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How Diamonds Work

by Kevin Bonsor

On your next trip to the local shopping mall, stop by one of the jewelry stores. Notice the
diamond jewelry that takes up the majority of the showcase, and the number of people
hovering over the counters trying to pick out a diamond for their loved one. There will surely
be a salesperson explaining the "4 Cs" -- cut, clarity, carat and color -- to a young shopper,
and explaining why one diamond is better than the one right next to it. Why all the fuss over
diamonds?

Photo courtesy Smithsonian Institution/Chip Clark

The Hooker Diamond necklace, earrings and ring on display at the
National Museum of Natural History

Diamonds are just carbon in its most concentrated form. That's it -- carbon, the element that
makes up 18 percent of the weight of your body. In many countries, including the United
States and Japan, there is no other gemstone as cherished as the diamond, but in truth,
diamonds are no more rare than many other precious gems. They continue to demand higher
market prices because the majority of the diamond market is controlled by a single entity.

In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we will track a diamond from the time it is formed to when it
reaches the Earth's surface. We will also examine the artificial rarity created by the diamond
cartel, De Beers, and briefly discuss the properties of these gems.

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The Origin of Diamonds

Carbon is one of the most common elements in the world, and is one of the four essentials for
the existence of life. Humans are more than 18 -percent carbon. The air we breathe contains
traces of carbon. When occurring in nature, carbon exists in three basic forms:

? Diamond - an extremely hard, clear crystal

? Graphite - A soft, black mineral made of pure carbon. The molecular structure is not as
compact as diamond's, which makes it weaker than diamond.
? Fullerite - A mineral made of perfectly spherical molecules consisting of exactly 60
carbon atoms. This allotrope was discovered in 1990.

Diamonds form about 100 miles (161 km) below the Earth's Archean Cratons
surface, in the molten rock of the Earth's mantle, which provides Temperatures can reach 1,652
the right amounts of pressure and heat to transform carbon into a F (900 C) in Archean cratons.
diamond. In order for a diamond to be created, carbon must be These are common places for
placed under at least 435,113 pounds per square inch (psi or 30 diamonds to form. Archean
cratons are stable, horizontal
kilobars) of pressure at a temperature of at least 752 degrees geological formations created
Fahrenheit (400 Celsius). If conditions drop below either of these billions of years ago that have
two points, graphite will be created. At depths of 93 miles (150 been unaffected by major
km) or more, pressure builds to about 725,189 psi (50 kilobars) tectonic events, according to
and heat can exceed 2,192 F (1,200 C). Rex Diamond Mining Corp.
These cratons are found in the
center of most of the seven
continents (most tectonic
activity takes place around the
edges).

Most diamonds that we see today were formed millions (if not billions) of years ago. Powerful
magma eruptions brought the diamonds to the surface, creating kimberlite pipes. Kimberlite
is named after Kimberly, South Africa, where these pipes were first found. Most of these

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eruptions occurred between 1,100 million and 20 million years ago.

Kimberlite pipes are created as magma flows through deep

fractures in the Earth. The magma inside the kimberlite pipes Space Diamonds
acts like an elevator, pushing the diamonds and other rocks and Diamonds are not exclusive to
Earth. Scientists believe that
minerals through the mantle and crust in just a few hours. These diamonds may one day be
eruptions were short, but many times more powerful than found on the moon. Samples of
volcanic eruptions that happen today. The magma in these rock brought back from the
eruptions originated at depths three times deeper than the moon indicate that carbon is 10
magma source for volcanoes like Mount St. Helens, according to times more abundant in the
Earth's crust than the moon's,
the American Museum of Natural History. according to the Artemis
Project, a group whose goal is
The magma eventually cooled inside these kimberlite pipes, to establish a permanent moon
leaving behind conical veins of kimberlite rock that contain community. But this group
diamonds. Kimberlite is a bluish rock that diamond miners look believes that there may be
diamonds under the moon's
for when seeking out new diamond deposits. The surface area of surface that Apollo astronauts
diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes ranges from 2 to 146 hectares were unable to detect.
(5 to 361 acres).
There is also some scientific
Diamonds may also be found in river beds, which are called evidence that diamonds may be
alluvial diamond sites. These are diamonds that originate in found in larger abundance on
Neptune and Uranus. Neptune
kimberlite pipes, but get moved by geological activity. Glaciers and Uranus contain a lot of the
and water can also move diamonds thousands of miles from their hydrocarbon gas methane.
original location. Today, most diamonds are found in Australia, Researchers at the University

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Borneo, Brazil, Russia and several African countries, including of California, Berkeley, have
South Africa and Zaire. shown that focusing a laser
beam on pressurized liquid
methane can produce diamond
Diamonds are found as rough stones and must be processed to dust. Neptune and Uranus
create a sparkling gem that is ready for purchase. In the next contain about 10-percent to 15-
section, you will learn how a diamond is cut and polished. percent methane under an
outer atmosphere of hydrogen
and helium. Scientists think that
Diamond Properties this methane could possibly
As mentioned before, diamonds are the crystallized form of turn to diamond at fairly shallow
carbon created under extreme heat and pressure. It's this same depths. Click here to learn more
about the Berkeley experiment.
process that makes diamonds the hardest mineral we know of. A
diamond ranks a 10 on the Mohs Hardness Scale (see below). It can be anywhere from 10
to hundreds of times harder than a mineral ranked nine on the Mohs scale, such as
corundum. Corundum is a class of minerals that includes rubies and sapphires.

