Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Review

Types of traditional Greek foods and their safety

Efstathios Z. Panagou a, George-John E. Nychas a, *, John N. Sofos b
a
Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos str., Athens GR-11855, Greece
b
Center for Meat Safety & Quality and Food Safety Cluster, Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1171, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Greek traditional foods have been evolved over centuries in the country according to local culture and
Received 27 February 2012 artisanal practices in small scale family-owned installations and constitute a major part of the so-called
Received in revised form Mediterranean diet. Consumer concern for food safety and high demand for traditional food products is
13 May 2012
becoming an important challenge for the food industry. To this end, safety issues about the hygienic
Accepted 22 May 2012
condition and the prevalence of foodborne pathogens for a diversity of popular traditional Greek foods
including fermented meat products, cheese, table olives, and emulsion-type appetizers is being reported.
Keywords:
Until recently, the production of these food commodities presented heterogeneity from area to area and
Cheese
Emulsion-type appetizers
practice to practice resulting in a final product with diverse microbiological, physicochemical and
Fermented meats sensory characteristics. The condition has drastically changed over the last years where the production
Food safety has shifted from artisanal practice to industrial level under strict processing and hygienic conditions.
Food pathogens Nowadays, it can be considered that Greek traditional foods have a good safety record.
Table olives Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Traditional Greek foods

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2. Definition and basics of traditional Greek foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3. Traditional Greek foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.1. Traditional fermented meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2. Greek cheeses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3. Fermented fruits and vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4. Emulsion-type Greek appetizers or salads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. How safe are the Greek foods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1. Fermented meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2. Cheese products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3. Table olives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4. Emulsion-type appetizers or salads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1. Introduction geography, climate, agriculture, and lifestyle. Needed ingredients or

recipes of methods for the preparation of such foods have been
There are many different cultures within Europe and each one passed from one generation to the other and become finally a part
has its own distinct dietary habits. Traditional foods are those that of the folklore of the country (Trichopoulou, Soukara, &
have been consumed locally or regionally for an extensive period of Vasilopoulou, 2007). Traditional foods, apart of being vehicles of
time and could be considered as an expression of culture, history, culture, could also possess health qualities, since tradition hardly
supports foods which are not palatable and healthy. A typical
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ30 210 5294938. example of a dietary pattern with positive health aspects is the
E-mail addresses: gjn@aua.gr, nychas@hol.gr (G.-J.E. Nychas). Mediterranean diet which is characterized by six components,

0956-7135/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.050
 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
namely, high intake of vegetables, pulses, fruits, olive oil, nuts and
cereals; low intake of saturated lipids; low to moderate intake of
dairy products mainly in the form of cheese and yogurt; low intake
of meat and poultry; moderately high intake of fish; and moderate
intake of ethanol mostly in the form of wine (Trichopoulou,
Costacou, Bamia, & Trichopoulos, 2003).
For the production of traditional foods, local agricultural
commodities are generally used as raw materials, contributing to
a sustainable environment and employment of rural population.
Currently, the combination of healthy and palatable aspects is very
attractive for the food industry and consumers, and consequently
traditional foods could potentially be mass produced and exported.
This highlights the necessity for traditional food standardization
and protection of origin and quality through appropriate legisla-
tion. This is necessary for the producers and consumers, in order to
protect the quality and identity of the products. Moreover, the
country of origin registration of these foods could motivate their
small-scale production in family-owned installations and expand
their export potential (Tregear, Arfini, Belleti, & Marescotti, 2007).
However, the combination of artisan practices employed in
traditional food manufacturing and the potential for poor hygienic
conditions, prevailing especially in small-scale family-owned pro-
cessing installations, may result in the contamination and survival
of foodborne pathogens that may be present throughout the
distribution chain until the time of consumption. The incidence of
foodborne disease in many countries across Europe is increasing,
according to the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional
Director for Europe (WHO, 2003). For instance, foodborne intoxi-
cations such as botulism remain frequent in Eastern Europe and in
most cases are related to traditional ways of preserving foods at
home. The highest incidence of botulism was reported in the
Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) and is attributed to the
consumption of home-canned vegetables. WHO data also show
that although the incidence of salmonellosis is decreasing in
several countries in Western Europe, the pathogen is still the most
frequently reported cause of outbreaks in the WHO European
Region, responsible for around 75% of the outbreaks. Most of these
are due to the consumption of foods of animal origin, particularly
insufficiently cooked eggs or foods containing raw eggs, such as
mayonnaise, ice cream or cream-filled pastries.
The aim of the review paper is to provide information about the
hygienic condition and the prevalence of foodborne pathogens in
a diversity of popular traditional Greek foods including fermented
meat products, cheese, table olives, and emulsion-type appetizers.
Safety issues with these products are also discussed.
2. Definition and basics of traditional Greek foods
The history of Greek gastronomy is lost through written sources
and indications coming from the greater Aegean area. Greek cuisine
has a long tradition and its flavors change according to season and
geographic region. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of
Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence e via ancient Rome e
throughout Europe and beyond (Wilkins & Hill, 2006). Ancient
Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on
the “Mediterranean triad”: wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat
being rarely eaten and fish being more common. This trend in
Greek diet continued in Roman and Ottoman times and changed
only recently when technological progress has made meat more
available. Wine and olive oil have always been a central part of it
and the spread of grapes and olive trees in the Mediterranean is
associated with Greek colonization. The Byzantine cuisine was
similar to the classical cuisine including, however, new ingredients
that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, with
fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Byzantine cuisine
33
benefited from Constantinople’s position as a global hub of the
spice trade (Balatsouras, 2004).
The most characteristic and ancient element of Greek cuisine is
olive oil, which is frequently used in the dishes. It is produced from
the olive trees prominent throughout the region, and adds to the
distinctive taste of Greek food. The basic grain in Greece is wheat,
though barley is also grown. Important vegetables include tomato,
aubergine (eggplant), potato, green beans, okra, green peppers, and
onions. Honey in Greece is mainly derived from the nectar of fruit
trees such as the citrus trees of lemon, orange, bigarade (bitter
orange), and from thyme and pine from conifer trees. The aromatic,
ivory colored resin, mastic, is characteristic of the region as it is
grown on the Aegean island of Chios (Dalby, 2001), and is common
in the Greek diet.
Greek cuisine uses some flavorings more often than other
Mediterranean cuisines do, namely oregano, mint, garlic, onion,
and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil,
thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the
northern parts of the country, use “sweet” spices in combination
with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews (Hanlidou,
Karousou, Kleftoyanni, & Kokkini, 2004).
The climate and terrain has tended to favor the breeding of goats
and sheep over cattle, and thus traditional beef dishes are
uncommon, although this trend has changed in the last years, as
beef has become the main meat item for many Greeks. Fish dishes
are mostly common in coastal regions and on the islands, but also
throughout Greece, especially in major cities. A great variety of
traditional cheese types are also used in Greek cuisine, including
Feta, Kasseri, Kefalotyri, Graviera, Anthotyros, Manouri, Metsovone,
Mizithra, etc (Balatsouras, 2004).
3. Traditional Greek foods
3.1. Traditional fermented meats
The origin of fermented foods is lost in antiquity. Fermentation
became popular with the dawn of civilization because it not only
preserved food but also gave it a variety of tastes, forms, and other
sensory attributes (Campbell-Platt, 1994; Caplice & Fitzgerald,
1999; Prajapati & Nair, 2003). Traditional sausages are the most
commonly produced fermented meat products in Greece. In the
past, most Greek rural families prepared them shortly before
Christmas, when they slaughtered their home-grown pig(s), from
pork meat and fat, chopped and mixed together with salt and
seasonings. The first document referring to meat curing is consid-
ered to be that of Homer. In Odyssey (about 1000e900 BC) he
describes a rather primitive type of sausage as “...smoked goat-
paunches filled with blood and fat offered as an hors d’oeuvre..”.
The manufacturing methods were of course-and indeed still are in
most areas-a craft (Gounadaki, Skandamis, Drosinos, & Nychas,
2007). The sausage mixture was stuffed in casings prepared from
the small intestine of pigs and they were subsequently placed in
cool rooms with sufficient aeration to allow for drying and
consumed within a few weeks or in some places over the summer,
a period in which substantial weight loss (ca. 30%) occurred and
“fresh” sausages became semi-dried products. Today, although
home production still occurs in the traditional way, large quantities
are produced throughout the year at butchers’ shops and by meat
processing companies (Papagianni, Ambrosiadis, & Filiousis, 2007).
