Invention: Starting the Writing Process

Writing takes time

Find out when is the assignment due and devise a plan of action. This may seem
obvious and irrelevant to the writing process, but it's not. Writing is a process, not
merely a product. Even the best professional writers don't just sit down at a computer,
write, and call it a day. The quality of your writing will reflect the time and forethought
you put into the assignment. Plan ahead for the assignment by doing pre-writing: this
will allow you to be more productive and organized when you sit down to write. Also,
schedule several blocks of time to devote to your writing; then, you can walk away from
it for a while and come back later to make changes and revisions with a fresh mind.
Use the rhetorical elements as a guide to think
through your writing
Thinking about your assignment in terms of the rhetorical situation can help guide you in
the beginning of the writing process. Topic, audience, genre, style, opportunity,
research, the writer, and purpose are just a few elements that make up the rhetorical
situation.
Topic and audience are often very intertwined and work to inform each other. Start with
a broad view of your topic such as skateboarding, pollution, or the novel Jane Eyre and
then try to focus or refine your topic into a concise thesis statement by thinking about
your audience. Here are some questions you can ask yourself about audience:

 Who is the audience for your writing?

 Do you think your audience is interested in the topic? Why or why not?
 Why should your audience be interested in this topic?
 What does your audience already know about this topic?
 What does your audience need to know about this topic?
 What experiences has your audience had that would influence them on this
topic?
 What do you hope the audience will gain from your text?

For example, imagine that your broad topic is dorm food. Who is your audience? You
could be writing to current students, prospective students, parents of students,
university administrators, or nutrition experts among others. Each of these groups would
have different experiences with and interests in the topic of dorm food. While students
might be more concerned with the taste of the food or the hours food is available,
parents might be more concerned with the price.
You can also think about opportunity as a way to refine or focus your topic by asking
yourself what current events make your topic relevant at this moment. For example, you
could connect the nutritional value of dorm food to the current debate about the obesity
epidemic or you could connect the price value of dorm food to the rising cost of a
college education overall.
Keep in mind the purpose of the writing assignment.
Writing can have many different purposes. Here are just a few examples:
  Summarizing: Presenting the main points or essence of another text in a
condensed form
 Arguing/Persuading: Expressing a viewpoint on an issue or topic in an effort to
convince others that your viewpoint is correct
 Narrating: Telling a story or giving an account of events
 Evaluating: Examining something in order to determine its value or worth based
on a set of criteria.
 Analyzing: Breaking a topic down into its component parts in order to examine
the relationships between the parts.
 Responding: Writing that is in a direct dialogue with another text.
 Examining/Investigating: Systematically questioning a topic to discover or
uncover facts that are not widely known or accepted, in a way that strives to be
as neutral and objective as possible.
 Observing: Helping the reader see and understand a person, place, object,
image or event that you have directly watched or experienced through detailed
sensory descriptions.

You could be observing your dorm cafeteria to see what types of food students are
actually eating, you could be evaluating the quality of the food based on freshness and
quantity, or you could be narrating a story about how you gained fifteen pounds your
first year at college.
You may need to use several of these writing strategies within your paper. For example,
you could summarize federal nutrition guidelines, evaluate whether the food being
served at the dorm fits those guidelines, and then argue that changes should be made
in the menus to better fit those guidelines.
Pre-writing strategies
Once you have thesis statement just start writing! Don't feel constrained by format
issues. Don't worry about spelling, grammar, or writing in complete sentences.
Brainstorm and write down everything you can think of that might relate to the thesis
and then reread and evaluate the ideas you generated. It's easier to cut out bad ideas
than to only think of good ones. Once you have a handful of useful ways to approach
the thesis you can use a basic outline structure to begin to think about organization.
Remember to be flexible; this is just a way to get you writing. If better ideas occur to you
as you're writing, don't be afraid to refine your original ideas.
Introduction to Prewriting (Invention)
When you sit down to write...

 Does your mind turn blank?

 Are you sure you have nothing to say?

If so, you're not alone. Many writers experience this at some time or another, but some
people have strategies or techniques to get them started. When you are planning to
write something, try some of the following suggestions.
You can try the textbook formula:

1. State your thesis.

2. Write an outline.
3. Write the first draft.
4. Revise and polish.

. . . but that often doesn't work.

Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:
Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about
the subject.
There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow
down your choices. For example, your topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and
your potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should you write
about this, and why should anyone read it?
Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat
there?
Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?
Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to that served at Indiana University?
Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this
purpose.
How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some
movie as the best you've ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of
doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that
you really liked it?
Start the ideas flowing
Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences,
false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that
comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep
adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.
Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone — or by
several people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from
several different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might
also try to teach the subject to a group or class.
See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy
by using the word like. For example, if you are writing about violence on television, is
that violence like clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really
getting hurt)?
Take a rest and let it all percolate.
Summarize your whole idea.
Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.
Diagram your major points somehow.
Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what
you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places. Write a first
draft.
Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone
else. Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information.
You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.
You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several
strategies at once. If so, then you are probably doing something right.

Prewriting (Invention) General Questions

Beyond the strategies outlined in the previous section, these questions might help you
begin writing.
Explore the problem — not the topic

1. Who is your reader?

2. What is your purpose?
3. Who are you, the writer? (What image or persona do you want to project?)

Make your goals operational

1. How can you achieve your purpose?

2. Can you make a plan?

Generate some ideas
Brainstorm

 Keep writing
 Don't censor or evaluate
 Keep returning to the problem

Talk to your reader

 What questions would they ask?

 What different kinds of readers might you have?
Ask yourself questions
Journalistic questions
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? So What?
Stasis questions
Conjecture: what are the facts? Definition: what is the meaning or nature of the issue?
Quality: what is the seriousness of the issue? Policy: what should we do about the
issue? For more information on the stases, please go to the OWL resource on stasis
theory.
Classical topics (patterns of argument)
Definition

 How does the dictionary define ____?

 What do I mean by ____?
 What group of things does ____ belong to?
 How is ____ different from other things?
 What parts can ____ be divided into?
 Does ____ mean something now that it didn't years ago? If so, what?
 What other words mean about the same as ____?
 What are some concrete examples of ____?
 When is the meaning of ____ misunderstood?

Comparison/Contrast

 What is ____ similar to? In what ways?

 What is ____ different from? In what ways?
 ____ is superior (inferior) to what? How?
 ____ is most unlike (like) what? How?

Relationship

 What causes ____?

 What are the effects of ____?
 What is the purpose of ____? - What is the consequence of ____?
 What comes before (after) ____?

Testimony

 What have I heard people say about ____?

 What are some facts of statistics about ____?
 Can I quote any proverbs, poems, or sayings about ____?
 Are there any laws about ____?

Circumstance

 Is ____ possible or impossible?

  What qualities, conditions, or circumstances make ____ possible or impossible?
 When did ____ happen previously?
 Who can do ____?
 If ____ starts, what makes it end?
 What would it take for ____ to happen now?
 What would prevent ___ from happening?

Tagmemics
Contrastive features

 How is ____ different from things similar to it?

 How has ____ been different for me?

Variation

 How much can ____ change and still be itself?

 How is ____ changing?
 How much does ____ change from day to day?
 What are the different varieties of ____?

Distribution

 Where and when does ____ take place?

 What is the larger thing of which ___ is a part?
 What is the function of ____ in this larger thing?

Cubing (considering a subject from six points of view)

1. *Describe* it (colors, shapes, sizes, etc.)

2. *Compare* it (What is it similar to?)
3. *Associate* it (What does it make you think of?)
4. *Analyze* it (Tell how it's made)
5. *Apply* it (What can you do with it? How can it be used?)
6. *Argue* for or against it

Make an analogy
Choose an activity from column A to explain it by describing it in terms of an activity
from column B (or vice-versa).

playing cards writing essays

changing a tire making peace

 selling growing up

walking growing old

sailing rising in the world

skiing studying

plowing meditating

launching rockets swindling

running for office teaching

hunting learning

Russian roulette failing

brushing teeth quarreling

Rest and incubate.

(Adapted from Linda Flower's Problem-Solving Strategies for Writing, Gregory and
Elizabeth Cowan's Writing, and Gordon Rohman and Albert Wlecke's Prewriting.)
More Prewriting (Invention) Questions
As a writer, you can begin by asking yourself questions and then answering them. Your
answers will bring your subject into focus and provide you with the material to develop
your topic. Here are twenty questions or "thought starters" that present ways of
observing or thinking about your topic. Each question generates the type of essay listed
in parentheses after the question.

1. What does X mean? (Definition)

2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis)
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)
Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block
Most writers experience writer’s block at some point in their life, at various stages of the
writing process. Often a solution can be found by speaking with your instructor (if you
are a student) or a writing tutor. But there are ways to combat writer’s block on your
own, too! When you’re having trouble figuring out what to write next, consider these
common types of writer’s block and try the strategies that sound most promising.
If you're having trouble finding a starting place for the
assignment...
 Brainstorm topics that are interesting to you. Use the invention
strategies suggested by a tutor or teacher to generate questions or thoughts that
serve as useful starting places.
 Write down all the primary ideas you'd like to express and then fill in each with
the smaller ideas that make up each primary idea. This can easily be converted
into an outline.
 If your paper involves conducting research, you can look for places where you
disagree with another thinker’s claim or feel more work needs to be done.
Identifying gaps or conflicts in the existing conversation around a topic is often a
great starting place.

