Written Report

in
Earth Science
Topic: Astronomical Tools

Submitted By:
Zildjian E. California
Jose Manuel Romero
John Benedict Durain
Philip Adrian Guno
Richelle May Arreza
Xavier Dwight Mendoza

Submitted To:

Sir John Ryan Hijastro

Teacher
I. Astronomical Tools
A. Identify the Components of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
B. Differentiate the Different Types of Telescopes
C. Interpret the Different Measurements for Astronomical Distances
D. Explain How Pollution Affects Seeing of Celestial Objects
 Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets,
comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere
(such as the cosmic background radiation). As such, in order to appreciate more the
study of celestial objects, unprecedented set of tools are necessary for exploring the
universe.

A. Components of Electromagnetic Spectrum:

Parts of EM

Radio waves
• Have the longest wavelengths in the EM spectrum, according to NASA,
ranging from about 0.04 inches (1 mm) to more than 62 miles (100km)
• Have the lowest frequencies, from about 3,000 cycles per second, or 3
kilohertz, up to about 300 billion hertz, or 300 gigahertz.
• Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of radio waves in the late 1880s.
• Best-known for their use in communication technologies, such as television,
mobile phones and radios.
Microwaves
• Waves with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter
(frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz).
• They are distinguished from radio waves because of the technologies used to
access them.
• Microwaves are the highest-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be
produced by currents in macroscopic circuits and devices.
• They are a component of electromagnetic radiation generated by thermal
agitation. The thermal motion of atoms and molecules in any object at a
temperature above absolute zero causes them to emit and absorb radiation.
Infrared
• electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light,
extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 0.74
micrometers (µm) to 1 mm.
• has a frequency range of approximately 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• "Near Infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible lightal.
• "Far Infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum and its thermal.
Visible Light
• has very short wavelengths, less than one millionth of a meter.
 • If you shine a white light through a prism, the light spreads out to make a
range of different colors, with different wavelengths, called a spectrum.
• can directly travel through space in the form of waves.
• the only type of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen by the naked eye.
Ultraviolet Rays
• has shorter wavelengths than visible light.
• Though these waves are invisible to the human eye, some insects can see
them.
• Scientists have divided the ultraviolet part of the spectrum into three regions:
the near ultraviolet, the far ultraviolet, and the extreme ultraviolet.
• The three regions are distinguished by how energetic the ultraviolet radiation
is, and by the "wavelength" of the ultraviolet light, which is related to energy.
a. The near ultraviolet, abbreviated NUV, is the light closest to optical
or visible light.
b. The extreme ultraviolet, abbreviated EUV, is the ultraviolet light
closest to X-rays, and is the most energetic of the three types.
c. The far ultraviolet, abbreviated FUV, lies between the near and
extreme ultraviolet regions.
• Presence of UV rays allows us to study stars and galaxies by studying the UV
light they give off.
X-rays
• waves with wavelengths in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers and energies
in the range of 100 eV to 100 keV.
• Because X-rays have very high energy they are known as ionizing radiation
and can harm living tissue.
• X-rays are broken up into broad two categories: hard X-rays with energies
• above 5-10 keV (below 0.2-0.1 nm wavelength) and soft X-rays with energies
100 eV – 5 keV (10 – 0.1 nm wavelength).
• Hard X-rays are more useful for radiography because they pass through
tissue.
Gamma Rays
• highest energy EM radiation and typically have energies greater than 100
keV, frequencies greater than 10 19 Hz, and wavelengths less than 10
picometers.
• Gamma rays have characteristics identical to X-rays of the same frequency—
they differ only in source.
• Gamma rays are usually distinguished by their origin:
• X-rays are emitted by definition by electrons outside the nucleus, while
gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.
 • Gamma rays are ionizing radiation and are, thus, biologically hazardous.

B. Different Types of Telescopes:

1. Refractor Telescopes

• They are built with lenses that refract light and send it along a focal path
within the telescope tube.
• An eyepiece captures the light at its focal point, creating the image you see
within.
• They have 4 types of refractor scopes.

2. Achromatic Telescopes

• They gather light at every wavelength, but not all wavelengths have the same
focal length inside the telescope tube, thus, creating a chromatic aberration --
a sort of fuzziness around the outside of the object you’re viewing as the light
waves scatter toward the edges.
• They use a special lens made by combining Flint glass and Crown glass to
achieve different light dispersion, correcting these aberrations.
3. Apochromatic Telescopes

• Like an achromatic telescope, an apochromatic telescope uses a special lens

to correct chromatic aberration.
• The apochromatic lens differs in that it disperses three wavelengths at a time
instead of two.
• While apochromats contain the same glass as the achromatic lens, they
typically also contain liquid between the lenses for added dispersion.