Traditional Greek sausages are produced with lean meat and fat
and the addition of salt (1.6e2.5%), phosphates, nitrites, mono-
sodium glutamate and ascorbic acid or its salt, sugar and various
seasonings. Lean or semi-lean pork and beef meat, pork bellies and
pork fat can be used as raw materials. The sausage mixture is then
stuffed in natural casings but the products must be kept chilled
34 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
until consumption. This product is characterized as fresh and non-
cooked and may be partially dried or smoked, fat should not exceed
35%. The product should be cooked before consumption. The pH in
the surface layer of the sausages varies between 4.67 and 6.09, and
the aw value is ca. 0.96 (Ambosiadis, Soultos, Abrahim, & Bloukas,
2004). The physicochemical, sensory and microbiological qualities
of traditional Greek sausages have been characterized in two
studies (Ambrosiadis et al., 2004; Drosinos et al., 2005), indicating
that lactic acid bacteria are the dominant group of microorganisms,
while identification of isolates showed high counts of Lactobacillus
plantarum and L. plantarum/pentosus (Drosinos et al., 2005).
3.2. Greek cheeses
Greece has a long tradition in producing a variety of dairy
products, among which cheeses have a dominant position, as the
country possesses the second place, after France, in cheese
consumption worldwide (FAO, 2005). Undoubtedly, the most
important and famous Greek cheese with worldwide acceptance is
Feta with an average annual consumption of about 12 kg per capita.
Feta is a protected designation of origin (PDO) soft white cheese
ripened in brine, manufactured from ewes’ milk or a mixture of
ewes’ and goats’ milk, in which the proportion of the latter is not
higher than 20e30% (Manolopoulou et al., 2003). The most suitable
period for Feta cheese production is from January to May
depending on milk availability, as this is the milking season for
sheep and goats. Traditionally, this type of cheese is produced in
small family-owned dairy installations with basic equipment with
unpasteurized or pasteurized milk, following a craft and empirical
process. However, this situation has drastically changed and today
Feta cheese is produced almost exclusively with pasteurized milk in
well-equipped dairy factories around the country, using commer-
cial lactic acid cultures (Anifantakis, 1991). Various starters have
been successfully used, such as Lactococcus lactis and Lactobacillus
bulgaricus in a ratio of 1:3, producing Feta cheese of ‘excellent’ or
‘first’ quality (Sarantinopoulos, Kalantzopoulos, & Tsakalidou,
2002). The milk is renneted at 32  C and coagulation takes place
in 40e45 min. The resulting curd is cut (2 cm thick slices), trans-
ferred into vats with perforated inner walls and bottom, and
pressed by a weight equal to that of the curd. Cheese blocks
(23  12  6 cm) are then dry-salted for 5 days at 16  C and left for
10 more days at the same temperature. During this period a slime of
surface-growing bacteria is developed, which is considered to
contribute greatly to cheese ripening. Later the cheese blocks are
put into barrels or tin containers of 14 kg with brine (6e7% salt) in
order to continue ripening at 2e5  C. The Feta cheese may be
consumed after ripening for at least two months (Litopoulou-
Tzanetaki, Tzanetakis, & Vafopoulou-Mastrojianaki, 1993). Similar
to Feta is the White cheese, in which the milk comes exclusively
from cows. Both products have a maximum permitted moisture
content of 54% and a minimum fat content in dry matter of 46%
(Zerfiridis, 2001).
Other popular traditional cheeses of economic and nutritional
importance are whey cheeses, namely Mizithra, Anthotyros and
Manouri, manufactured commercially from the whey of Feta or
hard cheeses (e.g. Kefalotyri, Graviera). They are protected desig-
nation of origin (PDO) cheeses, with a maximum permitted mois-
ture content of 60e70%, and a minimum fat content in dry matter of
50e70%, depending on cheese type (Kandarakis, 1986; Samelis,
Kakouri, Rogga, Savvaidis, & Kontominas, 2003). These cheeses
are usually consumed fresh within a few days or weeks of their
production. Their production is based on denaturation and coagu-
lation of the water-soluble whey proteins following heating at high
temperatures (>85  C), where the curd is typically collected as
a surface pellicle from the coagulating whey system (Samelis et al.,
2003). To enhance the content of cheese in protein and fat, it is
common practice to supplement the whey with different concen-
trations of milk and milk fat prior to heating (Kandarakis, 1986).
Due to thermal treatment of the whey, the indigenous microbiota is
inactivated and starter cultures are not usually added during the
process. Consequently, this type of cheese is practically free of
microorganisms provided that strict hygienic conditions are met.
However, subsequent handling of the curd results in post-
processing contamination with a variety of spoilage bacteria
(Kalogridou-Vassiliadou, Tzanetakis, & Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, 1994;
Lioliou, Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, Tzanetakis, & Robinson, 2001),
rendering, thus, whey cheeses susceptible to rapid bacterial dete-
rioration, particularly under abuse storage temperatures. For this
reason, the shelf-life of whey cheeses is rather limited ranging from
less than 7 days under aerobic conditions to 20e30 days when
vacuum packaging is employed (Dermiki, Ntzimani, Badeka,
Savvaidis, & Kontominas, 2008), unless dried like Mizithra.
Spread acid-curd soft white cheeses like Galotyri and Katiki are
another category of traditional Greek PDO cheeses, with
a maximum permitted moisture content of 75% and minimum fat
content in dry matter of 40% for both types (Katsiari, Kondyli, &
Voutsinas, 2008). Galotyri is considered as one of the oldest
traditional cheeses in Greece and is popular in the regions of its
origin, namely Epirus and Thessaly (Anifantakis, 1991). The cheese
is white, spread acid-curd with a pH value of ca. 4.0. It is charac-
terized by pleasant organoleptic characteristics, acid taste and
a mild aroma. It is produced from raw or pasteurized ewes’ or goats’
milk or their mixture at various proportions with or without the
supplement of starter cultures and rennet (Rogga et al., 2005).
There is a National Individual Standard for this cheese (General
Chemical State Laboratories, 1988, p. 8401) which was further
amended (Anonymous, 1994, pp. 60e61) according to which the
use of cows’ milk and/or milk powder or concentrates, as well as
the addition of milk proteins, casein salts, coloring substances, or
preservatives other than sodium chloride (common salt) are not
allowed. Based on traditional processing, the raw milk is boiled and
subsequently placed in clay jars for approximately 24 h at ambient
temperature. Afterward, salt is added at a concentration of ca. 3e4%
(w/v) and the milk is left for 2 days with periodic stirring to
undergo a natural acidification. Occasionally, rennet or yogurt
culture may be added prior to salting to facilitate milk coagulation
and acidification. The curd is transferred to clean cheese cloth
which is then hung from a rafter in the store room for curd draining
at 15  C for ca. 6 h. After draining, the curd is taken out on a clean
board, mixed well with dry salt (1.5%, w/w) and sealed tightly in
containers which are then placed in a cold storage room (<4  C) for
up to two months for ripening (Katsiari et al., 2008).
Katiki is a creamy white acid-curd soft cheese with a mild sour
and salty taste made from goats’ milk or a combination of goats’ and
ewes’ milk, which is popular in Greek and other Mediterranean
markets. It is a traditional PDO soft cheese produced primarily in
the area of Domokos in Central Greece. The product belongs to the
so-called ‘unripened soft cheeses’, which are consumed fresh
within a few days from manufacture. According to the traditional
cheese-making practices employed by most small dairies in the
area, the raw milk after being pasteurized and cooled to ca. 25  C, is
inoculated with a mesophilic starter culture of lactic acid bacteria to
facilitate coagulation and acidification. Occasionally, a small
amount of rennet may be added when the pH reaches a value of
6.0e6.2. After 24 h, the curd is transferred to clean cheese cloth for
draining. When the moisture of cheese is ca. 72%, salt is added,
mixed to produce a homogeneous cheese mass, packaged and
stored at 4  C. The final characteristics of the product are: moisture,
75%; fat-in-dry-matter, 40%; protein, 8.8%; salt, 1.5e2%; pH, 4.3e4.5
(Panagou, 2008).
