons of carbon
dioxide would be stored underground and be used for over 30 years
for the purpose of energy storage. The carbon dioxide locked per year,
in this case, is equivalent to the amount emitted from a 600-negative

coal plant [102]. The battery would, therefore, assist in elevating the
emission of the gas in two ways. First, by stabilizing the energy out-
put from the renewable sources, hence reducing the demand for fossil
sources of energy. Secondly, by extracting the gas emitted from the
combustion of fossil energy. It implies that the negative environmen-
tal impact of the fossil energy would be reduced substantially.
However, the battery underground could have two fundamental dis-

advantages. First of all, despite the fact that it saves on space, for the
batteries to be installed, the ground should be evacuated until the un-
derground rocks are reached. The implication of this aspect is that it
would be a relatively expensive undertaking compared to when an
on-ground battery is used. A close a look at figure 5.27 indicates that
the underground height of about 3-5 kilometres may be required [102].
The second disadvantage is that the technology used in the battery un-
derground is not yet fully developed. Hence, it infers that just a few
entities have the grip of the innovation, understand how to install the
batteries, and offer maintenance services. In essence, it is, therefore,
not yet an accessible technology.
Examples of the Best Natural Battery Underground around the World

The natural battery underground technology is still in the develop-
ment phase [102]. Therefore, the technology is not yet translated into
an existing project. According to Morra, the technology is based on
proven technical systems, and hence its feasibility is not questionable
[102]. The first example of the best battery around the world (which is
not underground battery) is the lithium-ion battery set to be built in in
Australia by Tesla. The battery project has the capacity of 100MW bat-
tery and can provide 129 megawatt-hours energy (MWh) to the region
[44]. At its full capacity, the project can supply power to about 30,000
homes for 1 hour and 18 minutes.
The second example is the 80 megawatt-hour underground battery lo-

cated at Mira Loma, California with a power capacity of 80 megawatt-
hour (Dunn). The battery has the power capability to serve about
15,000 homes for 4 hours or 2,500 homes for a whole day [44].
The third one is the redox flow battery referred as brine4power being
set up in Germany by the Ewe Gasspeicher GmbH [71].Brine4power
is to be located in a Jemgum gas storage facility, in Friedrich Schiller
University in Jena and will have a capacity of 700 MWh and the power
output of up to 120 MW [71]. The battery system can store the power
for several months; when fully charged it can supply a large city such
as Berlin with electricity for an hour [71]. Figure 5.28 shows the site on
which brine4power is been constructed. Figure 5.29 shows the Design
of brine4power.
Figure 5.28: The site on which brine4power is been constructed [71]
Figure 5.29: The Design of brine4power [71]

NEOM batteries capacity

Based on the current and best technology so far, a single brine4power
battery has a capacity of 120 MW [117]. Therefore, we are assuming
that NEOM will build 6 brine4power batteries that will have a total
capacity of 720 MW.
Fundamentally, further research would be required to ensure that the

geological factors such as the nature of rocks in the target sites are re-
liable. For instance, the United States is considered as one of the most
suitable places to adopt the underground technology because of the
widespread sedimentary rock formations required for the system. The
potential sites for the batteries are within or adjacent to renewable en-
ergy power plants, including solar, wind, and nuclear among others.
5.4.2 Nuclear Power Plants in Saudi Arabia

The world is experiencing an increased exploitation of renewable and
green energy to complement and possibly replace the conventional
sources of energy. Nuclear energy is one of the many energy alter-
natives that countries are in the process of exploiting. However, the
technology requires massive capital investment. On the other hand,
there are controversies surrounding the exploitation of new technol-
ogy connected to developing weapons of mass destruction. The re-
view of the exploitation of the nuclear power in Saudi Arabia provides
the overview of the steps made so far in exploiting the energy source
in the national power mix.
Locations and Capacity

