A MATHEMATICIAN'S PROGRESS

Author(s): U. ALFRED
Source: The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 59, No. 8 (DECEMBER 1966), pp. 722-727
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27957464
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A MATHEMATICIAN'S PROGRESS
By BROTHER U. ALFRED
St, Mary's College
St. Mary's College, California
STUDENTS often note that mathe
matics in its full dress suit of postulates,
definitions, theorems, and formal proofs is
more of a fossil than a living organism. The
reader who scans such material has no idea
of the hours and days of cogitation spent
on even minor points, the misdirections
that led to blind alleys, the sudden inspira
tions, and all the various thrills and dis
appointments that make mathematics a
truly human experience. Furthermore,
with no particular idea of just how the
result was achieved, the student loses a
great deal of useful information regarding
methods of procedure?and it is precisely
such information that would prove most
valuable to him and others who are trying
to penetrate the domains of mathematics
by personal thought.
With this in mind, we find justification
for presenting the peregrinations of one
student relative to some related questions
of fairly elementary proportions. As is
usual in mathematics, the work began
with a question : Into how many regions is
a plane cut by a given number of straight
lines?
Probably the first thing a mathemati
cian learns to do in trying to find an an
swer to a question that seems to involve
some complications is to restrict the prob
lem to its most elementary form. Lines in a
plane could have certain specializations
such as being parallel, or they could form a
pencil of lines in which three or more lines
pass through one point. The simplest and
722 The Mathematics Teacher | December 1966
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"One thing leads to another/' and
exploration in mathematics gives insight
most unspecialized case is that of lines of
which none are parallel and no three pass
through one point.
Starting with this simplest case one can
draw figures and prepare a table as fol
lows :
No. of lines No. of regions
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 7
4 11
5 16
It is possible to arrive at a tentative for
mula in a number of ways from this data.
For example, one might note that the
successive differences in the number of
regions are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. From this it
could be seen that the total is 1 + 1 + 2
+ 3 + 4 + 5 + ? ? ? and hence for lines
in a plane, the total number of regions
would be
n(n + 1)
S - 1 +
While there is every reason to believe
that this formula holds in general, due to
the way in which the numbers progress,
the result calls for a proof. When the
fourth line, for example, is drawn, it cuts
three lines in three points, so that there are
four different regions on this fourth line.
These correspond to four regions in the
plane through which the fourth line passes.
As it divided these regions each into two
parts, putting in the fourth line added four
regions to those already in the plane. In
general, by the same line of reasoning, the
nth line adds spaces. Hence, the given
formula is justified.
 Lines in the Plane/
in General
The result, however, does not apply to
the case of parallel lines or to situations
involving pencils of lines. For example,
five parallel lines divide the plane into six
regions, whereas the formula gives 16 as
the number of regions when is 5. Evi
dently, the single variable, "number of
lines," is not sufficient to determine the
number of regions into which the plane is
divided. What other variable could be
used? How about taking into account the
number of intersections as well?
For the general case of lines where
none are parallel and no three go through
any one point, the number of lines, L, is
equal to n; the number of intersections is
the number of ways of taking things two
at a time, so that if I is the number of
intersections,
/== n(n - l) ?
2
Since
n(n - 1) . n(n + 1)
?i
- equals-?
it follows that
s = l+nCn+_l)=/+L + l
Could this more general, Euler-like,
formula be shown to apply to other cases
as well? We studied various situations. For
parallel lines, there are +- 1 regions.
L = n, 7 = 0, so that S = 1 + + 0
gives the correct result. For a pencil of
rays, there are 2n spaces. This would
mean that the number of intersections
would have to be interpreted as ? 1.
Does this hold in general for all possible
configurations of lines in the plane? Ini
tially, there was no way of proving this.
However, various configurations of lines
could be tried out to see whether a counter
example could be found.
One of the many cases we considered
consisted of a triangle and three lines
through the vertices meeting in a point
within the triangle. There are four inter
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sections in which three lines meet and
three in which two lines meet. Hence, the
equivalent number of intersections would
be:
/ = 4(3 - 1) +3(2 - 1) = 11
L = 6
S = L + J + 1 = 6 + 11 +1 =18.
A count of the actual number of regions as
shown by the accompanying figure agrees
with this result. It was found in all cases
considered that the relation held, using
the interpretation that the equivalent
number of intersections corresponding to A;
intersecting lines is fe ? 1.
Thus there was an empirical relation prov
able in some particular instances, but as
yet not completely confirmed for the gen
eral case of any set of lines in a plane.
Relations in Three-Dimensional Space
At this juncture, the corresponding
problem in three dimensions was attacked :
Into how many regions is geometric space
of three dimensions divided by a given
number of planes?
Once again, the divide-and-conquer
approach was used. In this instance, the
following restrictions were made in order
to arrive at the simplest case:
1. Each set of three planes meets in a
point, but not more than three planes pass
through any one point.
2. Each pair of planes meets in a line,
but not more than two planes pass through
any one line.
Two thoughts were carried over from
the two-dimensional problem :
A mathematician's progress 723
 1. Just as the intersection of a line with and a combination of the two middle
the previous lines provided the means of terms proves the equivalence with S, as
solving the plane problem, so the intersec determined above.
tion of a plane with the previously given
Dimensional Generalization
planes should furnish the solution of the
space problem. The form o?P + L+ V + 1 suggestec
2. Would there be any relation in space another idea. Going back to a line divided
corresponding to the relation in the plane, by points, we see that
8 = L + I + 1? S=1+.
The first idea led to a rapid solution of For a plane, divided by lines (in the un
the problem in the simples case as out specialized case)
lined, for the nth plane will cut the ? 1 n(n ? 1)
S = 1 + n --?
planes already in space in ? 1 lines.
These form
For three-dimensional space in th
n(n ? 1) specialized case
+
S = 1 + -1
n(n - 1) n(n - l)(n - 2)
regions in the nth plane corresponding to
3!
the regions of space that have been di It would take little imagination to con
vided by it. Hence this quantity is the jecture that for a four-dimensional space
number of regions added by the nth plane in the nonspecialized case, the number of
when it intersects the ? 1 planes previ regions would be
ously established. n(n - 1) n(n - l)(n - 2)
The first plane adds one region; the S = 1 + -1
2 3!
second, two; the third, four. All these n(n - l)(n - 2)(n - 3)
+
figures check with ^~4!
n(n ? 1)
l + ?2 or, in words: The number of regions equals
the number of three-spaces plus the num
The total number of regionsberformed by
of planes of intersection plus the num
nonspecialized planes in space
ber of would thus
lines of intersection plus the number
be of points of intersection plus 1. Another