 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
Other traditional Greek cheeses of wide acceptance are Kasseri,
Kefalotyri and Graviera, all of protected designation of origin in the
EU. Kasseri cheese is produced from sheeps’ milk or from a mixture
of sheeps’ and up to 20% goats’ milk. It belongs to the so-called
“semi-hard” cheeses with maximum moisture 40% and minimum
fat-in-dry-matter 40%, for the first grade cheese. The annual
production in Greece amounts to ca. 21,000 tons (Zerfiridis, 2001).
The cheese has a whiteeyellow color, a rind of the same color, and it
is characterized by firm texture with the presence of few holes
uniformly distributed in the mass of the cheese. Its ripening period
is at least 3 months. The cheese is distinguished for its pleasant
taste and flavor and is consumed as table cheese or used for pizza
production, similar to Mozzarella cheese (Arvanitoyannis &
Mavropoulos, 2000). Kefalotyri is manufactured from sheeps’ or
goats’ milk or a mixture of them (Anifantakis, 1991). The name
refers to the “head-shaped” appearance of the cheese
(Kalantzopoulos, 1993). Around 3600 tons of cheese are consumed
in Greece on an annual basis. The cheese is characterized by hard
texture, salty taste, and strong flavor. It is a hard rind cheese of
whiteeyellow color. Small gas holes and bigger slit holes exist in
the mass of cheese. The chemical constituents of the final product
are: moisture, 36%; fat, 28%; fat-in-dry-matter, 45%; pH, 5.6; salt
content, 4%. Graviera is a popular Greek yellow hard cheese with
a high fat content (30e33%, w/w) and a relatively low salt content
(2.0e3.5%, w/w). It is produced mainly from ewes’ milk, which is
acidified by a mixed culture of mesophilic (1% L. lactis ssp. lactis or L.
lactis ssp. cremoris) and thermophilic (0.1% Streptococcus thermo-
philus and Lactobacillus helveticus) organisms. The curds are cooked
to approximately 50  C and, after whey drainage, molded and
pressed at an increasing pressure. The cheeses are salted by
frequent application of dry salt to the surface for 2e3 weeks and
ripened for 3e4 months (Fox & McSweeney, 2003).
3.3. Fermented fruits and vegetables
Olives, a common fermented fruit in Greece, are one of the oldest
food crops in the Mediterranean basin the cultivation of which
dates back to the Late Bronze Age (Riley, 2002). They are probably
the most economically important fermented vegetable food in the
Western world. Today, although the olive producing areas of the
world are extended as far as Australia, South Africa, Chile and Peru,
almost 98% of olive trees grown in the world are located around the
Mediterranean (Kiritsakis & Markakis, 1987). The average world
production reached around 1,823,000 tons in the year 2006/2007,
the majority of which is produced in the European Union (w50%),
namely Spain, Italy, and Greece (IOC, 2009).
There are three basic commercial preparations in the interna-
tional market e Spanish style green olives, naturally black olives
(Greek style), and black ripe olives (California style) e for which
processing procedures are well-established in the literature
(Garrido-Fernández, Fernández Díez, & Adams, 1997). Spanish-style
green olives are initially subjected to a debittering treatment with
a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (1.8e2.0, w/v) to hydrolyze
the bitter constituent oleuropein, followed by a washing step to
remove the excess of alkali. Olives are then immerged in brine
(6e8%, w/v, NaCl) where they undergo a spontaneous fermentation
mainly by lactic acid bacteria (Balatsouras, 1990). The final product
can be marketed as plain olives or olives with different stuffing
material (e.g. almond, pimiento, etc.). Naturally black olives are
directly placed in brine right after harvest, with a salt concentration
ranging from 8 to 10%, or slightly lower. A natural fermentation
takes place for which a complex microflora of Gram-negative
bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts is responsible (Tassou,
Panagou, & Katsaboxakis, 2002). The final fermented product can
be marketed as plain, depitted, or sliced olives in brine.
35
Frequently, the flavor of olives is enhanced by the addition of
various herbs and spices. Black ripe olives are obtained from fruits
harvested when not fully ripe, which have been blackened by
oxidation and have been debittered by alkaline treatment. These
olives are not subjected to fermentation and consequently must be
preserved in hermetically sealed containers that have been previ-
ously subjected to heat sterilization to ensure microbiological
control (Garrido-Fernández et al., 1997).
Another commercial preparation of naturally black olives of
rather minor importance is the so-called dry-salted olives. The
fruits are harvested fully ripe or over-ripe and are placed in
concrete tanks together with coarse salt in a proportion of 40% (w/
w). Due to osmotic dehydration, olives lose water and other solutes,
including much of the bitter constituent oleuropein, and become,
thus, gradually debittered and finally eatable (Panagou, 2006).
In Greece, almost 90,000 to 100,000 tons of raw olives are
processed to produce primarily Spanish-style green olives as well
as naturally black olives. Most fermented olives (w90%) are
distributed throughout the marketing chain “in bulk” i.e., in plastic
containers of various sizes, and only a small amount is packed in
hermetically sealed glass or tin containers and then subjected to
thermal treatment (pasteurization). The product can be found in
retail outlets in both types; however, olives sold in bulk have
generally a lower price and are greatly preferred by consumers. If
the fermentation process is adequate, the physicochemical char-
acteristics of the final product e particularly pH, titratable acidity,
and salt content e can ensure the microbiological safety and good
keeping quality of the product. The minimum requirements for
these characteristics should comply with the trade standards for
table olives in international trade established by the International
Olive Council (IOC, 2004).
Cucumbers are one of the most important raw vegetable
materials used for fermentation in Greece. Cucumber fermentation,
a typical vegetable brine-salted fermentation, is considered to take
place in four stages, namely initiation, primary fermentation,
secondary fermentation, and post-fermentation (Bamforth, 2005).
At the onset of the process, the pH of the brine is ca. 5.5 and
fermentable carbohydrates, mainly reducing sugars (glucose and
fructose), are present. As a result, a rapid growth of several Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as yeasts occurs. This
stage can last as long as 7 days during which, lactic acid bacteria
and yeasts prevail over undesirable bacteria, mainly due to acidi-
fication of the brine medium. This stage is usually completed
primarily by L. plantarum and secondarily by Pediococcus pentosa-
ceus and Lactobacillus brevis. Leuconostoc mesenteroides strains are
most of the times inhibited by the higher salt concentration,
although heterofermentative species are not desired during this
type of fermentation (Harris, 1998). Secondary fermentation by
fermentative yeasts can occur only when fermentable carbohy-
drates have remained in the brine from the previous stage (Franco,
Pérez-Díaz, Johanningsmeier, & McFeeters, 2012). Finally, post-
fermentation depends on the storage conditions. Specifically,
open fermentation vessels facilitate the growth of oxidative yeasts,
fungi and bacteria, while anaerobic vessels do not allow the growth
of these microorganisms. Several factors, including initial microbial
load, growth rates, salt and acid tolerances account for this
microbial sequence (Daeschel, Andersson, & Fleming, 1987). In
some cases, the predominance of L. plantarum may result in
excessive concentration of lactic acid that renders the product unfit
for direct consumption and might influence its texture as well
(Passos, Ollis, Fleming, Hassan, & Felder, 1993). This issue could be
resolved by inoculating the brines with a mixed population of L.
plantarum and fermentative yeasts in order to divert a portion of
the fermentable carbohydrates into non-acidic metabolic products
(Daeschel, Fleming, & McFeeters, 1988).