Saudi Arabia has not yet invested substantially in nuclear energy ex-
ploitation projects, but has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants. The
projects are projected to be completed in 20-25 years. In fact, the cost
is expected to stand at $80 billion. The power plants are expected to
contribute 17 GW, projected to 15% of the energy mix in the country
upon completion [109]. Plans are in place for the construction of first
nuclear power plant; senior officials have confirmed that the project
is in the final planning stage [10]. The plant will be made up of two
nuclear reactors with a total capacity of 3.2 Gigawatt. Five countries;
U.S., China, France, and Russia, as well as South Korea have made pro-
posals to take up the construction role. Indeed, the winner is due to

be announced and engaged early in 2019 [10]. In addition, Saudi Ara-
bia is planning to build two small reactors, each with the capability of
producing 120 megawatts [10]. The reactors would be commissioned
by 2023, upon whose completion would contribute around 5% to the
national energy mix.
The government has not yet provided a precision location of the nu-
clear energy plants. The reason behind this move might be the caution
required to reduce the negative implications of the plants. However,
the authorities are assessing two sites considered appropriate for set-
ting up the nuclear power plant. The kingdom is however yet to sign
contracts for the site characterization study to determine the most pre-
ferred setting for the plant. Nevertheless, the two sites are located at
Umm Huwayd and Knor Dumeuihin [128]. The two areas are located
on the coastal line near the UAE and Qatar borders.
The Design of Nuclear Power Plant

The design of a nuclear power plant is defined by the components of
the reactor. First, the fuel is obtained from Uranium in the highly pres-
surized vessel. The second component inside the reactor is the control
rods, which are made of neutron-absorbing material. The third com-
ponent is the coolant, which plays two roles, including reducing the
heat from the reactor and for the condensation of steam after turn-
ing the turbine in the power generator. The third component consti-
tutes the pressure vessel/tube; it is the vessel usually made of steel and
holds the fuel element and the control rods (see figure 5.30). The other
component is the steam generator in which steam produced from the
reactors is used in turbines to produce energy [110]. The last compo-
nent is the containment, which is the reinforcement used in protecting
the reactor from external intrusion as well as cautioning the outside
against radiations from the reactor.
How Nuclear Power Plants Work

The Uranium heated in the reactor core under high pressures releases
atoms, which are attracted by the control rods. The movement of the
atoms and fusion to the rods creates a lot of thermal energy, which
heats water (in the chambers) into steam. The steam is used in turn-
Figure 5.30: Design of Nuclear Power Plant [110]
ing the turbine used in the generation of the electricity. The steam
proceeds (after turning the turbine) to the cooling chamber where it
is cooled again into water. The water is recycled back to the reaction
chamber and the electricity generation continues. From the figure 5.31,
the output from the steam generator is the thermal energy, which is
used in generating gross electricity energy [110]. Worth noting is that
some of the energy is used in the plant in running the internal compo-
nents while the net electric energy is supplied to the grid.
Figure 5.31: How nuclear power plants work. [110]

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants

The first advantage of nuclear power is that it does not produce green-
house gasses [111]. In fact, steam is the only gas emitted from the re-
actors to the atmosphere. The second advantage is that nuclear energy
is a reliable and efficient source of energy. A small amount of nuclear
fuel produces a large amount of energy. The reliability of the energy
is relatively higher compared to solar and wind energy sources whose
output depends on the weather conditions. A nuclear plant produces
energy throughout the year, for 24 hours a day unless there are techni-
cal issues. As a result, the cost and supply of energy from the nuclear
energy is reliable. It is, therefore, a reliable energy source for sustain-
able economic growth and development. As an alternative source of
energy, it reduces the consumption of conventional fuels such as coal
or oil. Therefore, the green energy is part of the key solutions to the
reduction of global warming. The quality of air would be improved
and diseases arising from contaminated atmosphere reduced.
Despite the appealing advantages, there are some setbacks of nuclear

energy. The first disadvantage is that the technology required in set-
ting up a nuclear technology is highly sophisticated. Therefore, it is
not easily exploited as a source of energy; this explains the reasons
there are only few countries that have successfully exploited the power
generation source. Secondly, despite the technological application of
safety measures, the safety of nuclear power plant is highly compro-
mised by the human factor involved in the management of the plants.
Mistakes made, in this case, may lead to massive destruction and loss
of life. For example, nuclear power plant accidents at Chernobyl and
Fukushima are highly associated with wrong decisions. The funda-
mental problem is that a radioactive explosion, as a result of a mistake
or an error in handling a nuclear plant would be impossible to contain
[111]. Furthermore, the development of nuclear energy technology is
highly subjected to international surveillance. The international com-
munity would be keen to ensure that the technology is not used in the
production of weapons of mass destruction.
Saudi Arabia Nuclear Power Plants Capacity

