BIOLOGY 2.

Prophase I: homologous chromosomes line up alongside

each other, matching their genes exactly. May exchange
FUNCTION OF ORGANELLES sequences of DNA (crossing over).
1. Nucleus: contains all DNA in animal cell 3. Metaphase I: homologs move to metaphase plate, do not
2. Nuclear envelope or membrane: double phospholipid separate
bilayer that surrounds nucleus and has pores for RNA to 4. Anaphase I: homologs separate
move out. 5. Telophase I: Nuclear membrane may or may not form. If
3. Nucleolus: where rRNA is transcribed and the subunits cytokinesis occurs the cells are haploid with 23
of ribosomes are assembled chromosomes
4. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): flattened sacs with 6. Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II:
many ribosomes and synthesizes proteins look the same as Mitosis.
5. Golgi complex: modifies and packages proteins for use in
other parts of the cell PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
6. Lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest 1. DNA –transcription- mRNA –translation- Protein
substances 2. tRNA: transfers specific amino acids to growing
7. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): tubular, lipid polypeptide chain during translation
synthesis and detoxification of drugs 3. mRNA: conveys genetic information from DNA to the
8. Peroxisomes: vesicles in cytosol involved in production ribosome and is encoded in a sequence of nucleotides
and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide 4. nRNA: ribonucleic acid found in the nucleolus of the cell
9. Ribosome: make proteins 5. nucleic acid: basic building block of DNA or RNA
10. Chromosomes: part of nucleus and distinct during
replication GLYCOLYSIS
 anaerobic catabolism of glucose (6C) to pyruvic acid (3C x 2)
CELLULAR FILAMENTS which occurs in cytoplasm
1. Cytoskeleton: a network of filaments that determine the
structure and motility of the cell FERMENTATION
2. Microtubules:  glycolysis and reduction of pyruvate producing ethanol or
a. larger than microfilaments lactic acid and NAD+
b. rigid hollow tubes made from tubulin
c. involved in flagella and cilia construction and ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
spindle apparatus  absence of O2 result in 2ATP/mol of glucose
3. Microfilaments:
a. squeeze membrane together in phagocytosis and AEROBIC RESPIRATION
cytokinesis  presence of O2 results in net 36ATP/mol of glucose
b. the contractile force in microvilli and muscle
4. Flagella: tail of sperm so it can move ENZYME FUNCTION
5. Cilia: are found only in fallopian tubes and respiratory  act as a catalyst
tract of humans 1. They are globular proteins
6. Centrosome: involved in cell division. Microtubules 2. Lower energy of activation and increase rate of reaction
grow from it. 3. Are not consumed or altered by reaction
7. Centrioles: function in production of flagella and cilia, 4. Do not alter the equilibrium
but not for microtubule production ENZYME INHIBITION
1. Competitive inhibitors: compete with substrate by
CELL LIFE CYCLE binding to active site
1. G1: usually the longest stage. Cell splits and grows. 2. Noncompetitive inhibitors: bind to enzyme in area other
2. S: energy used for replicating DNA than active site
3. G2: cell prepares to divide 3. Allosteric inhibitor: bind to enzyme and change
4. M: Meiosis or Mitosis configuration of enzyme
5. C: Cytokinesis- separation of the cellular cytoplasm due
to constriction of microfilaments about the center of the EUKARYOTIC vs PROKARYOTIC CELL
cell
EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC
MITOSIS Nucleus: Present Absent
 nuclear division with genetic change Chromosomes: More than 1 1 (plasmids)
1. Prophase: condensation of chromatin into chromosomes Cell Type: Multicellular Unicellular
a. Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell True Membrane-bound
Present Absent
b. Nucleolus & nucleus disappear Nucleus:
c. Spindle apparatus forms Example: Animals & Plants Bacteria & Archaea
2. Metaphase: chromosome align at equator Genetic Recombination: Meiosis & Fusion of Partial, unidirectional
gametes transfer of DNA
3. Anaphase: sister chromatids split and move toward
Lyzosomes/Peroxisome
opposite ends of cell s
Present Absent
4. Telophase: nuclear membrane reforms the nucleolus Microtubules: Present Absent/Rare
5. Result: 2 identical daughter cells ER: Present Absent
Mitochondria: Present Absent
MEIOSIS Cytoskeleton: Present May be absent
 double nuclear division which produces 4 haploid gametes DNA wrapping on Eukaryotes wrap Multiple proteins act
1. In humans: only spermatogonium and oogonium proteins: their DNA around together to fold and
undergo meiosis proteins called condense prokaryotic
 DNA. Folded DNA is then 2. Auxin: plant hormones that has role in coordination of
organized into a variety growth and behavioral processes in plants life cycle.
of conformations that 3. Cytokinin: plant growth substance that promotes cell
histones. are supercoiled and division in plant roots and shoot. Invovled in cell
wound around
tetramers of the HU
growth and differentiation.
protein. 4. Gibberellin: plant hormones regulate growth and
Ribosome: Larger Smaller development processes including stem elongation,
Vesicles: Present Present germination, dormancy, flowering sex expression,
Golgi Apparatus: Present Absent enzyme induction etc.
Absent (chlorophyll 5. Ethylene: Important natural plant hormone, used to
Chloroplasts: Present (in plants)
scattered in cytoplasm) ripen fruits.
Microscopic in size;
membrane bound; NA+ & K+ CHANNELS
Submicroscopic in size,
usually arranged as  Outside the cell Na+ is high because 3 Na+ move out while 2
Flagella: composed of only one
nine doublets
surrounding two
fiber K+ moves into the cell.
singlets
Permeability of Nuclear BLOOD CLOTTING STAGES
Selective Not present 1. Platelets rupture
Membrane:
Plasma Membrane w/ 2. Prothrombrin –thromboplastin/Ca++ thrombin
Yes No (usually)
Steroid 3. Fibrinogen –thrombin fibrin
Cell Wall: Plant cells & Fungi Chemically complexed 4. Fibrin and erythrocytes form a hardened clot
Vacuoles: Present Present
Cell Size: 10-100 um 1-10 um HEMOLYSIS
 rupturing of erythrocytes and the release of their content
ANIMAL vs PLANT CELLS into surrounding fluid

