Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 12

Construction And Design

Abhijit Roy
 Contents

 Behaviour of welded structures under

different types of loading

 Design for static loading

 Design for dynamic loading

 Design of welded pressure equipment

 3

Definition of Design u/s ISO 9000

Product design (based on its intended functions) is covered u/s 7.3.1 of

ISO 9000”, the output document usually being the Product Drawing, or
the so-called: Design Drawing
However, the performance of any Welded Product is subject to the
“Product Realization Process u/s 7.1(b) of ISO 9000” which calls for the
documenting the manufacturing route; commonly thru the
Fabrication Drawing
Therefore, unless the documents for executing & controlling each Process
(or Stage) of Product Realization is issued by the Customer along with
his stage-wise Fabrication Drawings to the Organization, the Welding
Organization becomes responsible for the “Design-Performance” of the
Product
The Welding Organization shall provide suitable Fabrication Drawing for
executing the welding
JUPITER WAGONS
Simply supported Beam 6
Welded Beam 7
 8
Example of Simply-supported Beam [Bridge]

If a simply supported beam of unknown material Designed

without welding
Load carrying capacity: “SWL” kg
Range (min) = SWL , to max = 2.5x SWL

But if welding is introduced without knowing the weldability of

the material, or considering design-for-welding:
SWL = 0 to 2.5 x SWL; minimum can be zero!
This is very dangerous
 Message from this Example 9

 The performance of the Bridge in service as classically designed (ie

without considering Welding) can be readily predicted (a large number
of rekoner-tools are available!)

 But the introduction of welding poses too many complexities in the

performance of the Bridge in service

 The predicted performance-life or load-bearing capacity of the

weldment can vary anywhere from 0 to 125% of the un-welded design

Knowledge of Materials & Fabrication-processing are

essential to the Designer !
 The 3 Essentials of a Fabrication Drawing 10

1. All requirements of the Product Drawings as necessary

for ensuring its compliance & performance in service,

2. Additionally considering the behavior of the material, its

condition, & detailing at the joints, &

3. Finally, all those processing instructions with

intermediate control between processes, that will
ensure no deterioration of the performance of the product
in service
 Objectives of Weld Joint Design

Weld Joint design are ideally to provide an assembly that :

• Will perform its Intended Functions
Functions;; Will have required
Reliability & Safety
Safety;;
• Is capable of being Fabricated, Inspected, Transported &
placed in service at minimum total cost
cost.
• Is capable of being Fabricated, Inspected, Transported &
placed in service at minimum total cost
cost.
• Total cost includes the cost of ; DesignDesign, Materials
Materials,
Fabrication, Erection, Inspection, Operation etc.,
 3.5.1. Behaviour Of Welded Structures Under Different
Types Of Loading

All composite and fabricated structures work under

different environmental and loading conditions such
as :
Static or dynamic loading
Concentrated or distributed loading
Tension or compression or torsional loading
Combination of above loading
At normal temperature
At sub-zero temperature
At elevated temperature
 3.5.2. Behaviour Of Welded Structures

Steels working under above mentioned conditions of

loading and temperatures behave differently due to
variation of the following properties :
Tensile strength
Ductility
Impact strength or toughness
Creep resistance
Brittleness
Variations in the above properties occur mainly due to
the changes in the grain structures and inter -granular
grain cohesiveness
 3.5.3. Static And Dynamic Loading

Under static loading condition the

 tensile strength ,
 compressive strength ,
 shear strength values
are determinants of the section of
the material and that of the weld
 Static and Dynamic loading

But when the load :

 varies in value ,
 is repeated at relatively high frequency,
 constitutes a relatively high frequency

The material’s endurance limit must be

substituted for the tensile strength in the
calculations to determine section and weld
dimensions
Static and Dynamic Loading

At a given high stress value

the material has a definite
service or fatigue life
expressed as “ n “ cycles of
operations.
 3.6.2. Types Of Load

STATIC IMPACT

VARIABLE
Typical Types of Load
TENSION

COMPRESSION

LOAD
Types of Load

TENSILE LOADING
Types of Load

COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
Types of Load
LOAD

SHEAR
SHEAR LOADING
 3.6.5. Stress, Strain, Modulus Of Elasticity.