-|[^-]
way of writing this result is

, (n - l)n(n + 1) ,
= 1+-3j-+ ?.
For the more general space relation, the
where
+
0+0?
following was tried :
S = +L + V +1
where is the number of planes; L, the
o
(pronounced un ch
number of lines of intersection of the
of combinations o
planes; and 7, the number of points time,
of or
intersection (vertices). This relation works
out as follows:
n(n ? 1)
(n\ n \-k)\'
k) ~ kl(n
+ L + 7 + 1=n+
The Problem in Space Resumed
(n - l)(n - 2) Having found the formula for the sim
+ n-+ 1,
plest case of planes intersecting in three

724 The Mathematics Teacher | December 1966

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space and determined likewise that S points, such as the vertices? The thought
= P + L+ V + 1 in that instance, the came of a sweep plane that would start
next step was to ascertain whether some far out with all vertices on one side of it
interpretation could be given so that the and proceed parallel to itself.
latter formula would continue to apply for Consider, for example, the simplest case
all cases. Here a major difficulty arose, that we studied above. If there were
for whereas in the plane it is relatively planes, then the sweep plane would cut
simple to draw lines in certain configura them in lines. These, according to the
tions and count the number of regions in formula obtained for the plane, would di
order to check one's work, there is no cor vide the sweep plane into :
responding process in space.
Such problems as the following, for
example, are baffling: What happens
regions that would be in one-to-one corre
when a pencil of four planes (through one
spondence with regions into which the
line) is met by five other planes in general
planes were dividing space. This plane
position? The simple vertices can be
would maintain the same general con
counted as one. But what equivalent value
figuration until it came to one of the
should be given the vertices formed by the
vertices in space. At such a point one of its
intersection of a plane and the axis of the
regions would dwindle to a point, and
pencil? Also, to how many lines of intersec then on the other side of the vertex the
tion is a pencil of four planes equivalent?
plane would emerge into a new region of
Reasonable hypotheses can be made and
space. Thus, for each vertex, there would
answers worked out. But how is it possible
to check these results if a count cannot be be one additional region. Since the number
of vertices is
made?
Actually, by dint of diligent efforts ap n(n - \){n - 2)(n - 3)
plied to special cases, we surmised that a 3!
pencil of k planes would have to be equiva the total number of regions would be
lent to k ? 1 lines of intersection; that the
, , n(n - 1) n(n - l)(n - 2)(n - 3)
vertex f ormed by the axis of a pencil of k
planes and another plane would be equiva
?+-8 --
lent to k ? 1 vertices; that the vertex It becomes apparent
formed by k planes, no three of which go tions why the form
through the same line, would be equiva hold. To cover the g
lent to need be done is to kee
(k - l)(k -2) ber of regions as dete
2
section of the sweep p
vertices. But whether these relations
beyond all vertices a
would hold universally in any such com
how many regions d
binations was not in the least cleareach
andvertex.
th?re seemed to be no way of checking in
any but the simplest cases. Completion of the Solution
for the Plane
Solution by Inspiration This development is a striking confirma
tion of the idea, brought out by P?lya,
In the midst of this apparently hopeless
involvement, there entered an idea thatthat very often the way to solve a simpler
problem
solved the question in one stroke. Since it is to try to solve one that is more
was impossible to count the regions,difficult
the ! The problem of lines in the plane
thought was this: Why not try to find now becomes
a crystal clear. Since there are
lines,
method that utilizes change at certain key a sweep line that is not parallel to

