Ancient History Notes

YUVRAJ IAS
GIST OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF

INDIA
A Quick Way To Cover And Revise The
Syllabus
FOR UPSC CIVIL SERVICES PREPARATION

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Contents
1. Prehistoric age in India.......................................................................................................... 2
2. Indus Valley Civilization ......................................................................................................... 5
3. Indus Valley Settlement Razed ............................................................................................ 16
4. Indus Valley Civilization – Art & Culture .............................................................................. 17
5. Facts about Rig Veda........................................................................................................... 20
6. Vedic Civilization ................................................................................................................. 20
7. Persian And Greek Invasions Of India .................................................................................. 23
8. Rise & Growth Of Magadha Empire ..................................................................................... 24
9. Gautam Buddha – Life & Teachings ..................................................................................... 28
10. Buddhist Councils And Important Texts ............................................................................... 29
11. Jainism – Vardhaman Mahavira .......................................................................................... 31
12. The Mauryan Empire........................................................................................................... 34
13. Mauryan Administration ..................................................................................................... 35
14. Ashoka – Life & Dhamma .................................................................................................... 37
15. The Edicts Of Ashoka........................................................................................................... 39
16. Mauryan Empire: Reasons For Decline ................................................................................ 42
17. Sunga Dynasty .................................................................................................................... 44
18. Satavahana Dynasty – Post Mauryan Period........................................................................ 45
19. The Indo-Greek Rule ........................................................................................................... 47
20. The Sakas ............................................................................................................................ 49
21. Kushana Empire – Origin, Kings, Significance & Decline ....................................................... 50
22. Gupta Empire...................................................................................................................... 52
23. Legacy And Decline Of The Gupta Empire............................................................................ 54
24. Harshavardhana.................................................................................................................. 56
25. The Pallavas ........................................................................................................................ 58
26. Pallava Culture And Architecture......................................................................................... 60
27. Chalukya Dynasty – Rulers, Administration, Art & Architecture ........................................... 61
28. The Pala Empire .................................................................................................................. 64
29. The Vakataka Dynasty ......................................................................................................... 65
1 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Prehistoric age in India
Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used
by people then.
1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC

2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC
3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC – 4000 BC
4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC – 1500 BC
5. Iron Age: 1500 BC – 200 BC
Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)

This is further divided into three:
1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC
Lower Palaeolithic age
 Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
 Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra.
 Limestone was also used to make tools

 Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
 Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
 sites in the Thar Desert
 Kashmir
 Mewar plains
 Saurashtra
 Gujarat
 Central India
 Deccan Plateau
 Chotanagpur plateau
 North of the Cauvery River
 Belan valley in UP
 There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters
 It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2003
 An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

Middle Palaeolithic age
 Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.

 The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner

Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
Belan valley in UP
 Luni valley (Rajasthan)
 Son and Narmada rivers
 Bhimbetka
Upper Palaeolithic age
 Emergence of Homo sapiens

 Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and
burin tools.
 Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
 Belan
 Son
 Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
 Maharashtra
 Orissa and
 Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
 Paintings at Bhimbetka site belong to this age.
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
 Major climate change happened.

 Climate became warmer and more humid.
 Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna.
 Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time.
 Started 12000 years ago.
 First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
 Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
 Hunting and food gathering continued.
 First human colonization of the Ganga plains.
 Microliths have been excavated.
 They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used
as saws and sickles.
 Major sites:
 Brahmagiri (Mysore)
 Narmada
 Vindhya
 Gujarat
 UP
 Sojat (Rajasthan)

 Bhimbetka
 Godavari Basin
 Sarai Nahar Rai
 Tools used were blades, crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives,
arrowheads, sickles, harpoons and daggers.
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
 Starting of agriculture
 Moving from nomadic to settled life
 Wheel discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated
 They knew to make fire
 Knew pottery
 Art was seen in cave paintings of dance

 Also show first intentional disposal of the dead
 Important sites:
 Inamgaon
 Burzahom (Kashmir)
 Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
 Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam)
 Hallur (AP)
 Paiyampalli (AP)
 Chirand (Bihar)
 Evidence of houses
Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age)

Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC – 1900 BC)
 Other settlements at
 Brahmagiri Navada Toli (Narmada region)
 Chirand (Ganga region) and
 Mahishadal (West Bengal)
Iron Age
 Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period

 Jainism, Buddhism
 Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river
Ganga after the Indus Valley.

Indus Valley Civilization
 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It

flourished between 2700 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley
Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around
1400 BC.
 This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated,
Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which
shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation.
 Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from
Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in
the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad
(Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have
also been found in as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
Indus Valley Civilisation important sites
 In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda

(Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab).
In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh),
Chanhudaro (in Sindh).
 The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under

Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery
of seals by J Fleet.
 Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram
Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats.
 Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E.
J. H. MacKay and Marshall.
 The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not
seen in other contemporary civilizations.
 Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the
lower town.
 Most cities had a Great Bath.
 There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed
drainage lines, excellent stormwater and waste water management system,
weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
 A large number of seals have been discovered.
 Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to
cultivate cotton.
 Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats and pigs.
 Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates and peas.

 Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
 Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin and
lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them.
 No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
 The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named
‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed
figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.
 Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated.
Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings and vessels.
 The civilization also was advanced in making art works. A statuette named
‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be
4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from
Mohenjodaro.
 Lothal was a dockyard.
 Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H
Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.
 The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
 Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established.
Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt
end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were
abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
 Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Aryan invasion led to the decline of the
Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked.
 Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the
decline.
 Lambrick suggests a change in the course of the river Indus caused its
decline.
 Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation and a
destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed
by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led
to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.
 New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.
Facts About Indus Valley Civilization

The Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and the Indus Valley Civilization, the four
great civilizations of the ancient world, the first three (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and
China) have been broadly studied and well-known to everyone. But the fourth
and of equal importance, the much more sophisticated Indus Valley Civilization
that flourished along the flood plains of Indus and Gaggar-Hakra is lost to
human memory and till date remains puzzling.
It was in the 20th century, the lost and forgotten Indus Valley Civilization was
rediscovered and acknowledged and given equal importance with the other three
civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China).

Here we bring some interesting facts about Indus Valley Civilization which
would important for UPSC Civil Services IAS Prelims Exam.
Fact# 1: Indus Valley Civilization was the largest among the other four
civilizations of the world (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China)
 The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over an area of 1,260,000 sq.
km over modern-India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan
 The civilization extended from Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to
Markran coast of Baluchistan in the west, from Afghanistan in the
northeastern to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.
Fact# 2: The Population of Indus Valley Civilization was over 5 million
 The civilization had over 5 million inhabitants.

 Most of the inhabitants of the civilization were artisans and traders.
Fact# 3: Nearly 1056 cities have been discovered
 1056 Harappan cities and settlements have been found

 of which 96 have been excavated
 Most of the settlements are mostly located in the broad region of the
Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
 The major urban centers are: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholaviral,
Ganeriawala and Rakhigarhi.
Fact# 4: Majority of the population lived in villages and it is not evident
 Majority of the population of Indus Valley Civilization lived in villages

 it is not evident as the villages may have been constructed of destructible
materials like mud or timber.
 Hence, it is difficult to find out the lifestyle and culture in these villages
which have been lost over a period of time without any trace.
Fact# 5: Scholars and archaeologists are uncertain about the naming
 Since the first settlement was discovered along the banks of river Indus,
the archaeologists named the civilization as Indus Valley
Civilization. But on contrary only around 100 sites have been found in
the Indus Valley, while over 500 sites are found along the Gaggar-Hakra
River (The present day Saraswati River).
 Most of the archaeologists prefer to call them as ‘Indus-Saraswati
Civilization’ based on the two river systems, while other prefer to name
them as Harappan Civilisation as the first settlement was discovered in
this city (Harappa).
And, according to some archaeologists, the sites along the Gaggar-Hakra River
are preserved as they lie in the uninhabited desert.

Fact# 6: The Indus Valley Civilization could be the Meluhha mentioned by
Mesopotamian scribes
 The Mesopotamian (Sumerian) scribes in the Middle Bronze Age refer

frequently to a place they call Meluhha. Meluhha was a prominent trading
partner of the Sumerians and they imported timber and ebony in high
volumes.
 Sesame oil and luxury items like lapis lazuli were also imported from
Meluhha, which was in all probability, the Indus Valley Civilization.
Fact# 7: Archaeologists first thought that they had stumbled upon cities of
children
 When the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were first discovered, a

large number of toys including dice, whistles and marbles were found.
 This led the archaeologists to think that the majority of the inhabitants of
those cities were children!
Fact# 8: The British used 4000-year old bricks from the Indus Valley
Civilization to lay down 93 miles of railway track
 In 1856, when the British were building the East Indian Railway Company
line from Karachi to Lahore, they faced a shortage of bricks.
 They took bricks from the nearby village of Harappa where they found
bricks from a ‘ruined city’.
 These 4000-year old bricks were used for the railway track stretching to 93
miles (150 km).
Fact# 9: World’s first planned cities were found in the Indus Valley Civilization
 The cities of the civilization were planned in grid patterns with streets
crossing at right angles.
 These marvels of urban planning were thousands of years older than the
period of Hippodamus of Miletus, considered the ‘father of European
urban planning’.
Fact# 10: The cities were not chaotic despite being densely populated
 The Indus Valley Civilization was a highly sophisticated civilization with

a much organised way of living.
 Despite being densely populated, the cities were not chaotic, unlike
contemporary cities of Mesopotamia or Egypt.
Fact# 11: They had advanced sanitation systems

 People of the Indus Valley Civilization knew about and implemented
channelling of water and the disposal of waste water way before any other
ancient civilization did.
 Even the Romans built aqueducts thousands of years later.
Fact# 12: The largest city was Mohenjo-Daro
 Mohenjo-Daro measuring an area of about 300 hectares was the largest

city.
 Mohenjo-Daro might have had a 40000-strong population.
 Allahdino was the smallest site in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Fact# 13: The oldest Indus Valley settlement was established around 7000 B.C.
 Mehrgarh is the oldest known settlement dating back to around 7000 B.C.
 It began during the Pre-Harappan period.
 Mehrgarh was a farming village.
Fact# 14: The cities and towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were
standardised
 Apart from being well-planned and having excellent drainage systems, the
Harappan cities and towns were also standardised.
 Almost all the places excavated are seen as having a similar structure and
pattern.
 Even the bricks of the houses had similar dimensions!
Fact# 15: Harappan towns had an interesting rectangular grid pattern
 The Indus Valley cities and towns had a rectangular grid pattern.
 The main streets were along the North-South direction and the secondary
streets were along the East-West direction.
 The streets intersected at right angles. This precise pattern is believed to be
owing to religious or astronomical beliefs.
Fact# 16: No congestion on the streets
 The streets found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were as wide as 10.5 m.