 Stress is defined to be the load on a member

divided by the area of cross section and is
expressed in Newton per mm sq.
 Stress may be tensile or compressive or shear
 Elongation or compression per unit length is
termed strain and is a number.
 The ratio of stress by strain is called modulus of
elasticity
 The endurance limit is the maximum stress to
which the material can be subjected for an
indefinite service life.
 STRESS, STRAIN, MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

LOAD 2
STRESS = N/mm
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

STRAIN = CHANGE IN LENGTH

ORIGINAL LENGTH

2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY = STRESS N/mm
STRAIN
 3.5.4. STRESS – STRAIN RELATIONSHIP OF
DIFFERENT MATERIALS

TUNGSTEN
STEEL
STRESS

ALUMINUM

CAST IRON
RUBBER

STRAIN
 3.5.5. Stress Vs “ N “ Curve

S
T ENDURANCE
R
E ENDURANCE
S
S

“ N “ CYCLES OF STRESS
3.5.6. Elevated Temperature Strength

 At elevated temperatures secondary

stresses such as those due to
thermal gradients or due to non-
uniform heating and cooling can be
relatively large and difficult to
assess. These stresses may affect
service performance of a structure
with regard to strength
characteristics.
 Elevated Temperature Stresses

Design stresses are usually limited by

yield and tensile strengths upto a
moderate temperature of about
450 deg. to 535 deg. Centigrade.

At higher temperatures the design

stresses are limited by creep and creep
rupture strength.
 3.5.7. Elevated Temperature Design

 In designing apparatus / structures at elevated

temperatures allowance must be made for the
thermal coefficient of expansion of the component
materials.
 The tensile modulus of elasticity at room temperature
decreases linearly upto 450 deg. Centigrade and then
begins to drop at an increasing rate.
 Creep ( continuous non-reversible plastic
deformation with time under load ) resistance is the
most important property to consider in designing a
structure to operate at elevated temperature.
 CREEP STRENGTH

Two standards of creep strengths are commonly

used :

 The stress to produce a minimum creep rate of

0.00001 per cent per hour ( 1 per cent per
100,000 hours )

 The stress to produce a total creep strain of 1 per

cent per 100,000 hours.
 SCHEMATIC CREEP CURVE

A –ELASTIC
EXTENSION
E
C B- CREEP AT
DECREASING RATE
EXTENSION PER CENT

B D
C – CREEP AT
APPROXIMATELY
F CONSTANT RATE

D – CREEP AT
INCREASING RATE
A
E – ELASTIC
CONTRACTION

ELAPSED TIME IN HOURS F – PERMANENT

CHANGE OF LENGTH
 3.5.8. Low Temperature Strength

The terms “low temperature” and

“cryogenic” may be defined as involving
temperatures to
–100 degree and –273 deg. Celsius.
 LOW TEMPERATURE STRENGTH

Design of structures operating at low

temperatures are based on the properties of :
yield and tensile strength,
fatigue limit,
ductility and
toughness especially
notch toughness.
 NOTCH TOUGHNESS

Notch toughness is a property of steel

reflected in its resistance to brittle failure
under conditions of high stress concentration
such as impact loading in the presence of a
notch.
 3.5.9. Influence Of Notches And Weld Defects

Structures and welds are designed on the

basic assumptions that the steels and the

welds are defect free resulting normal
tensile / yield strength, ductility, toughness
and homogenous structures.
 Influence of Notches

However defects such as notch in the steel

brings stress concentration resulting in a
brittle failure under impact load.
 Influence of Weld Defects

Similarly weld defects such as :

 undercut,
 porosity,
 cracks,
 lack of fusion and penetration

will cause failure of the welded joint and the

structure at a load less than the designed
value
 3.5.10.Types Of Fractures -- I

 Failure of structural members at stresses well below

their yield strengths indicates other considerations
besides the conventional tensile properties. Analysis
of the failures indicates that the fractures usually are
initiated at notches caused by :
 Design features – rigidity of members
 Fabrication procedures– weld arc, defects
 Flaws in the materials – flakes, seams
Fracture surfaces provide an indication
of the probable causes of failure
 3.5.11. Types Of Fractures -- II