Since Saudi Arabia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17GW each),
then nuclear plants will give a total capacity of 272 GW, which will be
more than enough to cover NEOM electricity demand.

Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Work
This chapter shows the derived conclusions with recommendations on future

work.
6.1 Conclusions
The world is shifting from the fossil energy dependence to renewable
and sustainable mix. Solar and wind energy systems are particularly
important in the energy mix in the contemporary time. Despite the
lack of appropriate government’s policies and legal framework, coun-
tries in the Middle East, including Saudi Arabia have reformed their
energy policies leading to increase in the number of renewable projects
initiated. Continued efforts to attract more investment in research and
development, human resource training, and the uptake of the new
technology are highly recommended moving forward. The efforts, in
this case, would assist the countries such as Saudi Arabia to realize
their renewable energy mix objectives.
Freiburg, Germany and Masdar city have proved that a country does
not need other complex structures such as nuclear plants to provide
sufficient energy for a nation. Naturally existing sources of energy,
which not only provides clean energy but is also friendly to the envi-
ronment, can be depended upon effectively. All that is required are
strict policies imposed by the government and also citizens that are
willing to work to achieve it. Although challenging to implement, re-
newable energy sources are better than any other energy sources.
132
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 133
The wind turbine designers frequently define this values. Nonethe-

less, it is important to realize the connection between all of these fac-
tors. It is also necessary to use the equation to calculate the power
at wind speeds. The knowledge of the differences in a turbine oper-
ation in various wind speeds significantly influence the income lost.
It is also necessary to understand the theoretical maximal power of
a turbine to be able to indicate potential problems. The energy mar-
ket requires to make predictions about the potential of a turbine to
produce certain amount of energy since the sell of energy goes first
than its production. The accurate calculations are significant for the
balanced distribution of energy in the market and for the company‘s
income forecasting.
Solar power tower system is one of the innovations that are making
it possible for the world to carry on with the objective of the shift-
ing from the conventional to renewable sources of energy. The solar
tower and the heliostat/mirror field assist in trapping solar energy
from which it is converted into electricity. The size of the heliostat
field defines by number and sizes, and the surface area of the tower
determines the amount of solar trapped and generated. Solar power
tower plants such as Solar Two Power Plant, PS 20 plant in Spain, and
Ivanpah Project are the attestation of how successful solar towers can
assist in the utilization of green energy.
Nuclear energy is a highly reliable alternative power supply compared

to coal and oil sources. In Saudi Arabia, the government is in the plan-
ning phase of implementing the first nuclear power plants. The en-
ergy source is highly efficient and reliable because it does not depend
on weather conditions. Nevertheless, the power plant developers and
managers should be aware of the risks associated with the potential
explosion. Appropriate technology and effective management of nu-
clear reactors are fundamentally required.
Natural battery underground is a technology that is in the develop-

ment phase. The technology is likely to assist in addressing the chal-
lenges associated with fluctuation in energy generation in some of the
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar. The technology in-
volves the use of brine from the sedimentary rocks and carbon diox-
ide in the storage of thermal energy, which is then used in generating
134 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
electricity when the demand is high. It is imperative to note that the

technology would play an important role in reducing the greenhouse
impact of fossil energy by locking huge amount of carbon dioxide in
the underground system. However, since the technology is not yet
fully developed, there is no tangible example of such facilities. Re-
searchers and developers involved should speed up the development
phase and assist in the spread of the technology as soon as possible.
The exploitation of the alternative energy, particularly the wind and