36 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41

3.4. Emulsion-type Greek appetizers or salads initially baked at 180  C for 15 min to soften their tissue, and then
the inner parenchyma of each eggplant is removed and mixed with
The consumption of the so-called delicatessen creamy appe- the other ingredients. Finally lemon juice is added to reduce pH to
tizers or salads, as they are called in Greece, has markedly increased ca. 4.0. Occasionally, different amounts of oregano essential oil are
in the last two decades in both Europe and the USA (Tassou, added to enhance flavor and increase the microbiological stability
Samaras, Arkoudelos, & Mallidis, 2009). Their production is based of the final product (Skandamis & Nychas, 2000).
on a variety of recipes but they are mainly oil-in-water emulsions Another popular delicacy of fishery origin is tarama salad (cod
consisting of a mayonnaise, starch, yogurt, cheese or vinaigrette roe paste) prepared either homemade or industrially. The home-
type base, supplemented with particles or animal or vegetable made product consists of salted cod roe, bread crumbs or mashed
origin. These products are ready for consumption without any potato, olive oil, lemon juice or spices and is normally kept refrig-
further preparation or cooking (Smittle, 2000). Among these, erated. On an industrial scale, red pigment and chemical preser-
traditional Greek deli-type salads are gaining wide consumer vatives, mainly sodium benzoate and sorbic acid, are also added to
acceptance in both the domestic and international markets, and inhibit the growth of yeasts and fungi associated with food spoilage.
a systematic effort has been initiated to standardize their A typical composition of commercially available tarama salad
commercial production by local and international companies. consists of dried and salted cod roe (8%), soybean oil (65%), bread,
Preservation of these products is not based on thermal treatment to onion, potato flour, lemon juice, spices, sodium benzoate (0.005%),
control microbes, because it will reduce the physical integrity of the and sorbic acid (0.075%) (Mexis, Chouliara, & Kontominas, 2009).
product and result in substantial organoleptic deterioration
(Beuchat, Ryu, Adler, & Harrison, 2006). Consequently, preservation 4. How safe are the Greek foods?
depends on a combination of intrinsic factors to control or elimi-
nate microorganisms (Micels & Koning, 2000). The shelf life of 4.1. Fermented meats
these products ranges from 2 to 3 months under refrigerated
storage and relies on the use of acetic acid (vinegar) in the aqueous Meat fermentation may be viewed as a process that takes
phase, reducing pH to 3.6e4.5. Additional intrinsic factors potentially hazardous raw materials and through a two-stage
contributing to the microbiological stability are the low water process of fermentation and ripening, develops an inhibitory
activity (aw) due to the presence of high sugar or salt concentration ecosystem for most bacterial pathogens. Indeed fermentation/
(e.g. 10 and 6%, respectively) as well as the use of chemical ripening is transforming the perishable and hazardous raw mate-
preservatives, namely sorbic and benzoic acid (Manios, Skiadaresis, rials into products with extended keeping quality and reduced risk
Karavasilis, Drosinos, & Skandamis, 2009). Cheese-based salads of causing illness. The overall antimicrobial effect elicited in fer-
such as Tyrokafteri (spicy cheese salad) and Tyrosalata (cheese mented meats is the sum of multiple hurdles of microbial (organic
salad) are very popular Greek creamy appetizers, the typical acids and ethanol) or non-microbial (reduced aw, nitrites, nitrates,
composition of which is shown in Table 1. spices, phenolics, and heating temperature) origin. However, the
A food of similar manufacturing technology and composition is manufacturing of traditional fermented products is characterized
aubergine salad, which is an item produced industrially with by considerable variability in raw materials, operation units,
addition of boiled aubergine puree, salt 1e2%, garlic 0.4%, and acetic fermentation, and/or ripening conditions. This in turn is reflected in
acid 0.2e0.4% to reduce pH to ca. 4.1. Home-made aubergine salad the final pH and aw of the produced traditional sausages, which
is made of eggplants, garlic, and extra virgin olive oil. Eggplants are have been reported to vary from 4 to 7 and from <0.60 to >0.95,
respectively (Gounadaki et al., 2007; Gounadaki, Skandamis,
Table 1 Drosinos, & Nychas, 2008; Skandamis & Nychas, 2007).
Typical composition and physicochemical characteristics of Tyrokafteri (spicy The combination of natural flora, and in some cases the appli-
cheese salad) and Tyrosalata (cheese salad). Based on Manios et al. (2009). cation of starter cultures, was a “triumphal” step in the
Appetizer Composition pH aw Fat (%) manufacturing of traditional fermented products, because it
Tyrosalata Water 20% 4.3e4.5 0.901 27.0 assured safer products, especially those with short ripening time.
Feta cheese Among the antimicrobial factors associated with lactic acid
Vegetable oil bacteria, such as bacteriocins, hydrogen peroxide, CO2, diacetyl, low
Milk powder redox potential, crowding low pH, and organic acids (Gounadaki
Vinegar
Modified starches
et al., 2007, 2008; Skandamis & Nychas, 2007), the main factors
Dried egg yolk are organic acids and low pH. Commonly, the level of organic acids,
Salt mainly lactic acid, produced by lactic acid bacteria during
Sugar fermentation exceeds 100 mM (1% v/v), whereas the ultimate pH is
Mustard
often in the range of 4.0e4.5. Another feature that is required so
Spices/seasonings
Stabilizer (E413, E415) that lactic acid bacteria may elicit their antimicrobial activity is
Sorbic acid (E202) their numerical superiority over any pathogens present. Greek
Tyrokafteri Water 20% 4.2e4.4 0.910 27.1 traditional sausages have been reported to have lower pH value,
Feta cheese lower concentration of biogenic amines than similar products from
Vegetable oil
Milk powder
South European countries e.g. France, Italy and high populations of
Vinegar Enterococcus. These organisms have been shown to inhibit in vitro
Modified starches growth of Listeria monocytogenes, which suggests possible contri-
Dried egg yolk bution to the safety of the end product, and possibly the value of
Salt
these strains as protective cultures (Paramithiotis, Kagkli, Blana,
Sugar
Mustard Nychas, & Drosinos, 2008). These organisms have a long history
Spices/seasonings of safe use, although they are not included in the generally recog-
Chili green pepper (6%) nized as safe list (Latorre-Moratalla et al., 2008; Talon et al., 2007).
Stabilizer (E413, E415) However, despite the increase in safety level conferred by lactic
Sorbic acid (E202)
acid bacteria and the indigenous microbial population in general, as
 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41 37

well as by the manufacturing process itself, there are still emerged
or “developed” pathogens that are capable of combating the
inhibitory environment of fermented meats ecosystems. The
dominant pathogens that have been reported to be presently
capable of surviving during storage of fermented sausages include
Salmonella, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), Staphylo-
coccus aureus, and L. monocytogenes (Skandamis & Nychas, 2007).
Therefore, knowledge of the ability of pathogens to survive and
proliferate in fermented traditional Greek meats is an important
prerequisite in order to achieve the food safety objectives related to
these specific food ecosystems in a reliable and consistent manner.
It is expected that survival responses of pathogens will vary
depending not only on the manufacturing process and product
characteristics, but also on whether inoculation is carried out in the
meat batter or the final products, because the pathogens will be
exposed to different stresses (Gounadaki et al., 2008). Thus, in order
to conduct reliable exposure assessment reports related to fer-
mented products, there is a need for challenge testing. A review of
the reports on the survival/growth of the major pathogens in
a variety of fermented dry or semi-dry sausages including Greek
traditional sausage is presented by Skandamis and Nychas (2007).
However, published results on fermented sausages related to
a European research project have indicated that Greek sausages
have good safety records (Skandamis & Nychas, 2007).
4.2. Cheese products
Although cheese has been characterized as one of the safest food
products by some authors (Kousta, Mataragas, Skandamis, &
Drosinos, 2010), in 2006 the consumption of contaminated
cheese accounted for 0.4% of the total foodborne outbreaks in
Europe (EFSA, 2008). Cheeses are ready-to-eat food products that,
for the most part, do not undergo any further treatment to ensure
their safety prior to consumption. Contamination of cheese with
foodborne pathogens may originate from various sources including
raw milk, brine, floor and packaging material, cheese vat, cheese
cloth and curd cutting knives, cold room and production room air
(Temelli, Anar, Sen, & Akyuva, 2006). It is also characteristic that the
majority of traditional Greek cheeses are usually produced in small
dairies, with different production processes that are dependent on
the geographical location, resulting in a range of final products with
considerable variability in terms of microbiological and physico-
chemical attributes (Freitas & Malcata, 1999).
