Designers’ Guide to Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Buildings

ISBN 978-0-7277-3162-3

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/dtb.31623.029

Chapter 4
Durability

This short chapter relates to the issue of durability of timber and metal under various environ-
mental conditions. The two clauses are:

g Resistance (of timber) to biological organisms Clause 4.1

g Resistance (of metal) to corrosion Clause 4.2

4.1. Resistance to biological organisms

The basic principle given in Clause 4.1(1) is that the timber shall either: Clause 4.1(1)

g have adequate natural durability for the particular hazard class or

g be given a preservative treatment.

4.1.1 The hazard (or use) classes

Hazard classes for timber (the hazard being the development of fungal or insect attack) are
defined in EN 335-1 (which in the 2006 edition now refers to them as use classes; BSI, 2006),
and are summarised in Table 4.1 (column 1). They can be compared with the service classes,
given in clause 2.3.1.3 and summarised in Table 4.1 (column 2). Service classes for timber are Clause 2.3.1.3
defined in terms of the ambient temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding air. For
the lower two classes, limits are then given for the average moisture content that the timber
will attain. Typical construction forms for the service classes are given in clause NA.2.2 in the Clause NA.2.2
National Annex to EN 1995-1-1 and illustrated in Figure 4.1. From this table it can be seen
that timber in service classes 1 and 2 (i.e. internal to the building, such as the roof, walls and
floor construction) will generally have a moisture content of less than 20%. Timber external
to the building or fully exposed to the weather (service/use class 3) will routinely attain a
moisture content in excess of 20%, while timber submerged in water (use classes 4 and 5) will
obviously attain a very high permanent moisture content. For structural design purposes, use
classes 4 and 5 are covered by the requirements of service class 3.

4.1.2 Fungal and insect attack of wood

There are a small number of fungi and insects that can attack timber, using it as a food source.
The minute spores of the various rots are carried in the air, and, alighting on wood may germi-
nate, if the surface moisture content is greater than 20%. The wood-boring beetles, by and large,
prefer damper timber, although the house longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes bajulus) active in areas in
and around Surrey, is an exception. Not all wood species are equally vulnerable to attack, due to
the degree of natural resistance to fungal growth provided by extractives in the heartwood, the
core of the trunk (Figure 4.2). The natural durability of important species is given in EN 350-2
(Table 3) (BSI, 1994), which allocates each species to one of five classes. A small extract from
the table for common species in relation to fungal decay is given in Table 4.2, together with
the species treatability, again allocated as classes. Treatment to improve durability (if
required) is generally by means of chemical solutions applied under pressure.

4.1.3 Timber in use/service classes 1 and 2

From Table 4.1 it can be seen that these classes include timber in internal situations. If, therefore,
the weather envelope is soundly constructed to resist water penetration from the roof, walls and
floor, and is well enough insulated or ventilated to avoid areas of significant condensation, then
the internal timber will dry down to well below 20%, and there will be no significant risk of rot or
beetle attack (except in the geographical area noted above). The species may be chosen without

29
Designers’ Guide to Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Buildings

Table 4.1. Comparison between the service classes and the use classes in EN 335-1

Clause 2.3.1.3 Extract from EN 335-1: 2006 Extract from Eurocode 5 UK National Annex, clause
Clause NA.2.2 Definitions of use classes Clause 2.3.1.3: service classes NA.2.2: Timber constructions
in service classes

1. Situation in which the wood is 1. Characterised by a moisture Warm roofs

under cover, not exposed to
weather and wetting
2. Situation in which the wood is
under cover and not exposed
to weather but where high
environmental humidity can
lead to occasional, but not
persistent, wetting
3. Situation in which the wood is
not under cover or in contact
with the ground. It is either
continually exposed to the
weather or is protected from
the weather but subject to
wetting
4. Situation in which the wood is
in contact with ground or
freshwater and thus
permanently exposed to wetting
5. Situation in which the wood is
permanently exposed to
saltwater
content in the materials
corresponding to a
temperature of 208C and the
relative humidity of the
surrounding air only exceeding
65% for a few weeks per year
2. Characterised by a moisture
content in the materials
corresponding to a
temperature of 208C and the
relative humidity of the
surrounding air only exceeding
85% for a few weeks per year
3/4/5. Characterised by climatic
conditions leading to higher
moisture contents than in
service class 2
Intermediate floors
Timber frame walls (external
and party)
Cold roofs
Ground floors
Timber frame external walls
External uses protected from
direct wetting
External uses, fully exposed,
but not in continuous ground
contact
River structures
Jetty supports
Fenceposts in the ground
(BS 8417, Table 1)
Marine structures, piers,
jetties, etc.
(BS 8417, Table 1)

regard to its durability classification or whether some pieces include areas of sapwood, and no
preservative treatment will generally be necessary. Most building-related timber structures fall
into this category.

Although the distinction between these two service classes does not affect the durability of the
timber, it is significant in relation to the stiffness of a member under creep conditions (see
Table 3.2).

4.1.4 Timber in use/service class 3

Timber in this class, such as cladding or fully external structures, will get wet frequently enough
to make conditions favourable for fungal and/or beetle attack. Following the basic principle
in Section 4.1, it is necessary to consider whether a particular species has adequate natural
durability, or whether durability could be achieved by the application of preservative.