solar energy sources are characterized by a wide range of challenges.
Some of the challenges arise from the nature of the sources while oth-
ers arise from the capability to exploit the sources into energy. How-
ever, considering the importance of the renewable energy in the reduc-
tion of the greenhouse effect, strategies to reduce the challenges have
been developed. As discussed in the solution to the issues, the en-
ergy sector stakeholders, including innovators, grid operators, private
energy producers, and suppliers as well as domestic and commercial
consumers should play their respective roles towards this end. The
continuous exploitation of the alternative energy sources should be
highly encouraged for optimal reduction of the effects connected to
conventional/fossil energy production and consumption.
6.2 Future Work

Although the rigorous qualitative analysis has been drawn while ex-
tracting the scholarly opinions and research results, still due to the
time constraints, several experiments, tests, and techniques were not
incorporated. It is important to note that experiments regarding solar
panels require standardized materials, expensive coatings and pan-
els, and time-consuming methods. For instance, for a single run, sev-
eral days are required on each sample. Therefore, the empirical and
more vigorous analysis based on different mechanisms, techniques,
and methods are taken into consideration for the future work.
The quantitative approach whilst utilizing the experiments and em-

pirical work is important to understand the relationship between dif-
ferent methods and their relative accuracy. Since the green energy is
advancing rapidly, the up-to-date methods are necessary to be em-
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 135
ployed (even those under consideration). The most natural and or-
ganic means should be adapted to produce energy-efficient appliances
that consume less energy and follow eco-friendly regulations. The best
recommendation for future work is building NEOM Institute of Sci-
ence and Technology as will be discussed below.
6.2.1 NEOM Institution

The NEOM Institute of Science and Technology will be an indepen-
dent, research-driven, graduate-level institution focused on advanced
energy and sustainable technologies. NEOM Institute will provide
a valuable platform for learning, exploring, and critical thinking in
the field of practical sciences and technology. Its’ graduate program
particularly will be focused on the principle of exposing students to
research-driven atmosphere, where they can analyze the culture of in-
novation and entrepreneurship. Incubating the diversity in culture
promotes the leadership skills among the students. Furthermore, since
the faculty instills the power of curiosity among students to find, ex-
plore, and solve the challenges related to climate change in today’s
world with research, it enable the peers to work with new approaches
to achieve their entrepreneurial goals.The world-class faculty and top-
tier students are expected to come up with new approaches,smart ideas,
and involve in intensive studies regarding the NEOM city. The follow-
ing will show examples of a smart idea and an intensive study involve
NEOM renewable energy that NEOM Institution faculty and students
can contribute. The following ideas could be tested:
Smart Ideas
Example Idea NEOM will be pumping sea water in the near moun-
tains at the morning using the solar and wind. Then using hydro at
night.
Considerations The following are considerations needed to be taken

into account:
1. How much power needed to pump sea water in the near moun-
tains?
2. What is the expected generation capacity?

136 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
3. Is it cheaper to store the energy instead of using it to pump sea

water in the near mountains?
4. Detailed financial analysis of this idea includes cost of the project,

cost of equipment and maintenance, the expected rate of return.
5. Comparison between the overall capacity of the system with pump-

ing sea water in the near mountains vs. the system with not in-
cluding pumping sea water in the near mountains.
Transmissionn lines between NEOM and Saudi Arabia main grid

and Egypt and Jordan
Intensive Study There is a need for intensive study of the transmis-
sion lines between NEOM, Saudi Arabia main grid, Egypt, and Jor-
dan. The intensive study is aim to know the best case scenario for the
amount of power that can exchange between them and reduce power
losses.
Considerations The following are considerations needed to be taken

into account:
1. Layout of the best case scenario for linking NEOM, Saudi Arabia
main grid, Egypt, and Jordan.
2. Detailed modeling, simulation, and optimization of transmission

lines.
3. How to improve the power transfer capability (PTC) of transmis-

sion lines.
4. Reliability analysis of transmission protection.
5. Study of protection scheme for transmission lines.