In a recent survey undertaken in the area of Athens
(Papadopoulou, 2007), 70 commercially available cheese samples
were investigated microbiologically, including white brine cheeses
(Feta, cow cheese, goat cheese), whey cheeses (Mizithra, Antho-
tyros, Manouri), and spread cheeses (Katiki, Galotyri). Main
emphasis was given on the presence of foodborne pathogens, i.e., L.
monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., S. aureus, E. coli, and Aeromonas
hydrophila, as well as on the characterization of the total mesophilic
bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, Lactococcus spp., Enterococcus spp.,
Pseudomonas spp., Brochothrix thermosphacta, Enterobacteriaceae,
and yeasts/moulds. From the obtained samples, 27 were sold in
sealed retail packages of 500 g, whereas the remaining 43 were
marketed in bulk. Results showed that the prevailing microbial
association in all samples consisted of lactic acid bacteria at levels
exceeding 7 log CFU/g in most cases (Tables 2 and 3). Enterococci
were not detected in 35% of brine cheeses, 25% of whey cheeses, and
16% of spread cheeses. Enterobacteriaceae were undetectable in 86%
of brine cheese samples, but in whey and spread cheeses their
population exceeded 7 log CFU/g in 19e20% of the surveyed
samples. No moulds were detected; however, yeasts were found in
all samples in populations ranging from 2 to 6 log CFU/g. The
occurrence of Pseudomonas spp. was high as the microorganism was
found in 75%, 94%, and 85% of brine, whey, and spread cheeses,
respectively. Br. thermosphacta was enumerated in higher pop-
ulations in 69% of whey cheeses (2e6 log CFU/g), followed by brine
cheeses (21% of samples at 2e5 log CFU/g), and spread cheeses (29%
of samples at 2e3 log CFU/g). The occurrence of Listeria spp. was
high (40%) in the surveyed samples but only one sample of whey
cheese (Manouri) was presumptive positive for L. monocytogenes.
Salmonella spp. and S. aureus were not detected in any cheese
sample. E. coli was found in 7% of the examined samples at levels
varying from 3.0 to 5.3 log CFU/g. Aeromonas spp. was detected in
13% of cheese samples, however no sample was presumptive for
A. hydrophila. As expected, cheeses sold in bulk contained higher
populations compared with cheeses in packages. Moreover, whey
cheeses supported higher population densities than brine and
spread cheeses in most cases. This could be due to the higher pH and
moisture content and lower salt concentration of whey cheeses.
4.3. Table olives
Table olive processing relies on the microbiota naturally present
on the fruit surface, water, and fermentation plants. This may be
a sufficient reason for variations in the flavor of the final product, as
well as economic losses due to spoilage. In Greece, about 90% of
processed olives are marketed in bulk and they are freely available
to consumers in open containers, stored at ambient temperature,
exposed to a high risk of contamination from the environment.
Contamination of olives may be due to harvesting the crop directly
from the soil, poor hygiene and unsanitary procedures by field and
processing personnel, inadequate cleaning and sanitizing of pro-
cessing equipment, and failure to wash the olives prior to brining.
Fermented olives have an extended shelf-life (between 1 and 2

Table 2
Populationa (log CFU/g) of different microbial groups and pH values of cheese samples sold in packages.

Microorganism Brine cheeses Whey cheeses Spread cheeses

Feta cheese Goat Cheese Cow cheese Mizithra Anthotyros Manouri Katiki
Total mesophilic bacteria 7.5  0.3 7.5  0.5 7.0  0.1 8.0  0.1 8.0  0.1 8.0  0.4 7.0  0.5
Lactic acid bacteria 7.6  0.2 7.5  0.5 7.7  0.7 8.0  0.1 8.0  0.1 8.0  0.2 8.0  0.1
Lactococcus spp. 7.5  0.2 7.3  0.3 6.6  0.3 7.3  0.3 8.0 8.0  0.6 6.8  0.8
Enterococcus spp. 5.5  0.8 2.0 5.0 3.5  0.5 5.0 4.0 4.0
Br. thermosphacta 4.0  1.0 <2 <2 3.0 3.5 4.0  0.1 <2
Staphylococcus spp. 3.8  0.6 <2 3.0 <2 3.0 4.0 <2
Enterobacteriaceae <1 <1 <1 3.0  0.1 4.0 3.0 <1
Escherichia coli <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 3.0 <2
Pseudomonas spp. 3.7  0.2 3.0  1.0 4.3  0.3 3.0  0.1 7.0 3.5  0.5 2.0
Aeromonas spp. <2 <2 <2 <2 2.0 2.0 <2
Yeasts and moulds 3.7  0.3 4.5  0.5 4.3  0.7 5.5  0.5 4.0 5.0  1.0 2.0
pH 4.6  0.1 4.4  0.1 4.4  0.1 4.2  0.1 6.0  0.5 5.1  0.4 4.3  0.1
a
Mean values  standard error. Values with no standard error indicate enumeration of the respective microorganism in only one sample.
38 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41

Table 3
Populationa (log CFU/g) of different microbial groups and pH values of cheese samples sold in bulk.

Microorganism Brine cheeses Whey cheeses Spread cheeses

Feta cheese Goat cheese Cow cheese Mizithra Anthotyros Manouri Katiki
Total mesophilic bacteria 7.4  0.2 7.4  0.3 7.8  0.2 8.0 8.0  0.1 8.3  0.3 7.0  1.0
Lactic acid bacteria 7.6  0.1 7.8  0.2 7.9  0.3 5.0 7.6  0.2 8.1  0.5 7.3  0.3
Lactococcus spp. 7.5  0.1 7.5  0.3 7.5  0.5 5.0 7.9  0.3 8.3  0.3 7.0  1.0
Enterococcus spp. 4.3  0.3 4.7  1.4 5.0 4.5 5.3  0.3 4.5 6.0
Br. thermosphacta 3.3  0.4 <2 3.0 3.0 4.8  0.7 4.5 3.0
Staphylococcus spp. 3.7  0.3 3.0 5.0  1.0 2 5.7  0.4 2.7  0.7 <2
Enterobacteriaceae 3.0  0.6 2.0 5.0 5.0 5.8  0.6 3.0  0.6 2.0  0.1
Escherichia coli <2 <2 4.0 <2 5.3  0.3 <2 <2
Pseudomonas spp. 4.1  0.3 3.7  0.5 6.0  2.0 8.0 7.2  0.6 4.5  0.5 2.8  0.8
Aeromonas spp. <2 <2 <2 5.0 6.1  0.5 3.5 <2
Yeasts and Moulds 4.3  0.3 4.5  0.3 6.3  1.3 3.0 3.8  0.6 4.5  0.5 4.3  1.3
pH 4.7  0.1 4.5  0.1 5.0  0.1 6.5 5.9  0.1 4.8  0.1 4.3  0.1
a
Mean values  standard error. Values with no standard error indicate enumeration of the respective microorganism in only one sample.

years) and they are normally consumed without cooking.
Consuming food products without cooking makes contamination
with pathogens a public health concern, even for fermented
products. However, fermentation is an excellent preservation
technique as the activity of lactic acid bacteria results in the
production of a variety of metabolic compounds, in which lactate
and acetate predominate, lowering the pH of the brine and
decreasing thus the presence of pathogenic microorganisms
(Caplice & Fitzgerald, 1999; Ross, Morgan, & Hill, 2002). In addition,
antimicrobial compounds (e.g. ethanol, bacteriocins) produced by
certain strains of lactic acid bacteria contribute to a better preser-
vation effect of the final product (Lee, 2004; Rubia-Soria et al.,
2006). For this reason, fermented foods have been generally
considered less likely to cause foodborne infection or intoxication,
although several pathogens have been reported to survive the
fermentation process (Nout, 1994).
Transmission of pathogenic bacteria through fermented olives
has not been documented so far, but occurrence of L. monocytogenes
during Spanish-style green olive fermentation has been reported
recently (Caggia, Randazzo, Salvo, Romeo, & Giudici, 2004).
Specifically, from a total of 69 samples of olives analyzed for the
presence of L. monocytogenes in Italy, 36 were contaminated with
Listeria from which 26 were identified as L. monocytogenes.