 Normal observations of fractured

surfaces of a structural member may be of
:
 Brittle fracture or low energy fracture -
surface tends to show that there is little
deformation , the surfaces are flat and at
right angles – having a shiny crystalline
appearance.
 Types of Fractures

Ductile or shear fracture occurs

after plastic deformation by a
sliding action. There are signs of
yielding along edges of the
fractured surfaces normally at 45
deg. angle with a dull fibrous
appearance.
 Types of Fractures

Lamellar tearing --
layers of plate seams
open up at fractured Lamellar Tearing

surfaces, showing
clean separation.
 3.5.12. TYPES OF CRYOGENIC STEELS

 THE MOST COMMON RANGES OF COMPOSITIONS OF

DIFFERENT ELEMENTS IN SUCH STEELS ARE :
 CARBON-------------------0.06 TO 0.10 PERCENT
 MANGANESE--------------1.50 TO 9.00 PERCENT
 SILICON ---------------NORMALLY 0.60 PERCENT
 NICKEL -------------------4.50 TO 18.00 PERCENT
 CHROMIUM -------------17.00 TO 25.00 PERCENT

 CRYOGENIC STEELS CONTAINING 9.00 PERCENT

NICKEL ARE CAPABLE OF RETAINING TOUGHNESS AT
A VERY LOW TEMPERATURES.
 3.5.13. CREEP RESISTANCE STEELS

 CHROMIUM – MOLYBDENUM STEELS SUCH AS 2.25

Cr.,1.00 Mo STEELS ARE USED EXCLUSIVELY FOR A
VARIETY OF TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS UP TO 450
DEG. CENTIGRADE
 12.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED UP TO
A TEMPERATURE OF 705 DEG. CENTIGRADE
 17.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS UP TO A TEMPERATURE OF 816 DEG
CENTIGRADE
 27.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS FROM 870 to 1095 DEG CENTIGRADE
WHERE MOST SEVERE OXIDATION IS ENCOUNTERED.
3.5.14. TENSILE PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC STEELS

TENSILE YIELD LOWEST

STRENGTH STRENGTH SERVICE
AISI NO.
(Mpa) (Mpa) TEMP DEG.
CENT.

201 655 310 -195

304 L 483 172 -270

316 517 207 -270

3.5.15. CORRELATION BETWEEN ROOM TEMP. TENSILE STRENGTH
AND 100000 HRS RUPTURE STRENGTH FOR Cr- Mo STEEL

TENSILE 100000 HR RUPTURE STRENGTH

STRENGTH AT AT AT
AT 27 482 DEG. 538 DEG.
427 DEG.
DEG.CENT. CENT. CENT
CENT.
(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
(Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

Types of Joints
Types of Butt Joints
Corner Joint Welds
T Joint Welds
Groove Joint Nomenclature
Fillet Joint Nomenclature
 3.6.4. Joint Design

45
0
60
0

B
A ROOT GAP
C D

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK GOUGING
Types of Corner Joint Welds
 EFFECTIVE
THROAT LEG

LEG
THEORETICAL
THROAT

ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET WELD
NOMENCLATURE
 Single-bevel tee joint can withstand more
severe loadings than the square tee joint,
because of better distribution of stresses.

Horizontal Fillet Weld Double-Vee, Groove Weld

Welding Positions
Welding Symbols
 Introduction

 To transfer information from design office to the

workshop
 Standards followed for use of symbols
 AWS A2.4
 ISO 2553

 BS 499

 BS EN 22553 (has replaced BS 499)

 Welding inspector should be competent enough to

interpret symbols and recognise the drawing
standard being used
 Major Elements

 Reference line
 Arrow line
 Symbols
 Dimensions
 Supplementary information
 Reference Line

 The basis of the welding symbol

 All other elements are oriented with respect to this line
 The arrow line is affixed to one end and a tail (when
necessary) is affixed to the other

Reference line
 Arrow Line

 Connects the reference line to one side of the joint

 This side of the joint is known as the arrow side
 The opposite side is known as the other side
 Connects the reference line to the outer surface of one of
the members of the joint at the center line of the weld (in
plug, slot, projection, and seam welding)

Arrow line
 Broken Reference Line

 Main feature that

distinguishes ISO 2553
and BS EN 22553
standards
 Used when a weld needs to
be specified on the 'other
side' of the arrow
 Any symbol used to show a
joint/weld feature on the
other side of the arrow line
is always placed on this
broken line
 Weld Symbols