 The smaller roads were at least 1.5 m wide.
 Archaeologists believe that the wide streets point out to market activities
along them.

Fact# 17: The streets in Harappa were paved
 Harappan streets were paved with burnt bricks to facilitate the easy
movement of ox carts.
 The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had channels running along the
streets for the disposal of drainage water.
Fact# 18: There were distinct neighbourhoods in the cities
 The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization could be divided into distinct
neighbourhoods.
 Each neighbourhood had inhabitants who were engaged in a particular
profession.
Fact# 19: The city of Mohenjo-Daro was built at least 9 times
 Many of the cities of this civilization were destroyed several times by

flood, deposition of silts, etc.
 Each time they were rebuilt.
 What is amazing is that every time they rebuilt the cities, they employed
the same grid pattern.
 Mohenjo-Daro was constructed nine times and each time on top of the
earlier grid.
 This shows the sophistication in their urban planning.
Fact# 20: Harappa had very advanced granaries
 The granaries in Harappa used advanced technology that was seen in Rome
2800 years later.
 The sites also had citadels, bathing platforms and burial grounds.
Fact# 21: The Indus Valley Civilization used standard burnt bricks everywhere
 There were two types of bricks used in the Mature Harappa Period. One
measured 7 X 14 X 28 cm and the other measured 10 X 20 X 40 cm in size.
 The bigger bricks were used to construct public buildings.
 The smaller bricks were used to build houses.
 Both types of bricks followed the 1:2:4 ratio.
Fact# 22: Ratio 1:2:4 all the way
 The ratio 1:2:4 was not limited to bricks, but to all aspects.

 This ratio was followed in the houses, public structures, neighbourhood
regions and even the city.
 Historians do not know whether this standardization was owing to religious
beliefs or just a convention followed by the builders.
Fact# 23: Harappan houses were multi-storied buildings
 So advanced was their architecture and masonry that Harappa had two and
three-storied houses.
 These spacious houses had central courtyards and accessible flat terraces
too.
Fact# 24: The Indus Valley houses could keep off dust and noise
 None of the houses in the Indus Valley had windows facing the main
streets.
 The houses had only one door.
 All the windows and the door of the houses would open into the central
courtyard.
 Thus, they were strategically designed to avoid noise and dust.
Fact# 25: Houses with attached bathrooms
 Indus Valley civilization was perhaps the first in the world to have houses
with attached bathrooms.
 They also had access to running water.
 In addition, they had toilets with advanced drainage facilities.
Fact# 26: The world’s first rainwater harvesting was here
 The Harappan civilization had systems to store rainwater.

 They had complex and efficient water management systems.
 The world’s public water tank, named The Great Bath was found here.
 The city of Mohenjo-Daro also had a large water management system with
80 public toilets and about 700 wells.
 The wells were strategically placed to supply water to every locality.
Fact# 27: Every city had its own Great Bath
 Every city in the civilization had at least one Great Bath.

 It is believed that they might have had a religious purpose.
Fact# 28: Hygiene was top priority

 The people of the Indus Valley Civilization led a very hygienic, clean and
healthy life.
 The excavations reveal this fact.
 The large number of public baths, the excellent water management
system, running water in every house, neat drainage systems and the
underground wastewater systems all point out to the importance of
hygiene in Harappan life.
Fact# 29: Dustbins along the streets
 Even in those ancient times, the Indus Valley Civilization was way ahead
of its time in terms of civic sense.
 There were dustbins placed along the streets in Mohenjo-Daro!
 These were brick containers especially for garbage disposal.
Fact# 30: Separate channels for stormwater and wastewater
 So advanced was their water management system that they had separate
channels lining the Harappan streets for wastewater and storm water
(rainwater).
 The wastewater drains were underground, and had opening terracotta lids
for cleaning purposes!
Fact# 31: Indus Valley had large-scale maritime trade relations with other
civilizations
 Many port-cities have been unearthed which proves the existence of

large-scale maritime trade relations with other civilizations.
 Lothal could be the world’s first dockyard.
 Other ports include Allahdin, Suktagendor and Balakot.
Fact# 32: The Harappan cities had water-reservoirs
 At the Harappan city of Dholavira, 16 water reservoirs have been found.

 These reservoirs serve the twin purposes of protecting the city from
floods, and ensuring water supply throughout the year, even during dry
season.
 They built dams that could control the flow of water and be stored in
huge reservoirs.
Fact# 33: The Indus Valley Civilization was good in metallurgy

 They produced metal products including those in lead, copper, bronze and
tin.
 They exported these products.
 They knew the technique of smelting copper with other metals.
 Gold necklaces smaller than 0.25 mm in diameter have been excavated at
Lothal. Other metal artefacts have been found in Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa
and Rangpur.
 Harappan copper implements were made by the method of casting.
 Bronze vessels were made from a single sheet which was hammered.
 Metal alloying technology was well-developed in the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Fact# 34: The Indus Valley Civilization had precise measurement systems
 Stone cubes have been excavated from the sites of this civilization.
Archaeologists believe them to be weights for measurement.
 These weights increase in a ratio of 5:2:1. They had weights of 0.05, 0.1,
0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units.
 They are different from the system of measurement of Egypt and
Mesopotamia of that time, so it can be concluded that this system was
developed indigenously.
 The smallest division on a marking on an ivory scale was around 1.704 mm
found in Lothal, Gujarat. This is the smallest recorded division found from
the Bronze Age.
Fact# 35: They even tested the purity of gold by the touchstone technique
 A touchstone has been recovered from Banawali, Haryana.

 This touchstone has streaks of gold in it indicating that it was probably
used to assay the purity of gold.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country to this day.
Fact# 36: The Indus Valley Civilization even had dentists among them
 In 2006, Nature journal declared that the first evidence of drilling of the
human teeth in a live person was found in Mehrgarh, present Pakistan.
 This discovery was done in 2001 when eleven drilled molar crowns were
unearthed from a Neolithic grave in Mehrgarh dating between 5500 B.C.
and 7000 B.C.
 This remarkable discovery shows that people of the Indus Valley
Civilization had knowledge of proto-dentistry.
Fact# 37: They were the world’s earliest cotton cultivators

 The earliest traces of cotton in the world were found here. The earliest
evidence for the use of cotton was found in Mehrgarh dating back to the
sixth millennium B.C.
 The Indus Valley farmers were the first ones to spin and weave cotton.
 Cotton was also one of the export items.
Fact# 38: They had the world’s first buttons
 The world’s first buttons were found here dating back to 2800 – 2600 B.C.
 Buttons were made out of seashells and some of them had holes pierced in
them for them to be attached to clothes with threads.
 Buttons in the Indus Valley were used more for their ornamental value
rather than for utility.
Fact# 39: The world’s oldest signboard can be found here
 A board with stone symbols/letters over 30 cm in height in a wooden frame

was discovered at Dholavira in 1999.
 Archaeologists believe this was the world’s first signboard!
 It is thought to have been placed at the façade of the northern gate of the
city’s citadel.
Fact# 40: The Indus Valley people were playful
 Among the artefacts that have been found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro are
toys and games.
 They have unearthed cubical dice having one to six holes (quite like the
ones we have today)!
 Other toys include clay figures of bullock carts, spinning tops, marbles,
miniature pots and utensils, etc.
Fact# 41: They had exquisite art and craft
 Art and craft during the Indus Valley period were highly sophisticated.
 Their artefacts display a high level of achievement in terms of aesthetic
value and the technique used.
 Their ware includes terracotta, bronze, copper and other metals.
 They were also experts in bead-making.
 This is a very important discovery because it shows the expertise of the
Indus Valley civilization in metal blending and casting. It also signifies the
importance of dance as a form of entertainment in those times.
 Archaeologist Sir John Marshall (who discovered the Indus Valley
Civilization in a way) has remarked, “When I first saw them I found it
difficult to believe that they were prehistoric…”

 These wonderful pieces of art, made using the lost-wax casting process,
dated thousands of years before the Greeks
Fact# 42: Cause of decline: Unknown
 Historians are not sure what led to the decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
 Experts are now sure that it wasn’t invasion, disease or any other calamity
that caused their decline.
 The cities and settlements started declining gradually and they seemed to
have been abandoned by the inhabitants who might have migrated to
greener pastures.
 It is believed that the gradual drying up of the Saraswati River might have
led to this.
 The civilization did not come to an abrupt end but declined gradually and
got assimilated into other cultures.
Fact# 43: Over 4000 seals have been found from the sites
 These seals are small, rectangular stone slabs with inscriptions on them.
 They also have images of animals and other figures on them.
 The use of these seals is uncertain.
Fact# 44: The Indus Valley Script has still not been deciphered
 One of the reasons we don’t know much about this civilization is that their
script has not yet been deciphered.
 Around 400 different symbols have been identified inscribed in objects.
 They appear in strings of between 3 and 20.
 Historians believe they are probably names and don’t have any other
meaning.
Fact# 45: No depiction of any king or ruler
 Despite having an organised way of life, there is no depiction or evidence

of any ruler or any governing system for the Harappan civilization.
 The closest depiction to any kind of a central figure is a terracotta sculpture
believed to be that of a priest-king.
Fact# 46: No temples in the Indus Valley Civilization
 Archaeologists haven’t found any structure resembling a temple or a palace

or any monument.
 In fact, most other contemporary civilizations have some central
monuments.