Although L. monocytogenes is considered pathogenic to humans,
the presence of any Listeria species in food can be an indicator of
poor hygiene. Moreover, the microbiological and safety evaluation
of green table olives marketed in Italy has also been reported
(Franzetti, Scarpellini, Vecchio, & Planeta, 2011). Forty green table
olive samples from retail outlets (street markets and supermarkets)
were analyzed for microflora and food safety indices including
Salmonella spp., L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus. Results showed
that there was a wide heterogeneity in the microflora, with yeasts
and lactic acid bacteria dominating the microbial population as
a result of the fermentation process. Their numbers together with
their metabolic activity resulted in the development of unfavorable
conditions for the survival of pathogenic microflora on olives. In
another survey of table olives undertaken in the Spanish market
(López-López, García-García, Duran-Quintana, & Garrido-Fernán-
dez, 2004), 67 samples of green, directly brined, and black ripe
olives were analyzed to determine their microbiological and
physicochemical profile. Results showed that lactic acid bacteria
and yeasts were the dominant microbial groups, the former being
more abundant than the latter. Spore-forming mesophilic aerobes
(e.g. Bacillus cereus), which can be considered contaminants from
ingredients or product handling, were present in only some
samples and were always at low levels. Finally, a similar survey was
carried out in Greece involving 69 different commercially available
table olive preparations, including Spanish-style green olives,
naturally black olives and dry-salted olives (Panagou, Tassou, &
Skandamis, 2006). The prevailing microbiota consisted of lactic
acid bacteria and yeasts coming from the spontaneous fermenta-
tion process, whereas no enterobacteriaceae, pseudomonads, B.
cereus, or Clostridium perfringens were detected in any of the
samples analyzed given the physicochemical characteristics found
(average pH, 3.9e4.3; salt content, 6.2e7.3).
Recently, survival studies of E. coli O157:H7 in Spanish-style
fermentation of Conservolea green olives, in brines supplemented
with different concentrations (0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1%, w/v) of carbon
sources (glucose or sucrose), showed that reduction of the path-
ogen was evident in all processes. However, the pathogen survived
even at low numbers probably due to acid adaptation during the
gradual reduction of pH in the brines (Spyropoulou,
Chorianopoulos, Skandamis, & Nychas, 2001). The final pop-
ulation of E. coli O157:H7 was related to the initial concentration of
carbon source, and hence the final pH value of the fermentation
process, as the highest concentration caused the highest decline
(ca. 6.0 logs) in the pathogen’s numbers. Similar observations were
obtained for the survival of B. cereus in green olive fermentation,
the population of which declined steadily during the process, but
a tailing effect was observed when the pathogen reached 2 log CFU/
ml (Fig. 1), at which point it does not pose a risk to human health
(Panagou, Tassou, Vamvakoula, Saravanos, & Nychas, 2008).
However, this was not the case with Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 in
the spontaneous fermentation of naturally black olives, where the
numbers of the pathogen declined rapidly within the first 3 days of
the process, beyond which no cells were detected (Fig. 2). A survival
period (shoulder) of 1.3 days was evident followed by a sharp
decline thereafter (Panagou, Tassou, Chorianopoulos, & Nychas,
2007). Overall, the existing data suggest that as the brine envi-
ronment seems to be hostile for the survival of foodborne patho-
gens further research is needed to determine their behavior during
post-processing contamination. Moreover, the application of
appropriate thermal treatment to ensure the safety of such
a popular product could be considered, if needed.
4.4. Emulsion-type appetizers or salads
Preservation of these products is based mainly on their high
acidity and on chemical preservatives employed to inhibit the
growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, although their
use is considered undesirable by consumers who demand reduced
levels of additives in foods. Although the safety of these items is
supposed to be ensured primarily by their low pH, several patho-
gens, namely E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes, and Salmonella spp.,
have been reported to survive or even grow in these foods (Smittle,
2000). Usually, the vehicle of the pathogen is the raw ingredients as
 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
Fig. 1. Population dynamics of lactic acid bacteria (A), yeasts (-), and Bacillus cereus
(:) during the spontaneous Spanish-style fermentation of Conservolea green olives.
Data points represent mean values  standard deviation of duplicate fermentations.
well as any contamination from the processing environment and
packaging operation. Another issue of major concern is the so-
called stress adaptation response of the microorganisms, accord-
ing to which microorganisms exposed to moderately acidic envi-
ronment may develop cells with enhanced resistance and longer
survival times when transferred to a more acidic condition (Lou &
Yousef, 1997; Samelis & Sofos, 2003). In a recent study on tradi-
tional Greek salads (Tassou et al., 2009), the survival of S. Enter-
itidis, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7 was investigated in fish
Fig. 2. Changes in lactic acid bacteria (A), yeasts (-), enterobacteria (C), and
Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 (:) during the spontaneous fermentation of Conservolea
naturally black olives. Data points represent mean values  standard deviation of
duplicate fermentations.
39
roe (tarama) salad and eggplant salad with/without the addition of
preservatives (0.1% benzoic and sorbic acid) at 10  C storage
temperature. Inoculation of both salads was carried out with acid
and non-acid adapted cultures of the pathogens. Results showed
that in the absence of preservatives all pathogens managed to
survive throughout storage, presenting a 1 log reduction for Listeria
and 2 logs reduction for Salmonella and E. coli in both salads. In
most cases, acid adaptation prolonged the survival of all pathogens
even when preservatives were added. In the presence of sorbic and
benzoic acids pathogens were inhibited at 7e10, 8e12, and 5 days
for Salmonella, Listeria, and E. coli, respectively. The authors
concluded that the presence of preservatives in these kinds of
products is essential to ensure the microbiological stability and that
a well-studied combination of hurdles would be appropriate for the
safety of homemade traditional salads free of preservatives.
It needs to be noted though, that from a marketing point of view,
these products appear to be more attractive to consumers when
less or no additives are used, as they have the image of “home-
made” products. Essential oils could make an important contribu-
tion and become an alternative for synthetic preservatives (Nychas
& Tassou, 2000). For this reason, the responses of E. coli O157:H7
and Salmonella Enteritidis were investigated in homemade auber-
gine salad, mayonnaise and cod roe paste as a function of envi-
ronmental factors (pH, temperature, oregano essential oil, and type
of oil used). In these foods, a reduction in viable counts was
observed for both pathogens, and the rate of decline was depen-
dent on the pH, storage temperature, and essential oil concentra-
tion (Koutsoumanis, Lambropoulou, & Nychas, 1999; Radford,
Tassou, Nychas, & Board, 1991; Skandamis & Nychas, 2000).
5. Conclusions
Greece is justifiably proud of the high quality and palatability of
a wide range of traditional foods (fermented meats, dairy products,
fermented vegetables) that have long made the traditional Greek
diet distinct. In the past, the manufacturing of these products was
craft and empirical and presented differences from area to area,
resulting in final products with variable microbiological, physico-
chemical and sensory characteristics. Artisan practices employed in
traditional food manufacturing in combination with unsuitable
hygienic conditions, especially in small-scale processing units, may
have resulted in the survival of pathogenic bacteria that may be
present throughout the distribution chain. However, in the last
decades, this situation has drastically changed and traditional
Greek products are now produced in well-equipped industrial units
under strict processing and hygienic conditions. In addition, the
need for safe traditional products with standard and desirable
technological properties has resulted, for example, in the use of
starter cultures for the production of the dry fermented sausages, to
control the fermentation and ripening process, inhibiting the
growth of other undesirable microorganisms. This has been ach-
ieved for other fermented products, such as table olives and cheese,
enhancing thus their safety record.
Recently, in the context of a EU funded project (www.truefood.
eu), an extended retail survey was carried out in a variety of
traditional Greek food commodities (fermented meats, dairy
products, plant derived products) to quantify the presence of
pathogenic and other spoilage microorganisms and establish the
extent of contamination and the risk that is posed to the consumer.
The main focus on pathogens was given on E. coli O157:H7, L.
monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. Moreover, depending on the
specific characteristics of the product under investigation, other
pathogens were also taken into consideration, such as B. cereus and
S. aureus. Results showed that the intrinsic properties of foods
attained at the end of the process (e.g. pH, aw, salt content,
40 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
moisture), together with other technological characteristics (e.g.
use of preservatives, chill temperatures, modified atmosphere
packaging, etc.) resulted in absence of pathogenic microorganisms,
and consequently, Greek traditional foods could be considered to
have a good safety record.
References
Ambosiadis, I., Soultos, N., Abrahim, A., & Bloukas, J. G. (2004). Physicochemical,
microbiological and sensory attributes for the characterization of Greek
traditional sausages. Meat Science, 66, 279e287.
Anifantakis, E. (1991). Greek cheeses. Athens, Greece: National Dairy Committee of
Greece.
Anonymous. (1994). Newspaper of the Government of the Hellenic Republic. Issue 2,
No 8. Athens: National Printing Office.