4. Superachromat Telescopes

• Like the apochromatic and achromatic lenses, a superachromat corrects

aberrations by bringing different colors into focus at the same time.
• The superachromat is quartic, meaning it disperses four colors
simultaneously.
• These highly fine-tuned lenses are built with expensive fluorite glass to
achieve the best type of image correction.

5. Galileoscopes

• An inexpensive telescope produced for the 2009 International Year of

Astronomy, a Galileoscope is a refractor scope built to bring astronomy to the
masses.
• It is versatile enough to use with various eyepieces to enhance magnification,
and economical enough for kids and amateur enthusiasts.
• Its narrow field of view and 17x magnification are meant to parallel the kind of
telescope Galileo would have used, in effect harnessing the astronomy of the
past to bring new interest to the field.
• The best part is, they come in a kit so you can build them yourself.
6. Keplerian Telescopes

• Invented in 1611 by Johannes Kepler, the Keplerian telescope uses convex

lenses to widen the field of view from Galileo’s concave lens prototype.
• While Kepler’s invention meant higher magnification strength for telescopes, it
also inverted the image.

7. Reflector Telescopes

• A reflector telescope is built with mirrors that elongate the focal path of the
light entering it.
• This style was invented by Sir Isaac Newton in the 1680s and became
popular due to its enhanced image clarity.

8. Newtonian Reflector

• Isaac Newton’s original invention from 1668, and the basis for most reflector
telescopes developed since.
 • Light enters through a parabolic or spherical primary mirror, which bounces
the light back up the telescope to a secondary plane mirror, when then sends
the light to the eyepiece at a 90-degree angle.
• Because they are optically “fast,” they tend to be much shorter than a
refractor.
• The absence of lenses also solves the problem of chromatic aberration.

9. Cassegrain reflector telescopes

• A Cassegrain reflector telescope uses a series of concave and convex mirrors

to fold the light path to enhance its focal length and improve magnification.
• A hole in the center of the primary, parabolic mirror sends light to the
eyepiece.

10. Liquid Mirror telescope

• Instead of a glass mirror, a liquid mirror telescope uses a rotating dish of

highly reflective liquid, usually mercury.
• The rotation causes a parabola effect in the liquid’s surface, which reflects
light onto a non-liquid mirror for viewing.
• This method is used to create a telescope both quickly and inexpensively.

11. Three-Mirror Anastigmat Telescopes

• This type of telescope contains three parabolic mirrors that help correct
aberrations such as spherical, astigmatism, and coma:
 the first mirror will correct any spherical aberrations on its
own
 adding a second and third mirror eliminate the other two
aberrations.
 Together, they widen the field of view and provide a
clearer image.

12. Catadioptric Telescopes

 • The marriage of catoptric and dioptric (refractor and reflector) engineering is
the catadioptric telescope.
• This combination is the best of both worlds, providing mirrors and lenses that
better correct aberrations and provide a wider field of view.
• Their method of folding the light path within the telescope tube means faster
optics and a shorter device.

13. Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescopes

• A catadioptric telescope that uses spherical mirrors and corrector plates to

prevent spherical aberration.
• Their focal path is long, but their field of view is narrow, perfect for observing
planets or for deep-sky viewing.
• Most catadioptric telescopes are derivatives of the Schmidt-Cassegrain
telescope, or SCT.

14. Lensless Schmidt Telescopes

• A telescope used for astrophotography.

• Containing a spherical primary mirror and Schmidt corrector, the device sends
light to a focal point where it is captured by film.
• They have a wide field of view and are often used to track satellites, comets,
and asteroids.

15. Infrared Telescopes

 • Infrared telescopes must be in a dry, high altitude environment to detect
infrared space radiation without interference.
• These telescopes are used to gather information about our universe’s history.
• Because light travels for so long before it reaches Earth, it has had time to
become detectable infrared radiation.
• This radiation dates back to the beginning of the universe, providing insights
into the vast history of the cosmos.

16. Ultraviolet Telescopes

• Ultraviolet telescopes can tell us a lot about the physical components of

distant planets and stars.
• They pull UV light apart into a spectrum so that brightness can be measured
at each wavelength.
• This reveals the presence of elements, an object’s density, and temperature.
• These telescopes require precision lens coating and smoothness to be
effective, and because Earth’s ozone filters out UV rays, they must be
mounted to satellites above the ozone layer.

17. X-Ray Telescopes

• X-ray telescopes were invented to observe the effects of huge explosions,

collapsed neutron stars, and black holes as extremely hot objects in the
universe radiate X-rays.
• These telescopes tend to be barrel-shaped in order to harness the ricochet
effect of X-rays when they strike a mirror.
• To detect this unfiltered radiation, X-ray telescopes must also be mounted on
satellites.