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Appendix A
MathCAD Calculations
MathCAD is an engineering math software that allows you to do cal-

culations and convert units.
A.1 Wind Turbine Calculations

The Calculations is for wind power farms with a size of 110km2 . The
ideal wind speed with an average of 10.3m/s taking from Facts Sheet,
NEOM [51] and the rated wind speed is 14m/s. One wind farm con-
tains 240 wind turbine units. We are using MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW
model for the wind turbines [68]. The Power coefficient for wind cal-
culations is Cp = 0.267 because the power coefficient in the limit real
world is well below the Betz Limit. Building 4 wind farms will give us
a capacity of 9.1373GW . Figure A.1 shows the wind turbine data and
equations used for calculations and graphing. Figure A.2 shows the
two matrices that have been used to graph the power curve. Figure
A.3 shows the power curve.
151
152 APPENDIX A. MATHCAD CALCULATIONS
Data:
Diameter: Diameter := 164m 9
GW := 10 W
Diameter
Raduis: r := = 82 m
2
Blade length: L := r = 82 m
kg
Air densiy: ρ := 1.23
3
m
Accurding to Beltz' Law, Cp is below Betz limit, so the follwoing Cp is assumed:
Power coefficient: C p := 0.267

2 2
Swept area: Area := π r = 21124.069 m
m
Cut-in wind speed: vwind.cutin := 4
s
m
Ideal wind speed: vwind.ideal := 10.3
s
m
Rated wind speed: vwind.rated := 14
s
m
Cut-out wind speed: vwind.cutout := 25
s
Number of total wind Turbinetotal := 240

turbines:
Calculations:
Power with cut-in 3
Pwind.cutin := 0.5 ρ Area vwind.cutin Cp = 0.222 MW
wind speed:
Power with ideal 3

Pwind.ideal := 0.5 ρ Area vwind.ideal C p = 3.7903 MW
wind speed:
Power with rated 3
Pwind.rated := 0.5 ρ Area vwind.rated C p = 9.5181 MW
wind speed:
Total power with

Pwind.ideal.total := Turbinetotal Pwind.ideal = 0.9097 GW
ideal wind speed:
Total power with

Pwind.rated.total := Turbinetotal Pwind.rated = 2.2843 GW
rated wind speed:
Assume we have 4 Pwind.total.4farms := 4 Pwind.rated.total = 9.1373 GW

farms:
Figure A.1: Wind turbine data and equations

APPENDIX A. MATHCAD CALCULATIONS 153
Graphing:
Range of Wind speed:

Power for one turbie with range of wind speed:
0
0MW 2
0MW 4
3 6
0.5 ρ Area vwind.range Cp
2, 0 8
3
0.5 ρ Area vwind.range Cp 10.3
3, 0
12
3
0.5 ρ Area vwind.range Cp 14
4, 0
16 m
3 vwind.range :=
0.5 ρ Area vwind.range Cp 18 s
5, 0
20
3
6, 0 21
3 22
7, 0 23
3 24
7, 0 25
Pwind.range :=
3 26
7, 0 27
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
0MW
0MW
Figure A.2: Wind turbine matrices

Power curve for a single wind turbine

10
7
Power (MW)
6
-6
P wind.range 10 5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
vwind.range
Wind speed (m/s)
Figure A.3: Power curve

A.2 Tidal Turbine Calculations

The Calculations is for tidal power farms with a size of Saudi–Egypt
Causeway is 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3m Width). The rated tidal speed
is 3m/s. One wind farm contains 1579 tidal turbine units. We are us-
ing AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Resources model for the tidal
turbines [8]. The coefficient for tidal calculations is Cp = 0.428. Since
the Saudi–Egypt Causewa has two sides, then we will be building one
tidal farm on each side (total of 2 farms) and that will give us a capac-
ity of 4.76GW . Figure A.4 shows the tidal turbine data and equations
used for calculations and graphing. Figure A.5 shows the two matrices
that have been used to graph the power curve. Figure A.6 shows the
power curve.
9
Data: GW := 10 W
Diameter: Diameter := 18m
Diameter
Raduis: r := = 9m
2
Blade length: L := r = 9 m
kg
Water densiy: ρ := 1025.18
3
m
Accurding to Beltz' Law, Cp is below Betz limit, so the follwoing Cp is assumed:
Power coefficient: C p := 0.428