A mathematician's progress 725

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any of the given lines will cut these lines in
points and be divided into + 1 sec
tions by these points. These + 1 sec
tions on the line indicate that the line is
Example 3
passing through + 1 regions. Let the
sweep line move parallel to itself. As it
approaches a simple vertex, one region
dwindles and disappears. But on going
through the vertex a new region is found
on the other side. Thus to a simple vertex
corresponds one additional region. For a
multiple vertex through which pass k
lines, there are k ? I regions which disap
pear at the vertex as the sweep line passes
through it, while k ? 1 new regions are
entered on the other side of the vertex.
Thus to a vertex with k lines through it
there correspond k ? 1 regions. Conse
quently, the formula S = L + I + 1 is
justified if I is interpreted to be the equiva
lent number of vertices.
Example 1
Let there be four sets of parallel lines in
the plane, containing respectively 5, 7, 4,
and 10 lines. Let there be no multiple
intersections. Into how many regions do
these lines divide the plane?
The number of lines, L, is 26. The num
ber of intersections can be found by de
termining the intersections for the sets of
parallel lines taken in pairs. Thus I is
5(7 + 4 + 10) + 7(4 + 10) + 4 ? 10, or
243. Hence the number of regions into
which the plane is divided is 26 + 243
+ 1 = 270.
Example 2
Let there be five pencils of lines in the
plane, containing respectively 4, 8, 3, 9,
and 6 lines. Let none of the lines be
parallel and let no line of one pencil pass
through the center of another pencil. Into
how many regions do these pencils divide
the plane?
L is 30. The equivalent number of ver
tices corresponding to the centers of the
pencils is given by (4 ? 1) + (8 ? 1)
+ (3 - 1) + (9 - 1) + (6 - 1) = 25. The
number of intersections of the pencils
among themselves is 4(8 + 3 + 9 + 6)
726 The Mathematics Teacher | December 1966
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+ 8(3 + 9 + 6) + 3(9 + 6) + 9 ? 6
= 347. Hence
S = 30 + 25 + 347 + 1 = 403.
Let there be points in a plane, no three
of them collinear. If they are connected in
all possible ways and no three of the lines
go through any point other than the
given points, and if none of the lines are
parallel, determine the number of regions
into which the plane is divided.
There would be
n(n ? 1)
2
or
o
lines in all. L lines would normal
sect in
HL- 1)
2
simple intersections. In the present case it
would be necessary to take into account
the equivalent number of simple intersec
tions represented by the lines going
through the given points. Since there are
? 1 lines through a vertex and since
these would normally intersect in
(n-l)(n-2)
2
points, the number of simple vertices
missing as a result of the lines going
through the given points is
n(n ? l)(n ? 2) /n\
-2- or 3U
Hence the number ot simple intersect
would be
Thus the number of spaces would be
+3(I)+n(n -2)'
or
 Conclusion
These examples are sufficient to illus
trate the simplicity and power of this
Eulerian-type formula. More important,
perhaps, is the fact that this investigation
opens the door to many other avenues of
research. The following are offered for
consideration:
1. The number of regions into which an
area enclosed by a convex curve is divided
by straight lines.
2. The number of regions into which an
area enclosed by a polygon of sides is
divided by its diagonals.
3. The problem of division of a plane by
circles.
4. The number of regions into which a
plane is divided by any closed curve, such
as the one shown in the illustration.
A Christmas test?[continued from p. 716]
In XMAS, ?X = iy + 10, M = y, ?A = y
+ 10,andZS - 2y - 65.
Find the measure of each angle in this
quadrilateral.
shaped so as to form a very elegant test that is
fun to take and still retains a level of measure
that may be necessary in the plans of a quarter's
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5. The division of three-dimensional
space by planes in various configurations.
This has been solved in general, but many
details still require consideration.
6. Given points in space in general
position, into how many regions is space
divided by connecting these points by all
the planes they determine?
7. Given points in the plane in gen
eral position, let circles be determined by
sets of three points in all possible ways.
Into how many regions is the plane
divided?
Given: AB || DC,
BC J_ AB,
AD _L DC;
Prove: AD \\ BC.
work. The test met with approval by students
of all levels of accomplishment, and everyone
wore a smile?including me.
Eileen Cox
Billings West High School
Billings, Montana
A mathematician's progress 727