 The absence of any palace or temple despite structures like granaries and
public baths led historians to believe that the Indus Valley society was an
egalitarian one.
Fact# 47: No evidence of warfare
 Although some weapons like spears, knives and arrow-heads have been
excavated from the sites, there is no evidence of warfare from the Indus
Valley Civilization.
 It is concluded that they were in general a peace-loving people.
 It is also possible that this was because they had no natural enemies and
the other settlements had good trade relations with them.
Fact# 48: There is no information about their political structure or religious

beliefs
 Not much is known about their political or religious life.

 It is believed that they might have worshipped a Mother Goddess in
addition to other male and female deities.
Indus Valley Settlement Razed
 A 5,000-year-old Indus Valley settlement located in Baghpat district of

Uttar Pradesh, stands abandoned and unprotected.
 The archaeological site, discovered in 1957 in Alamgirpur village of the
district, is regarded as one of the most historically significant finds in the
country as it showed for the first time evidence of habitation pertaining to
the Harappan period in the Upper Doab region between the Ganga and the
Yamuna.
 However, at present the settlement, which lies just 70 km from the national
capital, faces destruction by the villagers who have flattened the centuries-
old structures to expand their cultivable land.
 Worse, some of the villagers have built houses, memorials and temple-like
structures on top of the settlement, where excavations till last year had
given crucial insights about life and society during the Harappan period,
also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation.
 During excavations of the site which dates back to the Harappan period of
3300-1300 BC, the ASI archaeologists found ceramic items like roof tiles,
dishes, terracotta cakes and figurines of a humped bull and a snake. After
its discovery, the site was declared “protected.” But it is anything but that
now.
Indus Valley settlement razed to expand cultivable land

 “The settlement marks the eastern most limits of the Harappan culture and
belongs to the late Harappan phase, a period starting around 1900-1800 BC
when the Indus Valley Civilization, popularly known as the Harappan
Culture, began to decline,” he said.
 The civilization, which is known for its superior urban planning, is
believed to have flourished in the period between 3300 BC and 1300 BC
in what is today Pakistan, northwest India and parts of Afghanistan and
Balochistan.
 With the continued encroachment by the villagers, the overall area of the
protected settlement has been reduced from 28 bighas to just 6 bighas now.
 “It is true that the area is protected but the land rights of the place are still
with the farmers and the villagers cannot be stopped from farming on the
land.” The ASI, he said, was making efforts to ensure that there was no
further encroachment.
 “The farmers and villagers have in the last few years cut the mound and
reduced the protected area at a disturbing pace to increase their farming
land. I am afraid that important articles of the ancient heritage might have
already been destroyed,” he said.
 The ASI notice warns the inhabitants against any kind of construction
within a radius of 100 meters of the protected site. But the warning has
never been heeded.
Indus Valley Civilization – Art & Culture

Introduction
 Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium
BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC onwards).
 Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures,
etc.
 The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro
showcase excellent town planning as well, like houses, planned streets,
public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc.
 Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
 Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab),
Kalibangan and Balathal (Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat).
Stone statues
 Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest king) and a torso in
red sandstone.
 Bearded man (Priest)
1. Appears to be of a priest
2. A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation

4. Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers
5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.
Bronze casting
 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called
Lost Wax technique.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing
continuity of traditions.
 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
 First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay as
allowed to dry and then the figure was heated to melt the wax. This wax
was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was
filled with the metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay was
removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
 Both animal and human figures were made this way.
 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.
 Dancing Girl
1. 4 inch copper figure

2. Long hair tied in a bun
3. Left arm covered with bangles
4. Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
5. Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing
gesture
6. Large eyes and a flat nose
7. Found from Mohenjodaro.
Terracotta
 Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared
to the stone statues.
 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
 Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the
figures indicating perhaps the image of a god.
 Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen,
discs, birds and animals).
Seals
 Thousands of seals have been discovered.

 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
 Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience,
gold and ivory.
 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.

 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
 Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards.
 Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a pictographic
script (which is not yet deciphered).
 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bisons, etc.
 Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with
animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino
and a buffalo to its left.
 Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were
used as amulets.
Pottery
 A lot of pottery has been excavated.

 Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
 Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey
slip.
 Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric
and animal designs.
 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.
 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.
Beads and ornaments
 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men and
women.
 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
 Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings,
armlets.
 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
 Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold and
semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, head ornaments and
earrings made of gold, steatite and gemstone beads, faience pendants and
buttons.
 Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried
with ornaments.
 Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.
 Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper,
turquoise, steatite, etc. Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper.
Beads were also made from shells and terracotta.
 Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-
shaped, and segmented.

Facts about Rig Veda
 The Rigveda is divided into ten books which are known as Mandalas
 It is a collection of 10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns
 It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language
 It has originated from early as 1700 BC
 The Angiras (rishi family) has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva
family who has composed 25% of Rig Veda.
 Many verses of the Rig Veda are still used as very significant Hindu
prayers and during rituals.
 It contains numerous secrets and clarifications about the origin of the
world, the importance of the Gods and a lot of advice for living a satisfying
and successful life.
 As per to the Rig Veda, the Universe devised from Prajapati, the initial God
and the principle basis of creation.
 The hymns are known as Sukta that were composed to be used in rituals.
 Indra is the chief deity cited in the Rig Veda.
 The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of
the other chief deities who were important in the Rig Veda beside older
Aryan deities.
 The God of storms and mountains Rudra, as cited in the Rig Veda is the
origin for Lord Shiva, the Hindu God.
 Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Gods was also a minor
deity, as mentioned in the Rig Veda.
 The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.
 The varna system, Four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Gamester’s
Lament, Purusha Shukta Hymns are mentioned in this Vedic text
 Rig Veda had the original concept of the caste system which is still
practiced in modern Hindu society today.
Vedic Civilization
Indo-Aryan Migration
 The Aryans were a semi-nomadic pastoral people.

 The original homeland of the Aryans is a matter of controversy with
different experts touting different places.
 Some say they originated from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central
Asia (Max Muller), while others think they originated from the Russian
Steppes. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the Aryans came
from the arctic region.
 The Vedic Age started with the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic
Plains.

 Meaning of the word Arya: Noble.
 They spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language.
 They led a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared to the Indus Valley people
who were urbanised.
 It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass.
Two phases of the Vedic Period

Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC)
Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven
Rivers). These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta
(Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
Political structure:
 Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan.

 Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times.
 Social grouping: kula (family) – grama – visu – jana.

 Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis. Examples of tribal
kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
Social structure:
 Women enjoyed respectable position. They were allowed to take part in

Sabhas and Samitis. There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra,
Viswavara and Ghosa).
 Cattle especially cows became very important.
 Monogamy was practiced but polygamy was observed among royalty and
noble families.
 There was no child marriage.
 Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary.
Economic structure:
 They were a pastoral and cattle-rearing people.

 They indulged in agriculture.
 Products made out of copper, iron and bronze were in use.
 They had horse chariots.
 Rivers were used for transport.
 Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
 Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins
called ‘nishka’ were in use.
Religion:
 They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by
personifying them into deities.

 Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi
(earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
 Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
 There were no temples and no idol worship.
Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern
UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
Political structure:
 Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller

kingdoms.
 King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to
enhance his position.
 Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race)
and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
 The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.
Social structure:
 The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became
less based on occupation and more hereditary.
 The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas
(priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans),
and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
 Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and
Samitis. Their position in society lowered.
 Child marriages became common.
 Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were
institutionalised.
Economic structure:
 Agriculture was the chief occupation.

 Industrial work like metal work, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
 There was foreign trade also with Babylon.

Religion:
 Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.

 Indra and Agni lost their significance.
 Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more
elaborate.
 The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the
rites and rituals. Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism
emerged towards the end of this period.

Vedic Literature
 The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual
knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
 The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
 Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were
written in the Later Vedic Age.
 Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028
hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas.
 Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
 Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from
Sama Veda.
 Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
 Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices);
Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian
philosophy); and Aranyakas (books of instructions).
 The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed
during this period.
Persian And Greek Invasions Of India

Persian Invasion of India
 Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the
North-Western front of India in 550 BC.
 At that time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja and
Madra who were constantly fighting one another.
 At that time, Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty was ruling over Magadha.
 Cyrus succeeded in bringing under Persian control all the Indian tribes west
of the Indus like Gandhara.
 Punjab and Sindh were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus’s grandson.
 Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not move ahead with the further conquest of
India because of war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry and
infantry.
Effects of Persian invasion
 Trade between India and Iran grew.

 The Kharoshti script was brought to northwest India by the Persians.
 Some inscriptions of Ashoka were written in the Kharoshti script in these
parts.
 Kharoshti script is derived from the Aramaic script and is written from
right to left.
Greek Invasion of India and its Impact

Alexander’s Invasion (327 BC)
 Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia.

 He became king in 336 BC.
 Alexander had conquered Asia Minor along with Iran and Iraq. He then
marched into northwest India from Iran.
 He had annexed the whole of Persia (Babylon) by defeating Persian King
Darius III in the Battle of Arbela (330 BC).
 Alexander was attracted to India’s wealth.
 In northwest India, just before Alexander’s invasion, there were many
small rulers like Ambhi of Taxila, and Porus of the region of Jhelum
(Hydaspes).
 Ambhi accepted Alexander’s sovereignty but Porus put up a valiant but
unsuccessful fight.
 Alexander was so impressed with Porus’s fight that he granted him his
territory back. Porus might have accepted lordship. The battle between him
and Porus is called the Battle of Hydaspes.
 After that, Alexander’s army crossed the river Chenab and annexed the
tribes between Ravi and Chenab.
 But his army refused to cross the river Beas and revolted. They were
exhausted after years of battles.
 Alexander was forced to retreat in 326 BC. On his way back, he died at
Babylon in 323 BC aged 32.
 After his death, the Greek Empire split in 321 BC.
 In northwest India, Alexander left four of his generals in charge of four
regions, one of them being Seleucus I Nicator, who would later trade his
territories in the Indus Valley with Chandragupta Maurya.
 Eudamas was the last General of Alexander in India.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion
 Alexander’s invasion augmented political unification in northern India

under the Mauryas.
 After the invasion, there was direct contact between India and Greece.
 Post the invasion there were Indo-Greek rulers in the northwest part of
India.
 Grecian impact on Indian art can be seen in the Gandhara school of art.
Rise & Growth Of Magadha Empire

Haryanka Dynasty
The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha.
Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC)

 Son of Bhattiya.
 He ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC.
 Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to be an
admirer of Mahavira.
 Had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
 Also known as Sreniya.
 Was the first king to have a standing army.
 He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his
political position.
 He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister
of Prasenjit), Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali) and
Khema (daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab).
 He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. Most notable conquest
by Bimbisara was that of Anga.
 He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers
occupying high posts were divided into three – executive, military and
judicial.
Ajatasatru (492 BC - 460 BC)
 Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.