 Designate the type of welding to be performed

 Basic weld symbols are placed approximately in
the center of the reference line, either above or
below it or on both sides of it
 Welds on the arrow side of the joint are shown by
placing the weld symbols on the side of the
reference line towards the reader (lower side)
 Welds on the other side of the joint are shown by
placing the weld symbols on the side of the
reference line away from the reader (upper side)
Basic Weld Symbols
 Dimensions

 Include the size, length,

spacing, etc., of the weld
 The size of the weld is
given to the left of the
basic weld symbol and the
length to the right
 Other pertinent
information (groove
angles, included angle of
countersink for plug welds,
number of spot/projection
welds) are also located
above or below the weld
symbol
 Supplementary Information

 Convey additional information related to

◦ extent of welding
◦ where welding is to be performed
◦ contour of the weld bead
 The “weld-all-around” and “field” symbols are placed at the
end of the reference line at the base of the arrow
 Additional symbols

Contour and Finish Symbols

 Contour symbol is placed above or below the weld symbol.
 Finish symbol always appears above or below the contour symbol
 Methods of finishing
• C - chipping
• G - grinding
• M - machining
• R - rolling
• H - hammering.
Tail
 Appears on the end of the reference line opposite to the arrow end
 Used when a specification, process, or other reference is made in
symbol
 Some Additional Symbols

Welding Process used

 Welding Symbols 68

 See ISO 2553, AWS A 2.4

 The “Tail of the Arrow” can also reveal the

status of the Drawing – whether it is a

Design-Drg or a Fab-Drg
Determining Weld Size : Groove Weld

In strength connections, groove welds must be

made all the way through the plate, i.e. 100 %
penetration.
Since a groove weld, properly made, has equal or
better strength than the plate, there is no need for
calculating the stress in the weld or the size of the
weld.
The only consideration is that the weld metal
deposit must be same or similar to the parent
metal composition to match the strength.
 Determining Weld Size : Fillet welds

RULE OF THUMB FOR FILLET WELD SIZE

In order to develop the full strength of a plate by
fillet weld, it is necessary that the leg size of a
fillet be ¾ of the plate thickness

w = ¾ t
This assumes that :
1. Fillet welds on both sides of the plate
2. Fillet weld for full length of the plate
3. t = thickness of the thinner plate
 Determining Fillet Weld Size

Rule of thumb for rigidity design

When a member is designed to maintain a certain degree of
rigidity or stiffness, the stresses are usually of a rather low
value, but the weld size is still dependent on the forces
which must be transferred through them.
The rigidity design would require a fillet leg length
1/2 to 1/3 of the full weld size

W = 1/4 t – 3/8 t
 3.6.7. SHEAR STRENGTH OF WELD

HORIZONTAL SHEAR FORCE ON EACH WELD

r Vay
= N/m
h In
WHERE :
V = TOTAL SHEAR ON SECTION AT A GIVEN
POSITION ALONG BEAM, ( N )
2
a = AREA OF FLANGE HELD BY WELD ( m )
y = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE C.G. OF FLANGE AREA
AND N.A. OF THE WHOLE SECTION (m)
4
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE WHOLE SECTION ( m )
n = NUMBER OF WELDS JOINING EACH FLANGE TO WEB
 3.6.8. WORKED EXAMPLE ON 3.6.7.

GIVEN :
Width of the flange= 250 mm. Thickness of the flange = 70 mm
Thickness of the web = 15 mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn
3 6
Then : r = (V.a.Y)/I.n ( 860/10) x (70 x 250)/10 x 1270/2000
h =
3 3
{ ( 250/12000) x (1.340 ) – 2.35 x 1.2 } x 2/12
= 0.2934712 MN/m
If the size of the fillet is w, and allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m 2
Then, 0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712.
or w = 4.32 mm

THIS SHOULD BE THE MINIMUM LEG SIZE OF THE CONTINUOUS

FILLET WELD
 250
70

AREA OF
FLANGE
HELD BY
WELDS
1200

860 kN
WELD LEG
SIZE w
V = 860 kN = 860 / 1000 MN = 0.860 MN
Cross-sectional area held by
2
the weld = 70 /1000 x 250 /1000 m
2
= 0.070 x 0.250 = 0.175 m