C. Different Measurements for Astronomical Distances

Astronomical units – or AU
• Used to describe solar system distances and solar system objects.
• One astronomical unit (AU) represents the mean distance between the Earth
and our sun.
• An AU is approximately 93 million miles (150 million km).
• It is approximately 8 light-minutes.
• More exactly, one astronomical unit (AU) = 92,955,807 miles (149,597,871
km).
Light-year
• It is a unit of distance; a distance that light travels in one Earth year
• Space objects use light-years to describe their distance.
 • One light-year is about 6 trillion miles (9 trillion km).
• It moves at a velocity of about 300,000 kilometers (km) each second, and in
one year, it can travel about 10 trillion km.
• More precisely, one light-year is equal to 9,500,000,000,000 kilometers.
A parsec
• It is a unit of distance equal to about 19 trillion miles (more than 30 trillion km).
• It is equal to 3.3 light years
• One parsec is defined as the distance to a star that shifts by one arcsecond
from one side of Earth’s orbit to the other.
• Used to describe distances to other parts of the Milky Way Galaxy (or even
further)
• It is more keenly used by astronomers when they go about the business of
figuring out the size of the universe, as a kilometer is just too small to be
useful
Example:
• The distance to the next nearest big galaxy, the
Andromeda Galaxy, is 21 quintillion km.
• That's 21,000,000,000,000,000,000 km.
• This is a number so large that it becomes hard to write
and hard to interpret.
• So, astronomers use other units of distance, such as the
parsec.
To illustrate and find the distance to a nearby star, astronomers use triangulation.

One parsec is the distance to an object whose parallax angle is one arcsecond.
• The term parsec is just over 100 years old.
• It first appeared in a 1913 paper by English astronomer Sir Frank Watson
Dyson, and the term stuck.
• If you see a star with 1/2 arcsecond of parallax, it is two parsecs away.
• At 1/3 arcsecond, it is three parsecs away. And so on.

D. Light Pollution

• Also known as photo pollution or luminous pollution, is the excessive,

misdirected or invasive use of artificial outdoor lighting
• Brightening of the night sky caused by streetlights and other man-made
sources
Cause of light pollution
• Using outdoor lights when and where they are not necessary
 • Poorly designed residential, commercial, and industrial outdoor lights

Types of light pollution

1. Light Trespass
• Also known as spill light
• Occurs when a light fixture casts illumination beyond the property lines,
unintentionally illuminating other homes, businesses, or areas.
Example:
Light from a streetlight coming through a window and
illuminating a bedroom
2.Glare
• Glare is the visual sensation one experiences when stray light, light in
the visual field, is greater than the light to which the eyes are adapted.
• Glare, depending on the intensity, can result in reduced contrast, color
perception, and visual performance.
Types of Glare
a. Discomfort Glare
• Discomfort glare is also known as psychological
glare, and is the most common type of glare.
• Psychological glare occurs when lighting causes
annoyance or irritation, but does not decrease
visual performance and physical discomfort is
short term.
b. Disability Glare
• Disability glare, also known as veiling glare, occurs
when stray light scatters in the eye, producing a
veil over the retina, affecting visual performance.
• Veiling glare reduces contrast as well as color and
spatial perception, which can lead to unsafe
driving conditions.
c. Blinding Glare
• Blinding glare, also known as absolute glare or
dazzle, occurs when a light source impairs the field
of vision.
3. Sky Glow
• Sky glow occurs when light is emitted directly into the atmosphere,
accidently or purposefully, where it is scattered by dust and gas
molecules, creating a dome-like orange glow that covers the night sky.
• The glow reduces the contrast between the stars and the galaxies in
the sky, making celestial objects difficult to see even with a telescope.
Light domes also affect the polarization of moonlight, which nocturnal
animals use to navigate.

4. Light Clutter
• Light clutter is the excessive grouping of bright lights that cause
confusion and distract from oncoming or surrounding objects.
• Light clutter is visible on roads surrounded by unshielded streetlights
and brightly lit advertisements or signs.
Effect of Light Pollution to Astronomy
• Light pollution alters our view of the sky and stars
• Light spill and sky glow interfere with astronomical equipment, and makes
viewing faint celestial bodies difficult even with the aid of a telescope.

Assessment:

Our research regarding Astronomy Tools is breathtaking.

The group was able to successfully name the Components of the

Electromagnetic Spectrum, enumerate the Different Types of Telescopes, and
Interpret the Different Measurements for Astronomical Distances and their proper
applicability depending on how far away a distance to be measured or described
from other parts of the Milky Way Galaxy and even further.

Finally, the group was able to Explain How Pollution Affects Seeing of
Celestial Objects. It’s interesting and amazing!
_____________________________
References:
• https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/astronomy.htm
• Astronomical-Tools-group 1
• astronomical-tools
• https://opticsmag.com/types-of-telescopes/
• Light Pollution: Meaning of Light Pollution by Lexico. (n.d.). Retrieved March
15, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/definition/light_pollution
• Bermudez, M. (n.d.). How Does Outdoor Lighting Cause Light Pollution?
Retrieved March 15, 2020, from
https://www.delmarfans.com/educate/basics/lighting-pollution/