Arvanitoyannis, I. S., & Mavropoulos, A. A. (2000). Implementation of the hazard
analysis critical control point system (HACCP) to Kasseri/Kefalotiri and Avenato
cheese production lines. Food Control, 11, 31e40.
Balatsouras, G. D. (1990). Edible olive cultivars, chemical composition of fruit,
harvesting, transportation, processing, sorting and packaging, styles of black
olives, deterioration, quality standards, chemical analysis, nutritional and
biological value of the end product. In Olio d’ oliva e olive da tavola: tecnologia e
qualita. Pescara: Istituto Sperimentale per la Elaiotecnica.
Balatsouras, J. (2004). Greek gastronomy. In C. Lambrou-Phillipson, &
K. Konstandinidis (Eds.), Traditional mediterranean diet: Past, present, and future
(pp. 211e215). Athens: Heliotopos Publishing.
Bamforth, C. W. (2005). Vegetable fermentations. In C. W. Bamforth (Ed.), Food,
fermentation and microorganisms (pp. 193e197). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Beuchat, L. R., Ryu, J. H., Adler, B. B., & Harrison, M. D. (2006). Death of Salmonella,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes in shelf-stable, dairy-based,
pourable salad dressings. Journal of Food Protection, 69, 801e814.
Caggia, C., Randazzo, C. L., Salvo, M., Romeo, F., & Giudici, P. (2004). Occurrence of
Listeria monocytogenes in green table olives. Journal of Food Protection, 10,
2189e2194.
Campbell-Platt, G. (1994). Fermented foodsea world perspective. Food Research
International, 27, 253e257.
Caplice, E., & Fitzgerald, G. F. (1999). Food fermentations: role of microorganisms in
food production and preservation. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 50,
131e149.
Daeschel, M. A., Andersson, R. E., & Fleming, H. P. (1987). Microbial ecology of
fermenting plant materials. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 46, 357e367.
Daeschel, M. A., Fleming, H. P., & McFeeters, R. F. (1988). Mixed culture fermentation
of cucumber juice with Lactobacillus plantarum and yeast. Journal of Food
Science, 53, 862e864.
Dalby, A. (2001). History of nutrition and gastronomy in Greece. Heraklio, Crete: Crete
University Press.
Dermiki, M., Ntzimani, A., Badeka, A., Savvaidis, I. N., & Kontominas, M. G. (2008).
Shelf-life extension and quality attributes of the whey cheese “Myzithra
Kalathaki” using modified atmosphere packaging. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 41, 284e294.
Drosinos, E. H., Mataragas, M., Xiraphi, N., Moschonas, G., Gaitis, F., &
Metaxopoulos, J. (2005). Characterization of the microbial flora from a tradi-
tional Greek fermented sausage. Meat Science, 69, 307e317.
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). (2008). Zoonoses data collection reports.
Available online at http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/monitoring_
zoonoses/reports.html.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2005). Statistical yearbook 2005e2006.
Consumption of ten major animal foods. Available online at http://www.fao.org/
statistics/yearbook/vol_1_1/site_en.asp?page¼consumption.
Fox, P. F., & McSweeney, P. L. H. (2003). Manufacture of hard and semi-hard varieties
of cheese. In R. Macrae, R. K. Robinson, & M. J. Sadler (Eds.), Encyclopedia of food
science and nutrition (pp. 1073e1086). London: Academic Press.
Franco, W., Pérez-Díaz, I. M., Johanningsmeier, S. D., & McFeeters, R. F. (2012).
Characteristics of spoilage-associated secondary cucumber fermentation.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 78, 1273e1284.
Franzetti, L., Scarpellini, M., Vecchio, A., & Planeta, D. (2011). Microbiological and
safety evaluation of green table olives marketed in Italy. Annals in Microbiology,
61, 843e851.
Freitas, A. C., & Malcata, F. X. (1999). Technological optimisation of Picante cheese
using microbiological, chemical, and physical criteria. Journal of Food
Engineering, 41, 163e175.
Garrido-Fernández, A., Fernández Díez, M. J., & Adams, M. R. (1997). Table olives.
Production and processing. London: Chapman and Hall.
General Chemical State Laboratories. (1988). Newspaper of the Government of the
Hellenic Republic. Issue 2, No 892. Athens: National Printing Office.
Gounadaki, A., Skandamis, P. N., Drosinos, E. H., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2007). Effect of
packaging and storage temperature on the survival of Listeria monocytogenes
inoculated postprocessing on sliced salami. Journal of Food Protection, 70,
2313e2320.
Gounadaki, A., Skandamis, P. N., Drosinos, E. H., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2008). Microbial
ecology of food contact surfaces and products of small-scale facilities producing
traditional sausages. Food Microbiology, 25, 313e323.
Hanlidou, E., Karousou, R., Kleftoyanni, V., & Kokkini, S. (2004). The herbal market of
Thessaloniki (North Greece) and its relation to the ethnobotanical tradition.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 91, 281e299.
Harris, L. J. (1998). The microbiology of vegetable fermentations. In B. J. B. Wood
(Ed.), Microbiology of fermented foods (pp. 45e72). London: Blackie Academic
and Professional.
IOC (International Olive Council). (2004). Trade standard applying to table olives.
RES-2/91-IV/04. Madrid: IOC.
IOC (International Olive Council). (2009). Statistic of table olive’s world production.
Available online at www.internationaloliveoil.org.
Kalantzopoulos, G. C. (1993). Cheeses from ewes’ and goats’ milk. In P. F. Fox (Ed.),
Cheese: Chemistry, physics and microbiology (pp. 507e543). London: Chapman &
Hall.
Kalogridou-Vassiliadou, D., Tzanetakis, N., & Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E. (1994).
Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of Anthotyro, a Greek
traditional whey cheese. Food Microbiology, 11, 15e19.
Kandarakis, G. J. (1986). Traditional whey cheeses. International Dairy Federation
Bulletin, 202, 118e124.
Katsiari, M. C., Kondyli, E., & Voutsinas, L. P. (2008). The quality of Galotyri-type
cheese made with different starter cultures. Food Control, 20, 113e116.
Kiritsakis, A., & Markakis, P. (1987). Olive oil: a review. Advances in Food Research, 31,
453e483.
Kousta, M., Mataragas, M., Skandamis, P. N., & Drosinos, E. H. (2010). Prevalence and
sources of cheese contamination with pathogens at farm and processing levels.
Food Control, 21, 805e815.
Koutsoumanis, K., Lambropoulou, K., & Nychas, G. J. E. (1999). A predictive model for
the non-thermal inactivation of Salmonella enteritidis in a food model system
supplemented with a natural antimicrobial. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 49, 67e74.
López-López, A., García-García, P., Duran-Quintana, M. C., & Garrido-Fernández, A.
(2004). Physicochemical and microbiological profile of packed table olives.
Journal of Food Protection, 67, 2320e2325.
Latorre-Moratalla, M. L., Veciana-Nogues, T., Bover-Cid, S., Garriga, M., Aymerich, T.,
Zanardi, E., et al. (2008). Biogenic amines in traditional fermented sausages
produced in selected European countries. Food Chemistry, 107, 912e921.
Lee, S. Y. (2004). Microbial safety of pickled fruits and vegetables and hurdle
technology. Internet Journal of Food Safety, 4, 21e32.
Lioliou, K., Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E., Tzanetakis, N., & Robinson, R. K. (2001).
Changes in the microflora of Manouri, a traditional whey cheese, during
storage. International Journal of Dairy Technology, 54, 100e106.
Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E., Tzanetakis, N., & Vafopoulou-Mastrojianaki, A. (1993).
Effect of type of lactic starter on microbiological, chemical and sensory
characteristics of Feta cheese. Food Microbiology, 10, 31e41.
Lou, Y., & Yousef, A. E. (1997). Adaptation to sublethal environmental stresses
protects Listeria monocytogenes against lethal preservation factors. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology, 63, 1252e1255.
Manios, S. G., Skiadaresis, A. G., Karavasilis, K., Drosinos, E. H., & Skandamis, P. N.
(2009). Field validation of predictive models for the growth of lactic acid
bacteria in acidic cheese-based Greek appetizers. Journal of Food Protection, 72,
101e110.