70
y = distance between the c.g. of the
flange area and the n.a. of the
whole section = (1200 + 70 )/(2 x 1000) m 15
= 0.635 m

1200
I = the moment of inertia of the section
= 1/12 { (250/1000) x (1340/1000)3
3
- (235/1000) x (1200/1000) }
= 0.16282262 m4
n= number of welds joining

70
each flange to web = 2
Throat area for a parallel loaded fillet weld
= 0.707w 250
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN / m
 3.7.1. Behavior Of Welded Structures Under
Dynamic Loading

 When the load on a member is constantly varying in value

or is repeated at relatively high frequency or constitutes a
complete reversal of stresses with each operating cycle the
material’s endurance limit must be substituted for the
ultimate strength where called for by the design formula

 Under high load values the variable or fatigue mode of

loading reduces the material’s effective ultimate strength
as the number of cycles increases

 At a given high stress value the material has a definite

service or fatigue life expressed as n cycles of operations.
 3.7.2. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD

A TYPICAL S a a
T Av+
FATIGUE MAX
LOAD R
PATTERN E a
CURVE Av-
S a
S MIN
TIME
THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT THE FATIGUE LOAD :
1. AS A MEAN OR AVERAGE STRESS WITH A SUPERIMPOSED
VARIABLE STRESS
2. AS A STRESS VARYING FROM A MAXIMUM VALUE TO A
MINIMUM VALUE . HERE THE CYCLE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY THE RATIO
K = a Min / a Max
 3.7.3. VARIABLE STRESS AND MEAN STRESS RELATIONSHIP

b
d
f

c e a
a = ULTIMATE STRENGTH UNDER STEADY LOAD (YIELD STRENGTH)
b = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR A COMPLETE REVERSAL OF STRESS
f = VARIABLE STRESS SUPERIMPOSED ON STEADY STRESS
e = MEAN STRESS ( AVERAGE STRESS )

A LINE CONNECTING POINTS b AND a WILL INDICATE THE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIABLE STRESS AND
THE MEAN STRESS FOR ANY TYPE OF FATIGUE CYCLE
FOR A GIVEN FATIGUE LIFE N .
 3.7.4. Fatigue Strength
100

95
ALLOWABLE FATIGUE STRESS X 100
KNOWN FATIGUE STRENGTH
90

85

80

75

70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N / Na
b
 3.7.5. FATIGUE STRENGTH AS RELATED
TO THE NUMBER OF CYCLES

IF , a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES

A A
a = FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR N CYCLES
B B
c = 0.13 FOR BUTT WELDS AND
= 0.18 FOR PLATES IN AXIAL LOADING, TENSION AND
COMPRESSION

THEN , c
a = a x(N /N )
A B B A
 3.7.6. Improving Fatigue Strength

Fatigue strength of welded structures can be

improved by :

1. Using butt joints rather than lap joints

2. Avoiding intermittent fillet welds
3. Minimizing the size of the fillet welds
4. Peening the weld immediately after welding
5. Post weld heat treatment to remove built in stresses
6. Tumbling small welded components
7. Giving preference to structures with
multiple load paths.
Improvement in fillet weld fatigue life
 Improving Fatigue strength
Reduce Stress Concentration Use smooth shapes,transitions
Flush machining in butt welds (100%
Put welds in low stress areas
improvement)
Toe grinding in fillet welds (80% impr.) Check weld joint classifications
Melt smoothing ;TIG Torch (140% impr.) Fatigue strength of welds does
not depend on the yield and
Introducing Compressive stresses
tensile strengths of parent
Shot or grit blasting (25-100% impr.) metal.
Peening (80 % improvement)
Spot heating in region adjacent to
weld (200% impr. – very difficult to
control in practice)
Overloading – Plastic deformn. relaxes
residual stresses (50% impr.)
 3.8.1. Design Of Dynamically Loaded
Structures : Applications

Most common and widely used welded constructions

working under moderate to heavy dynamic loading are
1. Bridge structurals
2. Automobiles
3. Railway wagons and coaches
4. Sea going vessels
5. Offshore drilling platforms
6. Stationary and mobile cranes
7. Tall chimneys
8. Towers
 3.8.2. Fatigue Strength In Cyclic Loads