2 2
Swept area: Area := π r = 254.469 m
m
Cut-in tidal speed: vtidal.cutin := 1
s
m
Ideal tidal speed: vtidal.ideal := 2
s
m
Rated tidal speed: vtidal.rated := 3
s
m
Cut-out tidal speed: vtidal.cutout := 5
s
Calculations:
Saudi-Egypt Causewaylength := 30km

Causeway Length:
Causewaylength 3
Number of total tidal Turbinetotal := = 1.579 10
turbines: (we will Diameter + 1m
leave 1 m between the
tidals)
Power with cut-in 3
Ptidal.cutin := 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.cutin C p = 0.056 MW
tidal speed:
Power with ideal 3

Ptidal.ideal := 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.ideal Cp = 0.447 MW
tidal speed:
Power with rated 3
Ptidal.rated := 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.rated C p = 1.507 MW
tidal speed:
Total power with

Ptidal.rated.total := Turbinetotal Ptidal.rated = 2.38 GW
rated tidal speed:
Since there are 2
Ptotal.2sides := 2 Ptidal.rated.total = 4.76 GW
sides of the
causeway:
Figure A.4: Tidal turbine data and equations

Graphing:
Power for one turbie with range of tidal speed: Range of tidal speed:
0
0MW 0.25
0MW 0.5
3 0.75
0.5 ρ Area vtidal.range Cp
2, 0
1
3 1.5
3, 0
2
3
0.5 ρ Area vtidal.range Cp 3
4, 0
3.25 m
3 vtidal.range :=
0.5 ρ Area vtidal.range Cp 3.5 s
5, 0
3.75
3
6, 0 4
3 4.25
7, 0 4.5
3 4.75
7, 0 5
Ptidal.range :=
3 6
7, 0 7
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
3
7, 0
0MW
0MW
Figure A.5: Tidal turbine matrices

Power curve for a single tidal turbine

1.7
1.53
1.36
1.19
Power (MW)
1.02
-6
P tidal.range 10 0.85
0.68
0.51
0.34
0.17
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
vtidal.range
Tidal speed (m/s)
Figure A.6: Power curve

A.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calcula-

tions
The Calculations is for solar power stations with a size o 100km2 and
a single solar panel has a capacity of 375M W . One solar power station
contains 51.02 Million solar panel units. We are using LG315N1C-G4 |
LG NeONTM 2 model for the solar panels [88]. Building 3 solar power
stations with a capacity of 19.133GW each, NEOM will have a total
capacity of 57.398GW from solar panels. Figure A.7 shows the solar
panel data and equations used for calculations and graphing. Figure
A.8, A.9, A.10, and A.11 show the matrices that have been used to
graph the power curve. Figure A.12 shows the maximum Power,
maximum power points current, and short circuit current for a range
of voltages for a singe solar panel. Figure A.13 shows the maximum
Power, range of currents for a range of voltages for a singe solar panel.
Data:
9
GW := 10 W
*STC (Standard Test Condition):Irradince 1000 W/m2, 25 C.
2
Solar Power Station Area := 100km
size:
Mechanical properties:
Length := 1960mm
Length:
Width := 1000mm
Width:
2
Size of 1 solar panel Sizepanel := Length Width = 1.96 m
(LG375N2W-G4)
Electrical properties:
Module Type (Maximum Pmpp := 375W

Power Points):
Vmpp := 39.6V
Maximum Power Points
Voltage:
Impp := 9.5A
Maximum Power Points
Current:
Voc := 48.3V
Open Circuit Voltage:
Short Circuit Current: Isc := 10.04A
Calculations:
Area 6
Number of solar panel Paneltotal := = 51.02 10
needed: Sizepanel
Solar Power Station