Manolopoulou, E., Sarantinopoulos, P., Zoidou, E., Aktypis, A., Moschopoulou, E.,
Kandarakis, I. G., et al. (2003). Evolution of microbial populations during
traditional feta cheese manufacture and ripening. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 82, 153e161.
Mexis, S. F., Chouliara, E., & Kontominas, M. G. (2009). Combined effect of an O2
absorber and oregano essential oil on shelf life extension of Greek cod roe paste
(tarama salad) stored at 4 C. Innovative Food Science Emerging Technologies, 10,
572e579.
Micels, M. J. M., & Koning, W. (2000). Mayonnaise, dressings, mustard, mayonnaise-
based salads, and acid sauces. In B. M. Lund, T. C. Baird-Parker, & G. W. Gould
(Eds.), The microbiological safety and quality of food (pp. 807e835). Gaitherburd:
Aspen Publishers Inc.
Nout, M. J. R. (1994). Fermented foods and food safety. Food Research International,
3, 291e298.
Nychas, G. J. E., & Tassou, C. C. (2000). Preservatives: traditional preservatives-oils
and spices. In R. Robinson, C. Batt, & P. Patel (Eds.), Encyclopedia of food
microbiology (pp. 1717e1722). London: Academic Press.
Panagou, E. (2006). Greek dry-salted olives: monitoring the dry-salting process and
subsequent physicochemical and microbiological profile during storage under
different packing conditions at 4 and 20 C. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 39,
322e329.
Panagou, E. Z. (2008). A radial basis function neural network approach to determine
the survival of Listeria monocytogenes in Katiki, a traditional Greek soft cheese.
Journal of Food Protection, 71, 750e759.
Panagou, E. Z., Tassou, C. C., Chorianopoulos, N. G., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2007). Survival
of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 in black olive fermentation. In Proceedings of the
94th annual meeting of the International Association for Food Protection, 8e11
July, Florida, USA (pp. 131).
Panagou, E. Z., Tassou, C. C., & Skandamis, P. N. (2006). Physicochemical,
microbiological, and organoleptic profiles of Greek table olives from retail
outlets. Journal of Food Protection, 69, 1732e1738.
Panagou, E. Z., Tassou, C. C., Vamvakoula, P., Saravanos, E. K. A., & Nychas, G. J. E.
(2008). Survival of Bacillus cereus vegetative cells during Spanish-style
fermentation of Conservolea green olives. Journal of Food Protection, 71,
1393e1400.
 E.Z. Panagou et al. / Food Control 29 (2013) 32e41
Papadopoulou, O. (2007). Microbiological characteristics of traditional Greek white
soft cheeses with emphasis on pathogenic microorganisms. M.Sc. Thesis. Univer-
sity of Ioannina, Greece.
Papagianni, M., Ambrosiadis, I., & Filiousis, G. (2007). Mould growth on traditional
Greek sausages and penicillin production by Penicillium isolates. Meat Science,
76, 653e657.
Paramithiotis, S., Kagkli, D. M., Blana, V. A., Nychas, G. J. E., & Drosinos, E. H. (2008).
Identification and characterization of Enterococcus spp. in Greek spontaneous
sausage fermentation. Journal of Food Protection, 71, 1244e1247.
Passos, F. V., Ollis, D. F., Fleming, H. P., Hassan, H. M., & Felder, R. M. (1993). Modeling
the cucumber fermentation: growth of Lactobacillus plantarum. Journal of
Industrial Microbiology, 12, 341e345.
Prajapati, J. B., & Nair, B. M. (2003). The history of fermented foods. In
E. R. Farnworth (Ed.), Handbook of fermented functional foods (pp. 2e23).
New-York: CRC Press.
Radford, S. A., Tassou, C. C., Nychas, G.-J. E., & Board, R. G. (1991). The effect of
different oils on the death rate of Salmonella enteritidis. Letters in Applied
Microbiology, 12, 125e128.
Riley, F. R. (2002). Olive oil production on Bronze Age Crete: nutritional properties,
processing methods and storage life of Minoan olive oil. Oxford Journal of
Archaeology, 21, 63e75.
Rogga, K. J., Samelis, J., Kakouri, A., Katsiari, M. C., Savvaidis, I. N., &
Kontominas, M. G. (2005). Survival of Listeria monocytogenes in Galotyri,
a traditional Greek soft acid-curd cheese, stored aerobically at 4 C and 12 C.
International Dairy Journal, 15, 59e67.
Ross, R. P., Morgan, S., & Hill, C. (2002). Preservation and fermentation: past, present
and future. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 79, 3e16.
Rubia-Soria, A., Abriouel, H., Lucas, R., Omar, N. B., Martínez-Cañamero, M., &
Gálvez, A. (2006). Production of antimicrobial substances by bacteria isolated
from fermented table olives. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
22, 765e768.
Samelis, J., Kakouri, A., Rogga, K. J., Savvaidis, I. N., & Kontominas, M. G. (2003). Nisin
treatments to control Listeria monocytogenes post-processing contamination
on Anthotyros, a traditional Greek whey cheese, stored at 4 C in vacuum
packages. Food Microbiology, 20, 661e669.
Samelis, J., & Sofos, J. N. (2003). Strategies to control stress-adapted pathogens and
provide safe foods. In A. E. Yousef, & V. K. Juneja (Eds.), Microbial adaptation to
stress and safety of new-generation foods (pp. 303e351). Boca Raton: CRC Press
Inc.
Sarantinopoulos, P., Kalantzopoulos, G., & Tsakalidou, E. (2002). Effect of
Enterococcus faecium on microbiological, physicochemical and sensory
characteristics of Greek Feta cheese. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
76, 93e105.
41
Skandamis, P. N., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2000). Development and evaluation of a model
predicting the survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 NCTC 12900 in homemade
eggplant salad at various temperatures, pHs, and oregano essential oil
concentrations. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 66, 1646e1653.
Skandamis, P. N., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2007). Pathogens: risks and control. In F. Ed
Toldra (Ed.), Handbook of fermented meat and poultry (pp. 427e454). Oxford:
Blckwell Publishing.
Smittle, R. B. (2000). Microbiological safety of mayonnaise, salad dressings, and
sauces produced in the United States: a review. Journal of Food Protection, 63,
1144e1153.
Spyropoulou, K. E., Chorianopoulos, N. G., Skandamis, P. N., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2001).
Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during the fermentation of Spanish-style
green table olives (Conservolea variety) supplemented with different carbon
sources. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 66, 3e11.
Talon, R., Lebert, I., Lebert, A., Leroy, S., Garriga, M., Aymerich, T., et al. (2007).
Traditional dry fermented sausages produced in small-scale processing units in
Mediterranean countries and Slovakia. 1: microbial ecosystems of processing
environments. Meat Science, 77, 570e579.
Tassou, C. C., Panagou, E. Z., & Katsaboxakis, K. Z. (2002). Microbiological and
physicochemical changes of naturally black olives fermented at different
temperatures and NaCl levels in the brines. Food Microbiology, 19, 605e615.
Tassou, C. C., Samaras, F. J., Arkoudelos, J. S., & Mallidis, C. G. (2009). Survival of acid-
adapted or non-adapted Salmonella Enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, and
Escherichia coli O157:H7, in traditional Greek salads. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 44, 279e287.
Temelli, S., Anar, S., Sen, C., & Akyuva, P. (2006). Determination of microbiological
contamination sources during Turkish white cheese production. Food Control,
17, 856e861.
Tregear, A., Arfini, F., Belleti, C., & Marescotti, A. (2007). Regional foods and rural
development: the role of product qualification. Journal of Rural Studies, 23,
12e22.
Trichopoulou, A., Costacou, T., Bamia, C., & Trichopoulos, D. (2003). Adherence to
a Mediterranean diet and survival in a Greek population. New England Journal of
Medicine, 348, 2599e2608.
Trichopoulou, A., Soukara, S., & Vasilopoulou, E. (2007). Traditional foods: a science
and society perspective. Trends in Food Science and Nutrition, 18, 420e427.
WHO Regional Office for Europe. (2003). Several foodborne diseases are increasing in
Europe. Assessed at. http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/
PR/2003/20031212_2.
Wilkins, J. M., & Hill, S. (2006). Food in the ancient world. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Zerfiridis, G. (2001). Technology of milk products e Cheese production. Greece:
Thessaloniki.