 He killed his father and became ruler.
 Embraced Buddhism.
 He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death
of Buddha in 483 BC.
 Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
Udayin
 Son of Ajatasatru.
 Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
 Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
 Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
Sisunaga Dynasty
According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the
reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king.
Sisunaga
 Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.

 Capital was at Girivaraja.

 He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between
Magadha and Avanti.
 Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasoka
 Son of Sisunaga.
 Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
 He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
 He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to
the throne.
Nanda Dynasty
This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda
who usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
Mahapadma Nanda
 He is called the “first historical emperor of India.”

 He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
 His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last
Sisunaga king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek
writer Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan.
 His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC.
 He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas)
and “Ekrat”.
 The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the
north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to
Narmada on the west.
 He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga.
Dhana Nanda
 He was the last Nanda ruler.

 He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
 Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could
not proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.
 He inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army
of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots.
He became a powerful ruler because of this.
 He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda.

 He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of
extorting taxes. Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-kshatriya policy led to
a large number of enemies.
 Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with
Chanakya, which led to the foundations of the Maurya Empire in
Magadha.
Geographical factors
 Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic
valley.
 It was located on the main land route between west and east India.
 The area had fertile soil. It also received enough rainfall.
 Magadha was encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and
Champa making the region impregnable to enemies.
 Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions.
Economic factors
 Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits.

 Because of its location, it could easily control trade.
 Had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining,
building cities and in the army.
 General prosperity of the people and the rulers.
 The mastery over Ganga meant economic hegemony. Ganga was
important for trade in North India.
 With the annexation of Anga by Bimbisara, river Champa was added to
the Magadha Empire. Champa was important in the trade with South-East
Asia, Sri Lanka and South India.
Cultural factors
 Magadhan society had an unorthodox character.

 It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan peoples.
 Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a revolution in terms of
philosophy and thought. They enhanced liberal traditions.
 Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings of
Magadha were ‘low’ in origins.
Political factors
 Magadha was lucky to have many powerful and ambitious rulers.

 They had strong standing armies.

 Availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry.
 They were also the first kings to use elephants in the army.
 The major kings also developed a good administrative system.
Gautam Buddha – Life & Teachings

Facts about the Buddha
 Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.

 Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in
present Nepal) in 566 BC.
 He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the
chief of the Sakya clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as
‘Sakyamuni’.
 His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha
was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him
the name ‘Gautama’.
 He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
 He left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is
called Mahabhishkramana.
 The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four
different states of man – sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic.
 Buddha wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained
enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a banyan tree on the
banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’
and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar).
 He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called
Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana.
 He died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is
called Mahaparinirvana.
 The term ‘Buddha’ means ‘enlightened one’.
 Important contemporaries of Buddha were Mahavira Jaina, Kings
Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.
Buddhist Philosophy/Teachings of the Buddha
 It teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and
strict abstinence.
 The four noble truths (Arya satya) in Buddhism are:
1. The world is full of sorrow.

2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka
Marga).

 Eight-fold path are:
1. Right understanding
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right living
6. Right efforts
7. Right thought
8. Right self-concentration.
 The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

 Buddha: highest spiritual potential in every one.
 Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or
righteousness)
 Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism.
 Buddha did not believe in god or soul.
 Stressed on karma and ahimsa.
 He was against the varna system. Buddha taught in Pali.
 Buddhism spread to several countries outside India. China adopted
Buddhism in the 1st century AD
Buddhist Councils And Important Texts

Four Buddhist Councils were held under different kings.
First Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of Haryanka dynasty.

 It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
 It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
 The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa.
 Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
 At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings)
and Mahakassapa composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
Second Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty.

 It was held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
 It was held at Vaishali.
 Sabakami presided over the council.
 Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.

 The first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve
into Theravada and Mahayana. The first group was called Thera (meaning
Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of Buddha in the
original spirit. The other group called Mahasanghika (Great Community)
interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
Third Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.

 It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
 The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
 Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and
corruption in the Sangha.
 The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost
completion of the modern Pali Tipitaka.
 Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
 Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.
Fourth Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty.

 It was held in the 1st century AD at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council
 All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
 Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
 This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely,
Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
 Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals and Boddhisattvas. They
regarded the Buddha as God. Hinayana continued the original teachings
and practices of the Buddha. They adhere to the scriptures written in Pali
while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit scriptures as well.
Buddhist Texts
 The most important sources of Buddhism are the Tripitakas / Tipitakas

written in Pali language. They are:
1. Sutta Pitaka
2. Vinaya Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
 Dhammapada: a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It

contains a collection of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.
 Milinda Panha: Literal meaning in Pali – Questions of Milinda. It was
written around 100 BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek

King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where Milinda
asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.
 Buddhacharita: it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha
in early 2nd century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.
Causes of the Spread of Buddhism
 Buddha’s magnetic personality.

 He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit.
 He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions.

 Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations.
 The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha.
 It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka,
Kanisha and Harshavardhana.
Causes of the Decline of Buddhism in India
 Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion.

 There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and
indulged in luxuries. Moral standards deteriorated.
 Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty
around 650 AD.
 Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of
Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara.
 The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined
the influence of Buddhism in the subcontinent.
Jainism – Vardhaman Mahavira

Origin of Jainism
 Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as

the Vedic religion.
 The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He
may have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.
Vardhaman Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
 Considered the last Tirthankara.

 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.

 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan);
Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s
daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a
wandering ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge
called Kevala Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal
tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira,
Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all
bonds) and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha)
aged 72.
Causes of the rise of Jainism
 Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.

 Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the
common man as compared to Sanskrit.
 It was accessible to people of all castes.
 Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable
lives. Jainism offered them an honourable place.
 About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga
valley prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of
the undivided Jain sangha) to migrate to Karnataka. Jainism spread to
Southern India after that.
Teachings of Jainism
 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

 He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a
product of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but
the soul does not.
 One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
 Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism.
But he also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and
not birth.
 Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-
mortification were expounded.
 Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious).
 Triratnas of Jainism:

1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct (observance of five vows)
1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
2. Satya (truth)
3. Asteya (no stealing)
4. Parigraha (no acquiring property)
5. Brahmacharya (abstinence)
Split in Jainism
 When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North
with his followers.
 Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could
be worn. Thus, split Jainism into two sects:
1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners
Jain Councils
First council
 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.

 Presided by Sthulabahu.
Second Council
 Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century BC.

 Presided by Devardhigani.
 12 Angas were compiled here.
Royal patrons of Jainism

South India
 Kadamba dynasty
 Ganga dynasty
 Amoghavarsha
 Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
North India
 Bimbisara
 Ajatasatru
 Chandragupta Maurya
 Bindusara
 Kharavela

The Mauryan Empire
Rise of the Mauryas
 The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his
oppressive tax regime.
 Also, post Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced
a lot of unrest from foreign powers.
 They were ruled by Indo-Greek rulers.
 Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute
Brahmin, Kautilya usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321
BC.
Chandragupta Maurya
 Chandragupta’s origins are shrouded in mystery. The Greek sources

(which are the oldest) mention him to be of non-warrior lineage. The Hindu
sources also say he was a student of Kautilya of humble birth (probably
born to a Shudra woman). Most Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya.
 It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble
family who was trained by Kautilya.
 Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos.
 Alexander had abandoned his India conquest in 324 BC and within a year,
Chandragupta had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north-
western part of the country.
 Kautilya provided the strategy while Chandragupta executed it. They had
raised a mercenary army of their own.
 Then, they moved eastward into Magadha.
 In a series of battles, he defeated Dhana Nanda and laid the foundations of
the Maurya Empire in about 321 BC.
 In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Seleucus Nicator (a general of
Alexander who ruled over northwest India) in which Chandragupta
acquired Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the west of
Indus. He also married Seleucus Nicator’s daughter. In return, Seleucus
Nicator got 500 elephants. Seleucus Nicator avoided a war with the mighty
Chandragupta.
 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
 Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control
almost the whole of present India barring a few places like Kalinga and the
extreme South.
 His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
 He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara and went to
Karnataka with Jain monk Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism and is
said to have starved himself to death according to the Jain tradition at
Shravanabelagola.

Bindusara
 Son of Chandragupta.
 He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC.
 Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources.
 Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court.
 He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as
well.
Chanakya
 Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, who was also his Chief Minister.

 Brahmin by birth, he was a teacher and scholar at Taxila. Other names are
Vishnugupta and Chanakya.
 He was also a minister in the court of Bindusara.
 He is credited to be the master strategist behind the usurping of the Nanda
throne and the rise of the Mauryan Empire through his student,
Chandragupta.
 He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecraft, economics, and
military strategy.
 Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after it had
disappeared in the 12thcentury.
 The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. The main theme is divided
into:
i. King, Council of Ministers and Departments of the Government
ii. Civil and criminal law
iii. Diplomacy of war
 It also contains information on trade and markets, method to screen
ministers, spies, duties of a king, ethics, social welfare, agriculture, mining,
metallurgy, medicine, forests, etc.
 Chanakya is also called ‘Indian Machiavelli”.
Mauryan Administration
Central Government
 Mauryan administration was highly centralized.