KIND OF FATIGUE DESIGN STRESS N / mm

WELD AND 6 5 5 BUT NOT
TO
STRESS 2 x 16 6x 10 10 EXCEED
CYCLES CYCLES CYCLES
BUTT WELD 112 120 127 a
t
TENSION 1 – 0.8r 1 – 0.7r 1- 0.5r

BUTT WELD 126 127 127 ac

COMPRESSION 1-r 1 – 0.8 r 1 – 0.5r

FILLET WELD 36 w 50 w 62 w 62 w
ALL 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r
 3.8.3. STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT

THE STRENGTH OF WELDED JOINT AT ALTERNATING LOAD MAY

APPROXIMATELY BE OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE STRESS
VALUES GIVEN IN SLIDE NO. 3.8.2. BY :
1 FOR BUTT WELDED JOINTS
1 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)}

AND BY :
1 FOR CORNER AND SLOT
1.3 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)} WELDED JOINTS

HERE P(min) AND P(max) APPEAR IN THE FORMULA EACH WITH

ITS SIGN. HENCE, P(min)/ P(max) < 0 AND THEREFORE THE
FACTOR BECOMES LESS THAN 1 .
 3.8.4.WORKED EXAMPLE - FATIGUE LOADING

100 LOAD 45 kN
PROBLEM 100
A PLATE IS ATTACHED TO XXXXXXXXX
THE FRAME OF A MACHINE
AS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE
SHOWN WITH A VERTICAL xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
SOLUTION
LOAD OF 45 Kn. 150

TO FIND OUT THE SIZE OF CONSULTING THE TABLE GIVEN IN 3.8.2.:

THE FILLET IF THE LIFE OF ALLOWABLE LOAD
THE COMPONENT IS 6 10 = (50 w)/( 1 – 0.5r) N /mm
CYCLES AT = (50 w)/{1 – 0.5(-0.3)} N/mm
= 43.5 w N/mm
P (min)/P(MAX) = -0.30 = 795 N/mm (FOR STATIC LOADING)
HENCE w = 18.3 mm.
RESULTANT FORCE= 795
FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES THE FILLET
N/mm SIZE TO BE TAKEN AS 20mm
 3.9.1. Design Of Welded Pressure Equipment

 Welded pressure equipment are close containers

carrying or containing steam, pressurised fluids or
gases exerting uniform pressure in all directions.
 Such containers must be tight and have sufficient
strength to withstand internal pressure to which it is
subjected. In arc welded construction the joints are
made as tight and strong as the plates joined.
 Tanks, boilers, pipe lines, hydraulic cylinders, steam
chests are some of the examples of pressure vessels in
use.
 Containers are required to work at normal, elevated
or even at sub-zero temperatures
 3.9.2. Unfired Pressure Vessels

 Any pressure container of any importance

undoubtedly must conform to the minimum
requirements of the asme section 8 “unfired
pressure vessels”. IN GENERAL THIS
COVERS CONTAINERS FOR PRESSURES
EXCEEDING 15 psi UPTO A MAXIMUM OF
3000 psi AND HAVING A DIAMETER
EXCEEDING 150 mm
 In the next slides formulas for calculating
the minimum required wall thickness of
cylindrical shells and spherical shells are
given.
 CODES in Joint design
Circumferential (Hoop) Forces acting on thin Cylinder under Internal Pressure

ASME modified formulae; close agreement of LAME’S equation.

ASME recognises the significance of defects in welds & attempted to
overcome the reduction in strength by incorp. Joint efficiency.

Codes & Stds apply to weldments designed for certain services…

 CODES in Joint design
Weld or joint efficiency η = joint strength / parent strength -
which varies from 100% for a perfect weld (ie. virtually seamless)
through 75-85% for a tolerably good weld.