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL PLASMOLYSIS

Cell Wall: Absent Present (cellulose)
 process in plant cells where cytoplasm pulls away from cell
Shape: Round (irregular) Rectangular (fixed)
wall due to loss of water through osmosis
Vacuole: 1 large central
1 or more small
vacuole taking up
vacuoles FATTY ACID BREAKDOWN
90% cell vol.
Centrioles: Present (only in lower 1. Beta-oxidation: when fatty acid molecules are broken
Present down in mitochondria to generate actyl-coA.
plant forms)
Plant cells have 2. Transamination: chemical reaction between two
Animal cells don't chloroplasts because molecules (amino acid containing amine (NH 2) and a
Chloroplast:
have chloroplasts they make their own keto acid (=O). Amino acid becomes keto acid and keto
food acid becomes amino acid.
Cytoplasm: Present Present 3. Pentose phosphate pathway: process that generates
ER: Present Present
NADPH and pentoses. This is an alternative to
Ribosome: Present Present
glycolysis. Primary role is anabolic and takes place in
Mitochondria: Present Present
Plastids: Absent Present
cytosol or in plastids of plants.
Golgi Apparatus: Present Present
Cell Wall & Cell VEINS vs ARTERIES
Plasma Membrane: Cell Membrane 1. Veins: bring deoxygenated blood toward the heart
Membrane
Microtubule/Microfilament: Present Present 2. Arteries: bring oxygenated blood away from the heart
Flagella: Found in some cells Found in some cells 3. Pulmonary vein: carries blood with highest
Lysosomes: Occur in cytoplasm Not evident concentration of oxygen
Nucleus: Present Present 4. Renal Vein: veins that drain the kidney. Connect the
Cilia: Present Very rare kidney to the inferior vena cava.
5. Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from
CHEMICALS (NEUROTRANSMISSION) herat to lungs
1. Adrenaline/Epinephrine: hormone and 6. Hepatic portal vein: blood vessel that conducts blood
neurotransmitter that functions to regulate heart rate, from gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver
breathing, and fight or flight response of sympathetic
nervous system BRAIN PARTS
2. Choline: water soluble essential nutrient 1. Medulla: lower half of brainstem. Contains cardiac,
3. Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine: neurotransmitter respiratory, vomiting and vasometer centers and deals
released from the sympathetic neurons to affect the with involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate and
heart. blood pressure.
4. Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter in autonomic nervous 2. Cerebrum: Contains cerebral cortex, functions in
system that acts on peripheral nervous system and movement sensory processing, olfaction, language,
central nervous system. Only neurotransmitter used in communication, learning and memory
the motor division of somatic nervous system. 3. Inferior pons
4. Superior pons: Establishes regularity of respiration
PLANT HORMONES
1. Plants need auxin, cytokinin, and ethylene for growth of DIGESTION
lateral buds. 1. Mouth: digestion begins here with alpha-amylase which
is in saliva and digests carbohydrates.
 2. Esophagus: no digestion occurs only peristalsis which
move bolus
3. Stomach: mixes and stores food reducing it to chyme,
protein digestion begins here.
a. Mucus cells: secrete mucus
b. Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen and precursor
for pepsin which begins protein digestion
c. Parietal cells: secrete HCl to lower pH of
stomach and raise pH of blood. Also secrete
intrinsic factor which helps ileum absorb B12.
d. G cells: secrete gastrin which stimulate
parietal cells to secrete HCl
4. Small intestine: 90% of absorption and digestion occurs
here
a. Duodenum
b. Ileum
c. Jejenum
5. Large intestine: water and electrolyte absorption.
a. Ascending colon
b. Transverse colong
c. Descending colon
d. Sigmoid colong
e. Rectum
f. Anus
HORMONES
1. Anterior Pituitary
a. Follicle-stimulating: follicle maturation;
spermatogenesis
b. Luteinizing: ovulation; testosterone synthesis
c. Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH): stimulate
adrenal cortex to make/secrete
glucocorticoids
d. Thyroid: stimulating: stimulates thyroid to
make hormones
e. Prolactin: stimulate milk production/secretion
f. Endorphins: inhibit perception of pain
g. Growth hormone: bone/muscle growth
2. Hypothalamus store in posterior pituitary
a. Oxytocin: uterine contraction and milk