Ptotal.1station := Paneltotal Pmpp = 19.133 GW
Capacity:
Assume Neom will

Ptotal.3stations := 3 Ptotal.1station = 57.398 GW
build 3 stations:
Figure A.7: Solar panel data and equations

Graphing:
Range of voltage Maximum Power Points Short Circuit Current:

values: Current:
0V Impp Isc
20V Impp Isc
25V
Impp Isc
30V
Impp Isc
35V
Vmpp Impp Isc
Vrange :=
40V Impp := Impp Isc
Isc :=
45V 0A Isc
Voc 0A Isc
50V 0A
Isc
60V 0A
0A 0A
70V
0A 0A
0A
Max Power equation:
Impp Vrange
( 0 , 0) 0, 0
Impp V
( 1 , 0) range1 , 0
Impp V
( 2 , 0) range2 , 0
Impp Vrange
( 3 , 0) 3, 0
Impp Vrange
( 4 , 0) 4, 0
Pmax := Impp( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
Impp V
( 5 , 0) range5 , 0
Impp Vrange
( 5 , 0) 5, 0
Impp Vrange
( 5 , 0) 5, 0
0W
0W
0W
Figure A.8: Solar panel matrices

Irange2A Vrange
2 ( 0 , 0) 0, 0
2 Irange2A V
( 1 , 0) range1 , 0
2
Irange2A V
2 ( 2 , 0) range2 , 0
2 Irange2A Vrange
( 3 , 0) 3, 0
2
Irange2A := A Irange2A Vrange
2 ( 4 , 0) 4, 0
2
Prange2A := Irange2A( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
2
Irange2A V
0 ( 6 , 0) range6 , 0
0 Irange2A Vrange
( 7 , 0) 7, 0
0
Irange2A Vrange
( 8 , 0) 8, 0
0W
0W
0W
4 Irange4A Vrange
( 0 , 0) 0, 0
4
Irange4A V
4 ( 1 , 0) range1 , 0
4 Irange4A V
( 2 , 0) range2 , 0
4
Irange4A Vrange
4 ( 3 , 0) 3, 0
Irange4A := A
4 Irange4A Vrange
( 4 , 0) 4, 0
4
Prange4A := Irange4A( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
4
0 Irange4A V
( 6 , 0) range6 , 0
0
Irange4A Vrange
0 ( 7 , 0) 7, 0
Irange4A Vrange
( 8 , 0) 8, 0
0W
0W
0W

Irange6A V
( 0 , 0) range0 , 0
6 Irange6A Vrange
( 1 , 0) 1, 0
6
Irange6A Vrange
6 ( 2 , 0) 2, 0
6 Irange6A V
( 3 , 0) range3 , 0
6
Irange6A V
6 ( 4 , 0) range4 , 0
Irange6A := A
6 Prange6A := Irange6A( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
6
Irange6A Vrange
6 ( 6 , 0) 6, 0
0 Irange6A V
( 7 , 0) range7 , 0
0
Irange6A V
0 ( 8 , 0) range8 , 0
0W
0W
0W
Irange8A V
( 0 , 0) range0 , 0
8 Irange8A Vrange
( 1 , 0) 1, 0
8
Irange8A Vrange
8 ( 2 , 0) 2, 0
8 Irange8A V
( 3 , 0) range3 , 0
8
Irange8A V
8 ( 4 , 0) range4 , 0
Irange8A := A
8 Prange8A := Irange8A( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
8
Irange8A Vrange
8 ( 6 , 0) 6, 0
0 Irange8A V
( 7 , 0) range7 , 0
0
Irange8A V
0 ( 8 , 0) range8 , 0
0W
0W
0W