 The king was the supreme power and source of all authority.
 He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’.
The ministers were called ‘Mantris.’
 The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the
Prime Minister of today.
 Tirthas: the Highest category of officials in the administration. There
were 18 Tirthas.

 Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas.
They had economic and military functions.
 Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
 Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They
had administrative and judicial roles.
 The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into
many departments.
 Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, storehouses,
gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.
 Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue.
 Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.
 Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
 Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
 Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
 Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
 Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships
 Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
 Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures
 Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
 Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
 Pulisanj: Public relations officers

 Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade,
manufacture and sale of goods, sales tax collection were under the
administration’s control.
Local Administration
 The smallest unit of administration was the village.

 Head of a village: Gramika Villages had a lot of autonomy.
 Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
 Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
 Durgapala: Governors of forts.
 Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
 Akshapatala: Accountant General
 Lipikaras: Scribes
Military
 The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and

his position was next to the king’s. He was appointed by the king.
 The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry,
chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport & provisions.

 The army’s salary was paid in cash.
Revenue
 The revenue department chief was called Samharta.

 Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer).
 Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferry,
mines and pastures. License fees were collected from artisans and fines
were charged in the law courts.
 Most of the land revenue was one-sixth of the produce.
Police
 All the main centres had police headquarters.

 Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka.
Espionage
 The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed.

 There were spies who informed the king about the bureaucracy and
markets.
 There were two types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari
(wanderer).
 Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents.
 They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were
picked from different segments of society.
 There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).
Transport
 The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and
pedestrians.
Ashoka – Life & Dhamma

Early life
 Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and Subhadrangi. Grandson of

Chandragupta Maurya.
 His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning
Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi.
 Considered one of India’s greatest emperors.
 He was born in 304 BC.
 His reign lasted from 268 BC to 232 BC when he died.
 At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to
Bangladesh in the east. It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent
except present Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka.

 Ashoka built many edicts all over India including in present-day Nepal and
Pakistan.
 His capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila
and Ujjain.
Rise to power
 Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heir
presumptive.
 Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king.
 But Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills
as an administrator when he was made the governor of Ujjain.
 In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC,
Ashoka emerged victorious aided by his father’s ministers.
 When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and
very cruel.
 He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This
earned him the moniker Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka).
 Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In
the ninth year of his reign, he waged a war with Kalinga (in present-day
Odisha).
Conversion to Buddhism
 The battle with Kalinga fought in 265 BC was personally led by Ashoka
and he was able to vanquish the Kalingas.
 Whole cities were destroyed and more than a hundred thousand people
were killed in the war.
 The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence
for the rest of his life and turned to Buddhism.
 Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly.
 He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka.
 In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a
Buddhist monk became his mentor.
 Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 250
BC under Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency.
Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma in Sanskrit)
 Ashoka established the idea of paternal kingship.

 He regarded all his subjects as his children and believed it the king’s duty
to look after the welfare of the subjects.
 Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere
teachers, and practice ahimsa and truthfulness.
 He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice.

 He expounded humane treatment of animals, servants and prisoners.
 He advocated tolerance towards all religions.
 He sought conquest through Dhamma and not war.
 He sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably, he
sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
 Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some
are written in the Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts
written in Greek as well. The language depends on the location of the pillar.
Sources of information about Ashoka
 There are two main sources: Buddhist sources and Ashoka’s edicts.
 James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first
person to decipher Ashoka’s edicts.
 Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Pali chronicles) give most of the information
about Ashoka.
The Edicts Of Ashoka

These inscriptions can be classified into three:-
Pillar edicts, Major rock edicts and Minor rock edicts.
Pillar Edicts
There are seven pillar edicts.
 Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura)
and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
 All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone).
 They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan),
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar),
Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
 Fragments of the same edict are found in different places.
 Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons.
 The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions, and wheels and
lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism.
The following table gives the Edict number and what it talks about.
Edict Talks about
Pillar Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people.

Edict I

Pillar Dhamma
Edict II
Pillar Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger

Edict III among his subjects.
Pillar Responsibilities of the Rajukas.

Edict IV
Pillar List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain
Edict V days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be
killed.
Pillar Dhamma policy of the State.

Edict VI
Pillar Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects.
Edict VII
Major Rock Edicts
There are 14 major rock edicts.
Ashoka’s major rock edicts
Edict Talks about
Major Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering.

Rock
Edict I
Major Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and
Rock Keralaputras of South India.
Edict II
Major Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas

Rock who would go every five years to different parts of his empire to
Edict III spread Dhamma.
Major Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhamma/righteousness) over

Rock Bherighosha (sound of war).
Edict IV
Major About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right.

Rock
Edict V

Major King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About
Rock welfare measures.
Edict VI
Major Tolerance for all religions.

Rock
Edict
VII
Major Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first
Rock Dhamma Yatra).
Edict
VIII
Major Condemns popular ceremonies.

Rock
Edict IX
Major Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and
Rock stresses on Dhamma.
Edict X
Major Elaborates on Dhamma.

Rock
Edict XI
Major Tolerance for all religions and sects.

Rock
Edict
XII
Major Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma

Rock victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko),
Edict Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka),
XIII Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus
(Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, etc.
Major Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of country.

Rock
Edict
XIV
Minor Rock Edicts
 Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in
Afghanistan also.

 Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski,
Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP).
Languages used
 In eastern part of the empire, Magadhi language in Brahmi script is used.

(Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha).
 In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script is
used.
 Major Rock Edict XIII contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well.
An example
Major Rock Edict VI
Beloved of the Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I started to
have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so
that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: “How
can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?” I give my attention to
my relatives, to those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I
act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honoured all religions with
various honours. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.
Mauryan Empire: Reasons For Decline

The partition of the Empire
 After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves –
western and eastern parts. This weakened the empire.
 Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini which is an account of
Kashmir’s history says that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka ruled over
Kashmir as an independent ruler.
 This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest.
Highly centralised administration
 Historian Romila Thapar is of the view that the highly centralised

administration under the Mauryas became a problem with the later
Mauryan kings who were not as efficient administrators as their
predecessors.
 Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the
administration well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of the
administration and ultimately led to the empire’s disintegration.
 Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan Empire meant that there had to be
a very effective ruler at the centre who could keep coherent all the regions.
 A weakening of the central administration coupled with a large distance to
communicate also led to the rise of independent kingdoms.
Weak monarchs after Ashoka

 The successors of Ashoka were weak kings who could not carry the burden
of the huge empire that was bequeathed to them.
 After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52
years.
 The last Maurya king, Brihadratha was overthrown by his own army
commander, Pushyamitra.
 Only the first three kings of the Mauryan Empire were men of exceptional
abilities and character. The later kings were no match in quality to their
illustrious ancestors.
Independence of the provinces
 After Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre’s hold over the vast empire
began to disintegrate. This led to the emergence of various kingdoms.
 It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently.
 Kalinga became independent.
 According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandhara
independently.
 Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per Greek sources, a king named
Subhagasena (Sophagasanus) began to rule over the north-western
provinces independently.
Internal revolt
 During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army
chief Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC.
 Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an
army parade.
 This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and thence started the
Shunga dynasty’s rule.
Foreign invasions
 During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried
to attack India from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty
Mauryan army.
 But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split up into two. This led to the
Greek king Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully.
 But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on
Indian soil. The notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the
Kushanas.
Ashoka’s policies
 Some scholars suggest that Ashoka’s policies of non-violence and pacifism

led to the weakening of the empire.

 Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to
attack the kingdom.
 Also, he gave a lot of importance and efforts to the propagation of
Buddhism.
Brahminical reaction
 According to some historians, the Brahmins were unhappy with Ashoka’s

unabashed patronage of Buddhism.
 He had banned animal slaughter which was a sacrifice conducted by the
Brahmins.
 But this theory is refuted because many of Ashoka’s inscriptions talk of
respecting Brahmins.
 Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the Mauryan army was a Brahmin
which proves that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas.
Sunga Dynasty
Pushyamitra Sunga
 Pushyamitra Sunga was Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king
of the Mauryas.
 During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on
the throne in 185 or 186 BC.
 According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last
Mauryan king. Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan
overwhelming patronage of Buddhism.
 Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
 He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely,
Menander and Demetrius.
 He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.
 He conquered Vidarbha.
 He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of
Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative
evidence to this claim.
 During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built
the sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi.
 He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and
Vajapeya.
 Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali.
 According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC.
Agnimitra
 Was Pushyamitra’s son who succeeded him to the throne.

 His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC.

 By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire.
 Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa’s poem, Malavikagnimitram.
 His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king.
Last of the Sunga kings
 Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known. Different names crop up in

several accounts such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha.
 The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was preceded by Bhagabhadra.
 Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva Kanva in around 73
BC. This established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC.
Effects of Sunga rule
 Hinduism was revived under the Sungas.

 The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas.
 Another important development during the Sunga reign was the emergence
of various mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian
society.
 The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even
some Buddhist works of this time were composed in Sanskrit.
 The Sungas patronised art and architecture. There was an increase in the
usage of human figures and symbols in art during this period.
Satavahana Dynasty – Post Mauryan Period

Kanvas (73 BC – 28 BC)
 As per the puranas, there were four kings of the Kanva dynasty namely,
Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman.
 The Kanvas were Brahmins.
 The Magadha Empire had diminished by this time considerably.
 Northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains
were under different rulers.
 The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra)
king.
Cheti Dynasty (Kalinga)
 The Cheti or Chedi dynasty emerged in Kalinga in the 1st century BC.
 The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar gives
information about it.
 This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who was the third Cheti
king.
 Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.