It is the molecular structure of diamonds that makes them so hard. Diamonds are made of
carbon atoms linked together in a lattice structure. Each carbon atom shares electrons with
four other carbon atoms, forming a tetrahedral unit. This tetrahedral bonding of five carbons
forms an incredibly strong molecule. Graphite, another form of carbon, isn't as strong as
diamond because the carbon atoms in graphite link together in rings, where each atom is only
linked to one other atom.

Diamonds are cut along planes of weaknesses to create the

shape and facets of the diamonds we see in the jewelry store.

There are special techniques that are used to cut and shape a diamond before it gets to the

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jewelry store. Diamond cutting creates the facets that you see in the diagram above. Diamond
cutters use these four basic techniques:

1. Cleaving - In order to remove any impurities or irregularities in the diamond, a rough

diamond is placed in quick-drying cement. A sharp groove is then carved into the
diamond, using another diamond or a laser, along planes of weakness. Then, a steel
blade is placed in the groove and a sharp blow to the blade splits the stone. It is then
removed from the cement.

2. Sawing - Sometimes, diamonds have to be cut against a cleavage plane, which cannot
be done with cleaving. Using a phosphor -bronze blade rotating at about 15,000 rpm, the
saw slowly cuts through the diamond. Lasers are also being used to saw diamonds.

3. Bruting - The diamond is placed in a lathe, and another diamond in the lathe is rubbed
against it to create the rough finish of the girdle, the outside rim of the diamond at the
point of largest diameter.

4. Polishing - To give the diamond its finished look, it is placed onto the arm above a
rotating polishing wheel. The wheel is coated with diamond powder that smoothes the
diamond as it is pressed against the wheel.

Diamonds are judged on several factors that determine their beauty. Most diamonds never
reach the consumer market because they are too flawed. Often, these diamonds are used for
industrial purposes -- as an abrasive, for drill bits or for cutting diamonds and other gems. If
you've ever purchased a diamond, you've heard of the "4 Cs:"

1. Cut - This refers to how the diamond has been cut and its geometric proportions. When
a diamond is cut, facets are created and the diamond's finished shape is determined.

2. Clarity - This is the measurement of a diamond's flaws, or inclusions that are seen in
the diamond. Clarity levels begin with Flawless and moved down to Very Very Slight
(VVS), Very Slight (VS) and Slightly Included (SI).

3. Carat - This is the weight of a diamond. One carat is equal to about 200 milligrams.

4. Color - In referring to transparent diamonds, the color scale runs from D to Z, beginning
with Icy White -- the color of the most expensive diamonds -- and ending with a light
yellow.

Other unique qualities of the diamond include its transparency, luster and dispersion of
light. A diamond that is created from 100-percent carbon will be completely transparent.
Diamonds often contain other elements that can affect the color. Although we often think of
diamonds as being clear, there are also blue, red, black, pale green, pink and violet
diamonds. These colored diamonds are the truly rare ones.

The Mohs Scale

The Mohs Scale is used to determine the hardness of solids,
especially minerals. It is named after the German mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs. The scale reads as follows, from softest to

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hardest:

1. Talc - easily scratched by the fingernail

2. Gypsum - just scratched by the fingernail
3. Calcite - scratches and is scratched by a copper coin
4. Fluorite - not scratched by a copper coin and does not
scratch glass
5. Apatite - just scratches glass and is easily scratched by a
knife
6. Orthoclase - easily scratches glass and is just scratched
by a file
7. Quartz (amethyst, citrine, tiger's-eye, aventurine) - not
scratched by a file
8. Topaz - scratched only by corundum and diamond
9. Corundum (sapphires and rubies) - scratched only by
diamond
10. Diamond - scratched only by another diamond

Source: Kingzett's Chemical Encyc.

A Perception of Rarity
Diamonds are made in the molten magma deep inside the Earth. Only nature can create
diamonds, but it is people who have created the artificial rarity that has spurred demand for
these gems. Carbon is one of the most common elements in the world, and diamonds are a
form of carbon. Naturally occurring diamonds are no more rare than many other precious
gems. The truly rare transparent diamonds are those rated as flawless, meaning that they
don't have the slightest imperfection.

Photo courtesy Smithsonian Institution

Some diamonds, like the Hope Diamond (pictured here), are
extremely rare. However, most diamonds are much more
abundant than we are led to believe.

Diamonds were not always so popular with the American public, and they were not always so

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pricey. A diamond placed in a mounting on a ring has a markup of about 100 percent to 200
percent. The only reason why we pay so much more for diamonds today than for other
precious gems is because the diamond market is controlled almost entirely by a single
diamond cartel, called De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., which is based in South Africa.