Irange10.04A Vrange
( 0 , 0) 0, 0
10.04 Irange10.04A V
( 1 , 0) range1 , 0
10.04
Irange10.04A V
10.04 ( 2 , 0) range2 , 0
10.04 Irange10.04A Vrange
( 3 , 0) 3, 0
10.04
Irange10.04A Vrange
10.04 ( 4 , 0) 4, 0
Irange10.04A := A
10.04 Prange10.04A := Irange10.04A ( 5 , 0) Vrange5 , 0
10.04
Irange10.04A V
10.04 ( 6 , 0) range6 , 0
0 Irange10.04A Vrange
( 7 , 0) 7, 0
0
Irange10.04A Vrange
0 ( 8 , 0) 8, 0
0W
0W
0W
Figure A.12: Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum

power points current and short circuit current vs. range of voltages
15 400
13.5
Irange2A
12
Irange4A 300
10.5
Irange6A
Current (A)
Power (W)
9
Irange8A
7.5 200 Pmax
Irange10.04A
6
Impp
4.5
Isc 100
3
1.5
0 0
0 5.4 10.8 16.2 21.6 27 32.4 37.8 43.2 48.6 54
V range
Voltage (V)
I.range.2A
I.range.4A
I.range.6A
I.range.8A
I.range.10.03A
I.mpp
I.sc
P.max
Figure A.13: Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of currents
vs. range of voltages
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Study of NEOM city-MSC Thesis-2018

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DEGREE PROJECT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

Study of NEOM city

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MAJED MOHAMMED G ALKEAID

Master in Electric Power Engineering

Keywords : NEOM, Renewable, Energy, Solar, Wind, System, 100% re-

Keywords :NEOM, Förnybar, Energi, Sol, Vind, System, 100% Förny-

I would also like to acknowledge Engineer Soliman Almohimeed at

My sincere thanks also goes to Masdar City especially Faisal Alebri,

Finally, I must express my very gratitude to my parents and to my

2 Review of the Literature 6

3 Case study of Freiburg, Germany renewable energy 30

3.13.2 Electric Design of HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Case study of Masdar city renewable energy 54

4.7 The Amount of Power that Masdar City can Deliver to

5 Results and Analysis 75

6 Conclusions and Future Work 132

A MathCAD Calculations 151

1.1 NEOM location [137] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Renewable energy mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1 Solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg [61] . . . . . . . 32

3.5 Solar panels being installed on a house [79] . . . . . . . . 38

4.1 The Knowledge Center at the Masdar Institute [86] . . . . 55

5.1 Artificial wind farm in NEOM [106] . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.7 PV system, its battery and grid connection [90] . . . . . . 99

A.1 Wind turbine data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

A.9 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.1 Variables definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

This chapter introduces the background, problem statement, relevance of the

The world’s energy sector has been totally dependent on non-renewable

Renewable energy can be easily adopted. Also known as Green En-

1.2 Problem Statement

with a futuristic approach to developing a new form of industrializa-

1.3 Relevance of the project

The project is estimated to record an average of 5700W h/m2 to 6300W h/m2

However, in the design consideration, wind energy is extrapolated by

With wind energy still an ongoing research at various institutes that

Figure 1.1: NEOM location [137]

Therefore, with an onset of renewable energy utilization on the trend, I

The thesis is divided into 6 chapters. After this introduction, Chap-

Chapter 3 intends to describe Freiburg, Germany renewable energy. It

Chapter 4 introduces the case study of Masdar city renewable energy.

Chapter 5 concentrates on results and analysis. It starts by explain-

In the last chapter, it shows the derived conclusions with recommen-

Review of the Literature

2.1 Renewable Energy Mix

Renewabe Energy Mix

Figure 2.1: Renewable energy mix

2.2 Renewable Energy Balance

In the wind energy production, parties are involved in many conflicts,

2.3 100% Renewable city

A 100% renewable city is also characterized with the support from

2.4 Solar system

Figure 2.3: Solar System [145]

2.4.1 Solar system projects in the Middle East

2.4.2 Solar system projects in Saudi Arabia

Figure 2.4: KAPSARC Solar Park [77]

Figure 2.5: PNBARU’s solar thermal plant [116]

Figure 2.6: Saudi Aramco Solar Car Park [133]

the rooftop of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology

Figure 2.7: KAUST’s 2 megawatts Solar-Plant [78]

2.5 Wind Power