 Other names of this dynasty are Cheta or Chetavamsa, and
Mahameghavahana.
Satavahanas
 The Satavahana rule is believed to have started around the third century
BC, in 235 BC and lasted until the second century AD.
 Some experts believe their rule started in the first century BC only.
 They are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas.
 The Satavahana kingdom chiefly comprised of modern-day Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included
parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
 Their capital cities varied at different times. Pratishthana (Paithan) and
Amaravati were its capitals.
 Simuka founded the dynasty.
 They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the
portraits of the rulers. This practice was started by Gautamiputra
Satakarni who derived the practice from the Western Satraps after
defeating them.
 The coin legends were in Prakrit language. Some reverse coin legends are
in Telugu, Tamil and Kannada.
 They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
 They supported both Buddhism and Brahminism although they were
Hindus and claimed Brahminical status.
 They successfully defended their territories against foreign invaders and
had many on-going battles with the Sakas (Western Satraps).
Satakarni I (180 - 124 BC)
 Sarakarni I was the third Satavahana king.

 Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military
conquests.
 He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
 He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra.
 He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
 After annexing the Godaveri Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of
Dakshinapatha’.
 His queen was Nayanika who wrote the Naneghat inscription which
describes the king as Dakshinapathapati.
 He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahminism in the
Deccan.
Hala

 King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati. Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit,
it is a collection of poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of
the poems are attributed to Hala himself.
 Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 – 130 AD or 86 – 110 AD)
 He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.

 He defeated the Greeks, Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Sakas.
 His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in
the north and from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west.
 He defeated Nahapana, an important king of the Western Satraps.
 He is also called Ekabrahmana.

 His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son
of Gautami).
 He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi or Pulamavi II.
Decline of the Satavahanas
 Pulamavi IV is considered the last king of the main Satavahana line.

 He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into five
smaller kingdoms.
The Indo-Greek Rule

Initial presence of Greeks in India
 After Alexander invaded northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his

generals, Seleucus Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire.
 In Seleucus’s conflict with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded
large parts to the west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day
Afghanistan and Balochistan to the Mauryan king.
 After this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s
court. Other Greek residents at Mauryan courts were Deimachus and
Dionysius.
 Greek populations lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire
as evident from Ashoka’s edicts.
 Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas
(Greeks) and Persians.
 In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and
Yonas (Pali).
Indo-Greek Kingdom
 The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings

in the northwest and north India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning
of the first century AD.

The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (son of
Euthydemus I) invaded India around 180 BC. He conquered southern
Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.
 The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture and became political entities
with a mix of Greek and Indian culture.
 For about 25 years, the Indo-Greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemid
rule.
 Many coins have been unearthed of these kings and most of the information
we get about them is from these coins. Coins have been found with Indian
and Greek inscriptions. Many coins have been found with images of Indian
deities also. The Indo-Greek kings did this to perhaps placate the
population most of whom were not Greeks.
 The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius
facilitated the independent kingdom of Apollodotus I who, in this way, can
be regarded as the first proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from
Bactria).
 His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab.
 Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished
under their rule.
 Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the
Gandhara School of art.
Menander I (Reign: 155 or 150 BC – 130 BC)
 Menander I Soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra or Milinda (in

Pali).
 He was initially a king of Bactria. His empire extended from Kabul river
valley in the west to the Ravi River in the east; and from Swat valley in the
north to Arachosia (Helmand in Afghanistan).
 According to some Indian sources, he went as far as Rajasthan and
Pataliputra.
 He converted to Buddhism and patronised the faith.
 He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Strato I.
 The Milinda Panha (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between
Milinda and the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit,
only the Pali version is available now. In the work, Milinda is described as
a wise, learned and able king. At the end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism
and converts.
Decline of the Indo-Greek kingdom
 The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjab region until 55
BC, some say until 10 AD.
 Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).

 It is believed that Greek people lived for several centuries more in India
under the Indo-Parthians and the Kushans.
The Sakas
Origins
Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were a group of Iranian

nomadic pastoral tribes.
 In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from
the Chinese region invaded the region of present-day Kazakhstan whose
inhabitants were Scythians.
 This promoted the Scythians to move towards Bactria and Parthia. After
defeating the Parthian king, they moved towards India. Scythians who
migrated to India are known as Indo-Scythians.
 The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.
Maues (Reign 80 BC – 65 BC)
 Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king.

 He ruled over Gandhara (present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
 He invaded the Indo-Greek territories but unsuccessfully.
 His capital was at Sirkap (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Many coins issued by Maues have been found. They contain Buddhist
and also Hindu symbols. The languages used in these coins were Greek
and Kharoshti.
 His son Azes I acquired the remaining Indo-Greek territories by defeating
Hippostratos.
Chastana (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)
 He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who

ruled over Ujjain.
 The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78
AD.
 Ptolemy mentions him as “Tiasthenes” or “Testenes”.
 He was the founder of one of the two major Saka Kshatrapa dynasties in
northwest India, the Bhadramukhas. The other dynasty was called
Kshaharatas and included the king Nahapana (who was defeated by
Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD)
 He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers.

 He is from the Western Kshatrapa dynasty.
 He was the grandson of Chastana.

 His kingdom included Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of
Gujarat and Malwa.
 He conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar.
 He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism.
 He also issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
 He took up the title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king.
 He maintained marital relationships with the Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra
Satakarni was his son-in-law.But he also fought numerous wars with
them.
 He regained through conquests most of the territories previously under
Nahapana.
 He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
 It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer
lived in India and translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit.
Decline of the Sakas
 The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the
Satavahana Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the
death of Azes II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.
 In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when
the last Western Satrap Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by
Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
Kushana Empire – Origin, Kings, Significance & Decline

Origins
 Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe
who lived in the Chinese frontier or central Asia.
 They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
 They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
 They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas
in the 1st century AD.
Kujula Kadphises (Reign: AD 30-AD 80) or Kadphises I
 Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the
Kushana Empire in India.
 He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar and Afghanistan.
 He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95)
who expanded the empire into northwest India.
Vima Kadphises (Reign: AD 95-AD 127)

 An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the
son of Vima Taktu and the father of Kanishka.
 He has issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a Shiva devotee as is clear from coins issued by him.
 A large number of Roman gold coins found from this era indicates the
prosperity of India at that time and also the growing trade with the Romans.
Kanishka (Reign: 127 AD – 151 AD)
 Considered the greatest Kushana king and also a great king of ancient
India.
 Son of Vima Kadphises.
 His kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia,
Punjab, Kashmir, parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa,
Benaras, perhaps parts of Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar, Yarkhand (last three
in modern China). His empire covered Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh,
Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His kingdom also included parts of
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
 His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
 After the capture of Pataliputra, he is said to have taken away the Buddhist
monk Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar.
 The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra,
Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara. He also patronised the Greek engineer
Agesilaus.
 Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in
Kashmir.
 He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious
views. His coins contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities.
 He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art
flourished under him.
 He also propagated the Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely
responsible for propagating it in China.
 It is not known how he died.
Significance of the Kushana Empire
 Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth

Buddhist council was held in Sanskrit.
 Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
 During this time, three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School
in northwest India, Amaravati School in Andhra and the Mathura School
in the Ganges valley.
 Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman
Empire.

 The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Route which led to the
propagation of Buddhism into China. It was during this time that Buddhism
began to spread to Korea and Japan also.
 Many towers, Chaityas, towns and beautiful sculptures were built under
the patronage of the Kushana kings.
 Kushanas were foreign invaders to begin with, but they were completely
indianised in ways and culture.
 It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was a perfect forerunner
to the golden age of the Guptas.
Decline of the Kushana Empire
 Kanishka was succeeded by his son Vasishka.

 Vasishka was followed by Huvishka and Kanishka II (son of Vasishka).
 Kanishka II was followed by Vasudeva I.
 Vasudeva I was the last great king of the Kushanas. After his death, the
empire disintegrated away. He probably died in 232 AD.
Gupta Empire
Origins
 The Gupta Empire rose to prominence in 320 AD and spread to large parts
of northern India, central and small parts of southern India.
 The founder of the Gupta dynasty is Sri Gupta.
 The original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they
might have originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from
Prayaga (Allahabad in UP).
 They are thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas.
Early kings
 The first ruler was Sri Gupta (reign from 240 AD to 280 AD).
 He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (reign: 280 – 319 AD).
 Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharaja in
inscriptions.
Chandragupta I (Reign: 320 – 335 AD)
 Was the son of Ghatotkacha.

 Acquired the strategically important Magadha kingdom on marriage to a
Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
 He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from
the Ganges River to Prayaga by 321 AD.
 He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
 He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).

He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
 He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.
Samudragupta (Reign: 335 – 380 AD)
 Son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi.

 Was a military genius and was successful in adding many territories into
the Gupta Empire.
 The Allahabad inscription describes his bravery as composed by his court
poet, Harisena. There it is said that he defeated nine kings of the Ganges
Valley, twelve kings from the southern region and eighteen forest tribes.
 His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and
Godavari Rivers in the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to
Brahmaputra River in the east.
 He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths.
He gave permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a
monastery in Bodh Gaya.
 He was also called “Indian Napoleon” by art historian Vincent Smith.
 He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to
him as “the restorer of Ashvamedha.”
 He was also called “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.
Chandragupta II (Reign: 380 – 418 AD)
 Son of Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi.

 He was also known as ‘Vikramaditya’.
 He further annexed territories including Saurashtra which gave him the
western coastline.
 He used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom. He established
matrimonial alliances with the Nagas and the Vakatakas. He gave his
daughter Prabhapavatigupta in marriage to Vakataka ruler of Maharashtra
Rudrasena II.
 He also annexed three Satrapa kingdoms and assumed the title Sakari
(destroyer of the Sakas). He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III thus
acquiring Saurashtra and Kathiawar.
 Through the western ports, the kingdom’s prosperity grew through trade
links with Roman Empires.
 After East and West India, Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers also
like the Hunas, Kambojas, Kiratas, etc.
 He was a brilliant conqueror and an able administrator as well.
 Like his father, he was a Vaishnavite but was tolerant of other religions.
 His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta,
Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.