De Beers stockpiles diamonds mined from countries around the world and releases a limited
number of diamonds for sale each year. De Beers produces half of the world's diamond's
supply and controls about two -thirds of the entire world market, according to a Washington
Post report. At times, just to keep prices up, De Beers has bought tremendous numbers of
diamonds from countries attempting to inject large quantities into the market. If De Beers were
a U.S.-based company, it would be in violation of antitrust laws for fixing the prices of
diamonds.

The secret to De Beers' success is a marketing campaign that convinces women that they
should receive a diamond ring from their fiancee and convinces young men to pay "two-
months salary" for that ring to show how much their love is worth. Prior to the 1930s, diamond
rings were rarely given as engagement rings. Opals, rubies, sapphires and turquoise were
deemed much more exotic gems to give as tokens of one's love, according to the book
"Twenty Ads that Shook the World," by James B. Twitchell. Twitchell goes on to describe how
De Beers changed the world diamond market.

This idea of connecting diamonds to romance was captured in a brilliant ad campaign begun
in the 1940s, causing demand for diamonds to increase. Surely you've heard the De Beers
advertisement telling you that "A Diamond is Forever." This ad campaign, which was
created by the N.W. Ayer advertising agency in 1947, changed the diamond market. In 2000,
Advertising Age magazine named the ad campaign the slogan of the 20th century. De Beers
infiltrated Japan with the same ad campaign in the 1960s, and the Japanese public bought
into the idea as much as the Americans did.

Later ads by De Beers told consumers to hold onto their family's diamond jewelry and to
cherish them as heirlooms -- and it worked. This eliminated the aftermarket for diamonds,
which further enabled De Beers to control the market. Without people selling their diamonds
back to jewelers or to other people, the demand for new diamonds increased.

There are fewer than 200 people or companies authorized to buy rough diamonds from De
Beers. These people are called sightholders, and they purchase the diamonds through the
Central Selling Organization (CSO), a subsidiary of De Beers that markets about 70 percent
to 80 percent of the world's diamonds. De Beers sells a parcel of rough diamonds to a
sightholder, who in turn sends the diamonds to cutting facilities and then to distributors.

There are rough diamonds sold outside the CSO. These diamonds come from small
producers in Australia, Russia and some African countries. The cost of these diamonds is still
largely influenced by the prices set by the CSO.

Diamonds are the most coveted of all precious gems, as is witnessed by the extremely high
demand for them. While this has not always been the case, diamonds are nonetheless
exquisite gems that go through a long, tedious refining process from the time they are pulled
from the ground to when you see them in the jewelry store. And, while some of the mystique
of diamonds may be gone -- they're just carbon, after all -- the diamond will likely continue to
be a highly coveted jewel, because, well, "A Diamond is Forever."

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Famous Diamonds
? The Cullinan - This is the largest diamond ever found. This 3,106-carat diamond was
found in 1905 in Transvaal, South Africa. In 1907, the diamond was presented to King
Edward VII of England. Later, the diamond was cut into nine major stones, including the
530.20-carat Star of Africa diamond that is set in the Royal Scepter displayed in the
Tower of London. Click here for a picture.

? The Hope Diamond - Possibly the most famous diamond in America, this 45.52-carat
diamond is on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C.

Photo courtesy Smithsonian Institution

Its history dates back to the 1600s, when it was originally a 112.1875-carat diamond. In
1668, it was purchased by King Louis XIV, of France. It is believed to have been
originally found in the Kollur mine in Golconda, India. The diamond was recut in 1673,
creating a smaller 67.125-carat stone. Click here to learn more about the Hope
Diamond's history.

? The Excelsior - Perhaps the second-largest diamond ever found, the Excelsior was
found in 1893 in South Africa. The original stone weighed about 995 carats. In 1904, I.J.
Asscher and Company of Amsterdam cut the Excelsior into 21 polished stones weighing
between 1 and 70 carats. Click here for a picture.

? The Great Mogul - Believed to be the third-largest uncut diamond ever found, it was
discovered around 1650. Its original size is said to have been 787.50 carats, but it was
cut to just 280 carats. The diamond is named for Shah Jehan, who built the Taj Mahal.
After the diamond was cut, he fired the cutter for doing such a poor job. Mysteriously,
the whereabouts of the Great Mogul diamond are unknown today. Click here for a
picture.

For more information on diamonds and related topics, check out the links on the next page.

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Lots More Information!

Related HowStuffWorks Articles

? What are the "four Cs" that people talk about when buying a diamond?
? How does a "carat" relate to a "karat"?
? How Moissanite Jewels Work
? How Volcanoes Work
? How Carbon-14 Dating Works

More Great Links

? The Nature of Diamonds - American Museum of Natural History

? The Diamond Invention
? New York Times: Africa's Diamond Wars
? The Washington Post: Diamond Trade's Tragic Flaw
? World Diamond Council
? NOVA: The Science Behind the Sparkle
? Scientific American: Microdiamonds
? It's Raining Diamonds on Neptune and Uranus

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http://www.howstuffworks.com/diamond.htm/printable 5/6/2002