Joint efficiency factor dep. on type of weld & degree of its radiographic inspection.
Joint efficiency E for arc & gas welded joints in code…
Acceptance Criteria for Pressure vessel weld joint

UW--14 OPENINGS IN OR ADJACENT TO WELDS

UW
 3.9.3. FORMULAS FOR SHELL THICKNESS

ts = THICKNESS OF THE SHELL IN INCH

rc = MEAN RADIUS OF CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE SHELL IN INCH
r = MEAN RADIUS OF THE MERIDIAN OF THE SHELL IN INCH
m
p = INTERNAL PRESSURE IN psi
a = ALLOWABLE STRESS ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR USC 23 )
E = JOINT EFFICIENCY ( ASME SEC. 8 PAR UW – 12 )
a
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MERIDIAN
mp
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE DIRECTION OF A TANGENT TO A
cp
CIRCUMFERENCE
a = TENSILE STRESS IN THE RADIAL DIRECTION
rp
 3.9.4. WALL THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL SHELL

THIN SHELL :
WHEN ts < r i /2 AND p < 0.385 a E
p ri
THEN : t =
s a.E – 0.6p
ri
ro

THICK SHELL : WHEN t s > r i /2

AND p > 0.385 a E
ts
1/2
THEN : t = r {z - 1} ro = outside radius
s i

WHERE : z = (a E + p) / ( a E – p) ri = inside radius

p = Internal pressure ts = shell thickness
a = Allowable stress
E = Joint efficiency
 “Design-Drawing” vs “Fab-Drawing” 97

 Look closely at the Tail of the Arrow… for “how-to achieve”

procedures, including (a) pre-weld preparations, (b)
welding procedures, & (c) post-weld inspection techniques

 If the Designer has clarified all the above inputs that would
be sufficient for the Welder / Welding Operator to execute
the welding without referring elsewhere, then such a
Drawing would be of the “Fabrication” type

 Such Input may even be cross-referred by an Indexed # to

another Instruction Document called “Sequence of Welding
& Inspection Plan [SWIP]”
 Sequence of Welding & Inspection Plan [SWIP]
98

 This is a dedicated “Shop Instruction” to the welder / operator

(will be discussed in detail in the next session)
 SWIP provides detailed set of step-by-instructions according
to Clause 10.4 of ISO 9000
 It contains extracts of the “Control-QAP” according to Clause
10.5 of ISO 9000, & provides documentary record of
Inspections according to Clause 14.5
 SWIP can be combined with the Job-Card if required for avoid
mix-up & thus provide total control as specified in ISO 9000,
ISO 3834
 3.4 Classification of Welds 99

 The Designer combines his knowledge of the above expected

stress levels to the consequence of failure in service of the product /
weldment / weld-joint & provides the Weld Map with indexing of
all the joints involved in the Product, typically:

 “Class-1” Joints are assigned to those encountering high flow-

stresses & also severe consequences of failure

 “Class-2” Joints have low flow-stress but would have severe

consequences if failure occurs. (Remember that the Residual
Stresses introduced during welding may raise the Classification of
some joints from Class-2 to Class-1!)

 “Class-3” have neither of the above conditions

 Delectability of Weld Defects 100

 Above analysis is complicated by the existence of weld defects, some of

which may escape detection by the normal NDT Inspections used

 Some Materials & Welding Processes are more prone to encounter typical
defects & the Designer shall provide suitable flexibility for the Shop to
exercise their judgment in selecting the Process based on experience,
while imposing the design-requirement of minimum strength / ductility,
test-method, acceptance criteria, etc

 The Designer shall anticipate all such situations & prescribe the
minimum extent of NDT to be carried out, along with the acceptance
criteria for those “indications” that have been detected

 This design-process is provided in a flowchart form in ISO 3834 / BS EN

15085
 Flow Chart showing Welding-Design Selection Criteria
101

This considers all 3 aspects independently:

 Rated Stress Level in the Weld (% YS)
 Joint-Type specified by the Designer
 Probability of detection of Weld Defects due to the
Designer’s prescribed NDT-Method & Extent of
Inspection
Flowchart BS EN 15085
102
 Conclusions from the above Slides… 103

 All Codes, Standards, & Technical Specifications expect the

“Designer” to have a high level of competence in prescribing
the Welding Method by translating the Weld Performance
Criteria
 This expectation has nothing to do with the traditional
function of “Product Design”, but how to achieve the
Performance of the “Welded” Product – which competence
may be lacking in the Organization
 The IWE is expected to bridge this gap by providing this
competence to the Organization by becoming an “advocate
of the Customer” within the Organization [refer ISO 14731
& ISO 3834]
THANK YOU