 His court had nine jewels or Navaratnas, nine people eminent in various
fields of art, literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet
Kalidasa, Harisena, Amarasimha (lexicographer) and Dhanvantari
(physician).
 Fa-Hien, a Buddhist from China visited India during his reign. He records
the prosperity of the Gupta Empire.
Other Gupta rulers
 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. He ruled till

455 AD.
 Kumaragupta I was the founder of the Nalanda University. He was also
called Shakraditya.
 The last great king of the Gupta dynasty, Skandagupta was the son of
Kumaragupta I. He was able to repulse an attack by the Hunas but this
strained his empire’s coffers.
 The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skandagupta in 467 AD.
 He was followed by many successors.
 The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned
from 540 to 550 AD.
Legacy And Decline Of The Gupta Empire

Gupta Dynasty
The Gupta age in ancient India has been called the ‘Golden Age of
India’ because of the many achievements in the field of arts, science and
literature that Indians made under the Guptas. The prosperity under the Guptas
initiated a period of splendid accomplishments in arts and sciences. The Gupta
Empire lasted from 320 AD to 550 AD.
Gupta Empire Literature
Literature
 Sanskrit literature flourished under the Guptas. Kalidasa, the great poet and
playwright was in the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He composed
great epics such as Abhijnanashaakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam,
Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamharam, Meghadootam, Vikramorvashiyam
and Raghuvamsham.
 The celebrated Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika was composed during this
time. It is attributed to Shudraka.
 Poet Harisena also adorned the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He
wrote the Allahabad Prashasti (inscription).
 Vishnusharma of Panchatantra fame lived during this era.
 Amarasimha (grammarian and poet) composed a lexicon of Sanskrit,
Amarakosha.

 Vishakhadatta composed Mudrarakshasa. Other grammarians who
contributed to the Sanskrit language include Vararuchi and Bhartrihari.
Sciences
 In the fields of science, mathematics and astronomy also, the Gupta age
saw a lot of interesting advancements.
 Aryabhatta, the great Indian mathematician and astronomer wrote Surya
Siddhanta and Aryabhattiya. Aryabhatta is believed to have conceptualised
‘zero’. He also gave the value of Pi. He postulated that the earth is not flat
and it rotated around its own axis and also that it revolved around the sun.
He also gave the distance between earth and sun which is remarkably close
to the actual value. He wrote on geometry, astronomy, mathematics and
trigonometry.
 The Indian number system with a base of 10 which is the present numeral
system evolved from scholars of this era.
 Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. He was an astronomer and an
astrologer.
 Dhanvantari, the great physician is supposed to have lived during this time.
 Sushruta, composed the Sushrutasamhita around 600 AD. He has detailed
surgical procedures in this work.
 The Nalanda University, a centre of Buddhist and other learning attracted
students from abroad. The Guptas patronised this ancient seat of learning.
Art & architecture
 Many magnificent temples, palaces, paintings and sculptures were created.

 Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh, UP is one of the earliest surviving Hindu
temples. It is a fine example of Gupta architecture.
 Mural paintings of Ajanta depicting the life of the Buddha as told in the
Jataka tales were created in this period. Places like Ajanta, Ellora, Mathura,
Sarnath; and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya in Sri Lanka bear examples of
Gupta art and architecture.
 Classical Indian music and dance took shape in this time.
 The Gupta legacy in arts can be seen in Southeast Asia also today.
 The Bronze Buddha which is 7.5 feet high and found at Sultanganj is a
product of the Gupta age.
 The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi is a marvellous creation of this period. It
is a 7 m long pillar and it is made up of a composition of metals such that
it is rust-free. This is a testimony to the metallurgical skills of Indians of
that time.
Social culture & religion

 The Hindu epics were given their final touches during this time. The Hindu
religion also received an impetus under the Guptas and it flourished and
expanded throughout India.
 Although the Gupta kings were Vaishnavas they were tolerant of
Buddhism and Jainism. They patronised Buddhist art.
 The Shakti cult rose up around this time.
 Sacrifice was being replaced by Bhakti and Pooja.
 Occult practices like tantrism also emerged during this time.
 The game of chess is said to have originated from this time. It was called
Chaturanga meaning the four divisions (of the military such as infantry
(pawn), cavalry (knight), elephantry (bishop) and chariotry (rook).
Decline of the Gupta Empire
 The Gupta decline started during the reign of Skandagupta, the grandson
of Chandragupta II. He was successful in retaliating against the Huns and
the Pushyamitras, but his empire was drained of finances and resources
because of this.
 The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned
from 540 to 550 AD.
 Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its
weakening.
 During the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler
Narendrasena of western Deccan attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala.
Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat
from the Guptas.
 During Skandagupta’s reign, the Huns invaded northwest India but were
restricted. But in the sixth century, they occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab
and Gandhara. The Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the country.
 Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa,
the Maukharis of U.P., the Maitrakas in Saurashtra, and others in Bengal.
The Gupta Empire was restricted to Magadha only. (Yasodharman had
joined forces with Narasimhagupta to successfully retaliate against the Hun
chief Mihirakula.)
 The later Guptas’ following of Buddhism rather than Hinduism unlike their
ancestors also weakened the empire. They did not focus on empire-
building and military conquests.
 So weak rulers along with incessant invasions from foreign as well as
native rulers caused the decline of the Gupta Empire.
 By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was
ruled by many regional chieftains.
Harshavardhana
Facts about Harsha (Reign: 606 A.D to 647 A.D.)

 Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to King Prabhakaravardhana of
Sthaneshvara (Thanesar, Haryana).
 He belonged to the Pushyabhuti also called Vardhana dynasty.
 He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
 He was married to Durgavati.
 He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter married a king of Vallabhi
whereas his sons were killed by his own minister.
Rise to the throne
 After Prabhakaravardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to

the throne of Thanesar.
 Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to king Grahavarman of
Kannauj. Sasanka, the Gauda king killed Grahavarman and kept
Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight against
Sasanka. But Sasanka killed Rajyavardhana.
 This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar
in 606 AD.
 He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also rescue his sister.
 For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king.
Harsha and Bhaskaravarman marched against Sasanka. Ultimately,
Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha became the king of Kannauj also.
Empire of Harsha
 On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and

Kannauj.
 He moved his capital to Kannauj.
 After the fall of the Guptas, North India was divided into many small
kingdoms.
 Harsha was able to unite many of them under his command. He had under
his control Punjab and central India. After Sasanka’s death, he annexed
Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
 He also defeated the Vallabhi king in Gujarat. (The Vallabhi king and
Harsha came to a truce by a marriage between Harsha’s daughter and the
Vallabhi king Dhruvabhata.)
 However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands to the south were hampered
when the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 A.D.
This sealed Harsha’s southern territorial limit as the Narmada River.
 There were two types of territories under Harsha. One was directly under
him and the other type was those that were feudatories.
1. Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana,
Gujarat
2. Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal

 Even the feudatories were under the tight command of Harsha. Harsha’s
reign marked the beginning of feudalism in India.
 Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. He has given a very
favourable account of king Harsha and his empire. He praises his
generosity and justice.
 Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He himself was an accomplished
writer. He is credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika
and Nagananda.
 Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which
gives an account of Harsha’s life and deeds.
 Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University.
 He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected were used for
charity and for cultural purposes.
 Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able administrator.
 Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the
invasions by the Muslims.
Harsha’s death
 Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years.

 Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated very soon after
his death.
The Pallavas
Origins
 The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several
theories propounded by historians.
 Some historians say they are a branch of the Pahlavas of the Parthians
who moved to the South.
 Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern
region and were a mix of various tribes.
 Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around
the Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
 Another theory says that they are descendent from a Chola prince and a
Naga princess of Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
 Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the
Satavahanas.
 The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD.
By the 7th century AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India
vying for supremacy namely the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of
Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
Extent

 The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
 Their territories at the height of their powers extended from northern part
of Andhra Pradesh to River Kaveri in the South.
 During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state
by the authority of the Pallavas.
 Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman
who defeated the Chalukyas.
 The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the
Pallavas jointly. The Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous
land grants (Brahamadeya) to Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers
of the three dynasties.
Sivaskanda Varman
 Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled in the beginning of the 4th century
AD.
 Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD – 600 AD)
Was a Buddhist.
 Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
 Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a
definite character from this ruler onwards.
Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD)
 Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.

 He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa Prahasana.
 He introduced rock cut temple architecture.
 Was a Jain who converted to Saivism.
 Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
 Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and
efficient ruler.
Narasimhavarman I (630 AD – 668 AD)
 Son and successor of Mahendravarman.

 Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman
Mahamalla/Mamalla.
 Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi,
the Chalukya capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
 Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
 He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese
Prince Manivarma.

 He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named
after him.
 Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640
AD and he describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
 He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
 Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar
lived during his reign.
 He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to
670 AD.
Later rulers
 After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswaravarman became the king.

 During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
 Nripatunga was an important king who defeated a Pandya king.
 There were a few other rulers. The last ruler of the Pallava dynasty was
Aparajitavarman who was killed in battle with the Cholas.
Pallava Culture And Architecture

Society & Culture
 The Pallava society was based on Aryan culture.