When considering natural durability, it must be remembered that the durability of the sapwood
in any species is never better than class 4 or 5 (see Table 4.2), and commercial suppliers of
small-section softwood do not guarantee to exclude it. Guidance on the design life of heartwood
timber in various use classes is given in BS 8417 (Table 3) (BSI, 2011). This must be regarded as
‘broad-brush’ advice – much depends on the standard of detailing (to avoid water traps), and
cladding will generally last longer than decking because (apart from the question of wear) the
water will shed more quickly from a vertical surface. Consideration should also be given to a
replacement strategy – cladding and decking may be more easily replaced than primary structure.

30
 Chapter 4. Durability

Figure 4.1. Typical construction forms in service classes

SC2

SC1
SC2
SC3

SC2 SC1

SC3
SC3

SC3 (UC 4/5)

The softwoods
It can be seen from Table 4.2 that the most common species (spruce, redwood) are only slightly
durable. In addition, spruce can be difficult to treat. Larger pieces of, for example, imported
Douglas fir (moderately durable) can be purchased sap-free. The only softwood with a durable
rating is western red cedar. It is therefore often used for cladding, and for light frameworks,
since it is not a particularly strong timber.

The tropical hardwoods

There are a great variety of species, and the commercial range contains some of the most
durable. They are often imported as planks, intended for joinery work (e.g. iroko), but a few
(e.g. greenheart) are available in large sections.

Figure 4.2. Heartwood and sapwood in a trunk

Inclusion of sapwood
in cut piece

Sapwood
(contains no
extractives)

Heartwood
(contains extractives which to
varying degrees increase the
natural durability of the species)

31
Designers’ Guide to Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Buildings

Table 4.2. Durability and treatability classes of common species

Extracts from EN 350-2

Durability class Treatability class
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
VD D MD SD ND E ME MD D

Softwoods
Sitka spruce H H S SH
Redwood H H S H H
Douglas fir (imported) H S H
Larch (European) H H S H
Western red cedar (North America) H SH H
Western red cedar (UK) H SH H
(All species) S S
Tropical hardwoods
Iroko H H
Balau (yellow) H
Teak H
Greenheart H
Temperate hardwoods
Oak H S
Sweet chestnut H S
(Ash/beech/birch) H


Spruce sapwood is visually indistinguishable from heartwood
Key: VD, very durable; D, durable; MD, moderately durable; SD, slightly durable; ND, not durable;
E, easily treated; ME, moderately easy; MD, moderately difficult; D, difficult; H, heartwood; S, sapwood

The temperate hardwoods

Although there are many species in the commercial range of the European forest trees, most are
durability class 4 or 5. The exceptions are oak and sweet chestnut, both durable. Most larger
sections are sold ‘green’ (see Section 3.1 of this guide), but can be ordered to a specific cutting
schedule, omitting sapwood if required.

4.1.5 Timber in use classes 4 and 5 service class 3

Timber installed below the water level becomes saturated, and is too wet to support the growth of
the ‘above-ground’ rots. Thus, many nineteenth-century structures stand successfully on timber
piles installed below the ground water level. In open water, however, timber is vulnerable to
attack by marine borers, including (class 4, fresh water) gribble and (class 5, sea-water) Teredo
navalis. If a post emerges from the water, the moisture content will drop with height to a
much lower equilibrium value in the free air, at some level achieving the optimum value for
rot growth. Thus, the most likely level of failure will be just above the water level, or, in the
equivalent case of fence posts, the ground level. If the post is supported above the water, or
the ground level, avoiding permanent contact with water, the use class drops from 4 to 3.

4.1.6 Preservatives
The selection and specification of wood preservatives for wood is outside the scope of this guide.
Recommendations will be found in BS 8417 (BSI, 2011), which takes into account the use class,
the likelihood and consequences of failure, the desired service life, and the treatability of the
wood being used. Reference should be made to the WPA Manual (Wood Protection Association,
2012).

The chemicals, for obvious reasons, are generally toxic, and recent regulations have increasingly
restricted the use of some well-known preservatives such as creosote and copper chrome arsenic
(CCA).

32
 Chapter 4. Durability

4.2. Resistance to corrosion

This clause gives examples of the minimum specification for the corrosion protection of metal
fastener components, varying from no treatment to zinc coatings to the use of stainless steel.
When specified, the majority of fasteners such as nails and screws are supplied in austenitic
stainless steel, for its combination of corrosion resistance and ductility, in grades A2 (‘A’ for
austenitic) and A4 (formerly grades 302 and 316). The latter is more expensive, but is genuinely
‘stainless’. A2 steel will stain to some degree in moist conditions, but will not lose profile.

Table 4.1 gives examples of minimum specifications for material protection against corrosion
protection for fasteners, and as stated in Appendix A the proposal is to replace note a in the
table with the revised statement given in the appendix.

REFERENCES
BSI (1994) BS EN 350-2: 1994, Durability of wood and wood-based products. Natural durability
of solid wood. Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance
in Europe.
BSI (2006) BS EN 335-1: 2006, Durabiltity of wood and wood-based products. Definitions of use
classes. General. BSI, London.
BSI (2011) BS 8417: 2011, Preservation of wood. Code of practice. BSI, London.
WPA (2012) WPA Manual: Industrial Wood Preservation – Specification and Practice, 2nd edn.
WPA, Castleford.

33