secretion
b. Vasopressin (ADH): water reabsorption in
kidneys
3. Thyroid
a. T3 and T4: metabolic activity
b. Calcitonin: decrease blood calcium level
4. Parathyroid: increase blood calcium level
5. Adrenal Cortex
a. Glucocorticoids: increase blood glucose level
and decrease protein synthesis
b. Mineralocorticoids: increase water
reabsorption in kidneys
6. Adrenal medulla
a. Epinephrine/Norepi: increase blood glucose
level and heart rate
7. Pancreas
a. Glucagon: convert glycogen to glucose in liver
and increase blood glucose
b. Insulin: lowers blood glucose, increase
glycogen stores
c. Somatostatin: Supress secretion of glucagon
and insulin
8. Testes
a. Testosterone: maintains male secondary
sexual chracterists
9. Ovary/Placenta
a. Estrogen: maintains female secondary sexual
characteristics
b. Progesterone: promotes growth/maintenance
of endometrium
PLANT GROWTH
1. Thigmotropism: plant moves or grows in response to
touch or contact stimuli
2. Thermotropism: plant moves in response to change in
temperature
3. Heliotropism: seasonal motion of plant parts in response
to direction of the sun
4. Geotropism: growth movement by plant in response to
gravity
5. Phototropism: growth of organisms in response to light
6. How to test that photosynthesis is taking place? Put
iodine on the plant
APPLYING THINGS TO 1 SIDE OF A PLANT
 Lanolin paste: protects against ravages of climate and
environment; This will cause the plant to bend toward the
side without the paste
SHORT & LONG-DAY PLANTS
1. Short-day: flower when day lengths are less that critical
photopeiod
2. Long-day: flower when the day length exceeds their
critical photoperiod
SUCCESSION
 series of changes in an ecological community that occur over
time after a disturbance
SERAL STAGES
 successional stage of an ecosystem from a disturbed
unvegetated state to a climax plant community
MISCROSERE
 terminating by the loss of identity of the habitat and without
the development of a climax
BIOMES
 large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna
occupying major habitat e.g. forest or tundra
1. Tundra: extremely cold climate, with few plants and
animals. Makes up 1/5th of earth’s land surface.
2. Desert: Very hot and dry with little rain
3. Taiga: swampy coniferous forest of high northern
latitudes.
4. Rainforest: Hot, humid with equatorial climate and
biggest biodiversity. Almost half of the world’s species
live there.
5. Savannah/Tropical grasslands: hot and dry, mainly
grass, scrub and some trees. Two distinct seasons: dry
season and rainy season.
OCEAN ZONES
1. Abyssal: depths or bed of the ocean between 3000 and
6000 meters down
2. Neritic: the belt or region of shallow water adjoining the
seacoast
3. Pelagic: any water in a sea or lake that is neither close
to the bottom nor near the shore
4. Littoral: part of sea, lake or river that is close to the
shore. Exposed during low tide and covered during high
tide.
ECOLOGY  KINGDOM  PHYLUM  CLASS  ORDER 
FAMILY  GENUS  SPECIES  COMMUNITY
ECOLOGY
 study of interactions among organisms and their
environment

SPECIES
 organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring with each
other

COMMUNITY
 organized collection of interacting species

POPULATION ACTIVITIES
1. Survival of the fittest: predicts that one species will
exploit the environment more efficiently, eventually
leading to the extinction of the other with the same
niche
2. R-selection: producing large numbers of offspring that
mature rapidly with no parental care (high mortality
rate)
3. K-selection: small number of offspring, slow maturation
and strong parental care
4. Speciation: process by which a new species is formed
5. Adaptive radiation: occurs when several separate
species arise from a single ancestral species
6. Evolutionary bottleneck: species may face a crisis so
severe as to cause a shift in allelic frequencies of the
survivors of the crisis
7. Divergent evolution: exists when two or more species
evolving from the same group maintain a similar
structure from the common ancestor
8. Convergent evolution: two species independently evolve
similar structures
9. Polymorphism: occurrence of distinct forms
10. Symbiosis: relationship between two species
a. Mutualism: beneficial for both
b. Commensalism: beneficial for one and not
affect the other
c. Parasitism: beneficial for one and detrimental
to the other