 Brahmins were greatly patronised by the kings and they received land and
villages. This was called Brahmadeya. The Brahmin status greatly
enhanced during this reign. The caste system became rigid.
 The Pallava kings were orthodox Hindus and worshipped Shiva and
Vishnu. They were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism too although both
these faiths lost their relevance and popularity.
 Kanchipuram was a great centre of learning. The University of Kanchi
played a great part in the propagation of Aryan culture in the South. It can
be said that the aryanisation of southern India was completed during the
Pallava reign.
 Vatsyayana who wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at Kanchi University
(Ghatika).
 Bharavi and Dandin lived in Pallava courts. Bharavi wrote
Kiratarjuneeyam. Dandin composed Dashakumaracharita. Both were
masterpieces.
 The Vaishnava and Saiva literature flourished during this period.
 Sanskrit was the chief language among the royals and the scholars.
 Some of the inscriptions are in a mix of Tamil and Sanskrit.
 Vedic traditions were superimposed on the local ones.
 Many Tamil saints belonging to either Saivite (Nayannars) or the
Vaishnavaite (Alwars) sects lived during the 6th and 7th centuries. Saivite
saints: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkawasagar. Vaishnava

saint: Andal (the only female Alwar saint).These saints composed hymns
in Tamil.
 Dancers were being maintained by all big temples.
 There were three types of places during this time:
1. Ur: were peasants lived and was headed by a headman who collected and paid
the taxes.
2. Sabha: land granted to Brahmins and was also called Agrahara villages. These
were tax-free.
3. Nagaram: were merchants and traders resided.
 During the Pallava period, Hindu culture spread to many places in

Southeast Asia as well. Pallava influence is evident from the ancient
architecture seen in Cambodia and Java.
Architecture
 The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into
four phases or styles:
1. Mahendra style (600-625 AD)

2. Mammala style (625-674 AD)
3. Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
4. Aparajita style (early 9th century)
 The Pallava era witnesses a transition from rock cut to free-standing

temples.
 Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu
rock-cut temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
 Narasimhaverman II also known as Rajasimha built the Kanchi
Kailasanatha Temple during the late 7th century AD.
 The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman
II. It is the oldest structural temple in South India. It is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site since 1984. It is also called Seven Pagodas.
 The Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
 The Dravidian style of architecture begins with the Pallava reign.
Chalukya Dynasty – Rulers, Administration, Art & Architecture

The Three Chalukyas
 There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties.

 Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami
(Vatapi) in Karnataka. They ruled from mid-6th They declined after the
death of their greatest king, Pulakesin II in 642 AD.
 Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern
Deccan with capital at Vengi. They ruled till the 11 th century.

 Western Chalukyas: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas, they
emerged in the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani (modern day
Basavakanlyan).
Extent of the empire
 The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
 His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.
 Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the
Mauravas of North Konkan, the Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the
Gurjars.
 He also succeeded in getting submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya
kings.
 He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king
Mahendravarman.
Chalukya Rulers
 Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas.

Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD)
 Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi.

 Performed Ashwamedha.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin I.
 Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)
 Brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
 Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)
 The greatest of the Chalukya kings.

 Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
 His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the
Aihole inscription dated 634. This poetic inscription was written by his
court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language using the Kannada script.
 Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and
authoritative king.

 Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 He conquered almost entire south-central India.
 He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was
trying to conquer southern parts of the country.
 He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and
killed by Mahendravarman’s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a
series of battles he had with the Pallavas.
 For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
 Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave
painting. He maintained diplomatic relations with the King of Persia
Khusru II.
 His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.

Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)
 Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
 Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king,
Dantidurga.
Administration and Society
 The Chalukyas had great maritime power.

 They also had a well-organised army.
 Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism
and Jainism.
 Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literature.
 Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th
century mentions Sanskrit as the language of the elite whereas Kannada
was the language of the masses.
Art and Architecture
 They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
 The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
 The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style
of architecture. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida
or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
 Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple,
Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70
temples in Aihole.
 Badami temples

 Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here
– 4 in Nagar style and 6 in Dravida style. Virupaksha temple and
Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in
Nagara style.
The Pala Empire

Origin
 Gopala founded the dynasty in 750 AD.

 He was a chieftain or military general who was elected as king by notable
men of the area to prevent anarchy.
Rulers
Gopala (Reign: 750 – 770 AD)
 First Pala king and founder of the dynasty.

 Son of Vapyata, a warrior.
 Was elected by a group of people.
 At the time of his death, Pala kingdom included Bengal and most of Bihar.
 He built the monastery at Odantapuri, Bihar.
 Considered the first Buddhist king of Bengal.
Dharmapala (Reign: 770 – 810 AD)
 Son and successor of Gopala.

 Expanded the kingdom.
 Was a pious Buddhist.
 Founded the Vikramshila University at Bhagalpur, Bihar.
 He had frequent wars with the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
 The Palas became the most powerful kingdom in northern and eastern India
during his rule.
Devapala (Reign: 810 – 850 AD)
 Son of Dharmapala and Rannadevi, a Rashtrakuta princess.

 Extended the kingdom to Assam, Odisha and Kamarupa.
 Was a staunch Buddhist and built many monasteries and temples in
Magadha.
 Defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha.
Mahipala I
 Ascended the throne in 988 AD.

 Recovered northern and eastern Bengal.
 Also took Bihar.
Ramapala

 The last strong Pala king.
 The kingdom disintegrated during his son Kumarapala’s reign.
Madanapala (Reign: 1144 – 1162 AD)
 The last Pala king.

 After him, the Sena dynasty replaced the Palas.
Legacy of the Pala Dynasty
 The Pala Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th
century.
 The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
 They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara
(in Bangladesh), Odantapuri Monastery.
 They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda Universit y
and the Vikramshila University.
 During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary
work Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta
(the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
 Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala.
 Buddhist poet Vajradatta who composed Lokesvarashataka was in
Devapala’s court.
 Many Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom travelled to Southeast Asia
to spread the faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet.
 Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada
composed Agama Shastra during the time of the Palas.
 The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence
is seen in the art of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
The Vakataka Dynasty

Origin
 The Vakatakas were Brahmins.

 Their origins are not clear with some claiming they are a northern family
while others claim they originated in southern India.
 They have Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions which are similar to those
belonging to the southern Pallavas.
 Also, no records of the Vakatakas have been found north of the Narmada.
They are also mentioned in the Puranas.
Extent
The Vakataka kingdom extended from the southern extremities of Malwa and
Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south; and from the
Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east.

Rulers
Vindhyashakti (Reign: 250 – 270 AD)
 Founder of the dynasty.

 Nothing much is known about him except information from an Ajanta cave
inscription stating that he is the banner of the Vakataka family and that he
is a Dvija (Brahmin).
Pravarasena I (Reign: 270 – 330 AD)
 Son and successor of Vindhyashakti.

 His other titles include Samrat, Dharmamaharaja and Haritiputra.
 His empire included a good portion of northern India and the Deccan.
 He conducted Vedic rituals like Ashwamedha, Vajapeya, etc.
 He conducted wars with the Nagas.
 He had four sons as per the Puranas and it is possible that the empire split
up among his sons.
 His son Gautamiputra died before him and his grandson (son of
Gautamiputra) Rudrasena I succeeded him to the throne.
 After his death, there were two divisions of the Vakatakas.
i. Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
ii. Vatsagulma Branch
Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
This branch ruled over Pravarapura (in present Wardha, Maharashtra), Mansar
and Nandivardhan in present Nagpur district.
Rudrasena I (Reign: 330 – 355 AD)
 Grandson of Pravarasena I.
 He was succeeded by his son Prithvishena I who reigned from 355 – 380
AD.
Rudrasena II (Reign: 380 – 385 AD)
 Son of Prithvishena I.
 Married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II.
 Rudrasena II died leaving behind minor sons and during this time, the
imperial Guptas of the north is said to have controlled the Vakatakas
through Prabhavatigupta who was the regent on behalf of her sons.

Pravarasena II (Reign: 400 – 440 AD)
 Was named Damodarasena.

 Second son of Rudrasena II.
 He became the king after his elder brother Diwakarasena died.
 Founded the city of Pravarapura.
 Also composed Setubandha in Maharashtri Prakrit.
Vatsagulma Branch
This branch ruled over the territory between the Sahyadri Range and the Godavari
River with its capital at Vatsagulma (present Washim, Maharashtra).
Sarvasena (Reign: 330 – 355 AD)
 Son of Pravarasena I.
 He authored Harivijaya in Prakrit.
Harishena (Reign: 475 – 500 AD)
 Fifth generation descendent of Sarvasena.

 Patronised Buddhist art and architecture.
 Many of the Buddhist caves, Viharas and Chaityas at Ajanta were executed
under his reign. Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
 The later caves at Ajanta show the high perfection and sophistication in art
achieved under the Vakataka kings particularly Harishena.
 After his death, he was probably succeeded by a few rulers but not much
is known about the end of the dynasty.

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YUVRAJ IAS

GIST OF ANCIENT HISTORY OF

FOR UPSC CIVIL SERVICES PREPARATION

1 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC

Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)

1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

Lower Palaeolithic age

 Limestone was also used to make tools

 An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

 Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.

2 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Emergence of Homo sapiens

Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)

 Major climate change happened.

3 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 Art was seen in cave paintings of dance

Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age)

 Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period

4 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It

 In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda

 The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under

5 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Facts About Indus Valley Civilization

6 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 The civilization had over 5 million inhabitants.

Fact# 3: Nearly 1056 cities have been discovered

 1056 Harappan cities and settlements have been found

 Majority of the population of Indus Valley Civilization lived in villages

7 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 The Mesopotamian (Sumerian) scribes in the Middle Bronze Age refer

 When the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were first discovered, a

 The Indus Valley Civilization was a highly sophisticated civilization with

8 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Fact# 12: The largest city was Mohenjo-Daro

 Mohenjo-Daro measuring an area of about 300 hectares was the largest

Fact# 15: Harappan towns had an interesting rectangular grid pattern

 The streets found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were as wide as 10.5 m.

9 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Fact# 18: There were distinct neighbourhoods in the cities

Fact# 19: The city of Mohenjo-Daro was built at least 9 times

 Many of the cities of this civilization were destroyed several times by

Fact# 20: Harappa had very advanced granaries

Fact# 22: Ratio 1:2:4 all the way

10 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Fact# 25: Houses with attached bathrooms

Fact# 26: The world’s first rainwater harvesting was here

 The Harappan civilization had systems to store rainwater.

Fact# 27: Every city had its own Great Bath

 Every city in the civilization had at least one Great Bath.

11 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Fact# 29: Dustbins along the streets

Fact# 30: Separate channels for stormwater and wastewater

 Many port-cities have been unearthed which proves the existence of

Fact# 32: The Harappan cities had water-reservoirs

 At the Harappan city of Dholavira, 16 water reservoirs have been found.

12 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

 A touchstone has been recovered from Banawali, Haryana.

Fact# 37: They were the world’s earliest cotton cultivators

13 © Yuvraj IAS 2019

Fact# 38: They had the world’s first buttons

 A board with stone symbols/letters over 30 cm in height in a wooden frame

Fact# 40: The Indus Valley people were playful