Example: You’ve been asked to analyze a television commercial. You remember three

commercials that you found interesting and re-watch them, taking notes on details that
stand out to you. You freewrite for five minutes on each of the three commercials, and
discover that you have much more to say about one than the others. You focus on that
one, expanding your freewrite into the an outline for the entire essay.
If you have a topic and an outline, but can’t think of an
interesting beginning…
 Try beginning in the middle. Start writing at whatever point you like, and leave the
introduction or first section until later. The reader will never know that you wrote
the paper "backwards." Besides, some writers routinely save the introduction
until later when they have a clearer idea of what the main idea and purpose of
the piece will be.
o After the paper is completely drafted, you can get all the sections in the
correct order and read it start-to-finish to ensure that transitions are
smooth.

Example: You have to complete a lab report and hate writing the “Introduction”
section. In order to complete the project on time, you overcome your anxiety about
writing that section by first writing the “Materials,” “Method,” and “Results” sections.
You write the “Introduction” last, reorder, and revise holistically.
If you’ve chosen or been assigned a topic that bores
you…
 Determine how much control you have over the assignment’s topic. Talk to your
teacher or supervisor and discuss how much the assignment can be adjusted. If
there is a lot of room for flexibility, choose a particular aspect of the topic you are
interested in.
o If you’ve chosen a common topic just because you thought it would be
easy to write on, reconsider: it’s easiest to write about something in which
you have a personal interest.
 Talk to your instructor or a tutor about how you can personalize a topic.
o If you can’t change the major scope or goal of the assignment, try to
understand why you’re being asked to write it. What knowledge will you
gain from completing the assignment? What skills will you be able to
practice? Who would benefit from reading my finished product, and how
would that positively change that community?

Example: You work for your campus newspaper and have been assigned to write an
article on an upcoming career fair. Although at first your editor asks you to simply
inform students of what companies will be represented at the event, you find that you’re
much more interested in profiling a certain company that’s new to the fair. You talk to
your editor and get permission to write the article that engages you more.
Example: The same scenario as above, but your editor tells you that you have to write
the original, more general article. Although it’s boring to you, you reflect that you’ll gain
practice presenting a mass of information in concise language, certainly a useful skill for
a journalist. Additionally, there are thousands of students on campus who would benefit
from the information your article will cover. This motivates you to write the article.
If you don’t understand the assignment…
 Find out what is expected of you. Read the written instructions you’ve been given
again, and make a list of questions you still have about the assignment. Consult
your teacher, a textbook, a classmate, a tutor, or your project coordinator. Make
it clear that you’ve read the teacher’s or supervisor’s materials and tried to solve
the problem on your own, and be specific about what’s confusing you.
o The better you can articulate the source of confusion, the more help
others can give you.

Example: Your composition instructor has asked you to write a Digital Literacy

Narrative. The assignment sheet provides a definition of “digital literacy,” and you have
some class notes that further clarify the concept. But after reviewing these materials,
you’re still not certain if your instructor would allow you to write about how you learned
to use different coffee-making technologies, as they aren’t traditionally considered
digital devices. You go to your instructor’s office hours to ask if this topic would be
acceptable, taking your annotated assignment sheet and class notes with you.
If you’re worried that you’ll write the wrong thing…
 Remember that the first draft is not the final draft. If you’re not sure that an
argument will pan out, just start writing it and see where it takes you. You can
always delete paragraphs that don’t work out later, but the best insights often
come from pushing yourself into uncertain territory—if you never feel unsure
about your claims, you’re probably just reproducing existing findings!
 If you’re worried that a small detail is incorrect, that’s okay in the draft phase.
Rather than spending a lot of time checking every small detail as you go, just
leave a note to yourself to check your sources later. Or, leave the troublesome
paragraph for later and work on a section that you’re more confident writing
about.

Example: You’re writing a paper on King Henry VIII and can’t remember off the top of
your head whether he beheaded two or three of his wives. The answer to this question
wouldn’t change your major argument either way, so you decide it’s not important to
look up right now. You write “two,” highlight it, and leave a note to yourself to check this
minor supporting fact against your research notes later.
If you’re worried that your sentences aren’t polished
enough…
 Remember, again, that the first draft is not the final draft. The sooner you get
some words on the page, the more time you’ll have to edit your prose for clarity
and style later. Complete an entire draft before you start editing on the sentence
level.
 If you find yourself consistently obsessing over individual sentences as you go,
try dimming or covering your laptop or computer monitor’s screen so that you
can’t see what you’re typing. You can also try writing in a notebook and typing up
your work later.
 Consciously stop any non-productive comments running through your head by
replacing them with productive ones. Rather than labeling yourself a “bad writer,”
think about what parts of the writing process you excel at (idea generation,
conclusions, sentence style, etc.) and plan to allot more time for the steps that
take you longer.

Example: You’re writing a paper on the effects of all-nighters on college student’s

health. You can’t think of the word “deleterious.” After a few seconds of futilely scanning
your brain for it, you write “super harmful,” knowing that you can find the more
professional word later.
If you’re so stressed out that you can’t seem to put a
word on the page…
  Take a short break! If you’re close to a deadline and worried about losing track of
time, then set a timer for ten or fifteen minutes and use that short window to relax
before getting back to work. Stretch, move away from your desk, and don’t
neglect your sleeping and eating schedule. It’s much harder to write if you’re
sleep-deprived or dehydrated.
 If you have several days left before your deadline, break the assignment into
manageable parts. Set measurable writing goals for yourself, like writing without
interruption for thirty minutes every day, or writing a certain number of words by a
given deadline.
 Finally, ask for help! Writing is most stressful when you’re doing it by yourself for
a long period of time. Asking a tutor or a friend to talk through your ideas can
help you get some perspective on the assignment, and remind you that it’s
nothing to be anxious about.

Example: You have a week before an important job application is due and you’re
anxious that the search committee will dislike your cover letter before you’ve even
written it. Since you still have plenty of time before the deadline, you plan to work on it
for just thirty minutes every day. You talk to a friend who helps you make a list of
reasons why you’re qualified for this job, and you stick to your writing schedule.
If you’re easily distracted when you open your
computer to write…
 Try temporarily disabling your internet access. Take your laptop to a space that
doesn’t have internet access. Draft by hand in a notebook and type up your work
later. Or, simply turn your computer’s wifi detector off, or put your document into
full-screen or “Focus” mode: these obstacles are easy to overcome, but the time
it takes to make the few extra clicks to open an internet browser is sometimes
enough to stop yourself.
 You can also try setting a timer forcing yourself to do nothing but write for a short
period of time. Even a ten-minute focused writing session can help you break
through initial writer’s block and build momentum on your project.

Example: You start to work on your paper, and after writing one sentence feel the
impulse to watch just one YouTube video. However, as you have wisely decided to take
your computer to the house of a friend who doesn’t have internet, your browser gives
you a frowny face and an error message. You return to your paper and keep writing.
Other Strategies for Getting Over
Writer's Block
If you’ve read through our list of symptoms and cures for writer’s block and are still
having trouble getting started, try these concrete exercises to get some words on the
page.

 Exercises to Get Inspiration 

 Get started by transcribing the prompt or some quotes: Sometimes just
writing out the assignment prompt, and thus being forced to pay attention to each
individual word in the directions, can help you get started. This fills an
intimidatingly blank screen, and it provides a starting place that’s less intimidating
than immediately voicing your thesis.
o The same is true for quotes from readings you’ve done on the subject.
Once you’ve gotten them on the page, begin to type around these quotes,
explaining why they struck you as important, whether you agree with
them, or what they reveal about your topic. You may find that by
commenting on your quotes, you’ve basically developed an argument for
your piece.
o If you opt to transcribe the prompt, don’t forget to remove it before
submitting your assignment. You don’t want to unintentionally give the
impression of having plagiarized.
 Change the audience: Pretend that you're writing to a child, to a close friend, to
a parent, to a person who sharply disagrees with you, or to someone who's new
to the subject and needs to have you explain your paper's topic slowly and
clearly. Changing the audience—especially to one that would need you to
proceed very deliberately—can clarify your purpose and help get some words on
the page.
o You can revise to address your assigned audience later. It’s easier to
revise existing work than to start from scratch!
 Play a role: Pretend someone else is writing your paper—someone with a very
personal interest in the topic or someone with a viewpoint very different than your
own. Pulling yourself out of your usual perspective can help you see things that
are otherwise invisible or difficult to articulate, and your writing will be stronger for
it.
o Better still, have a conversation with someone who you know has a very
different perspective than your own. You may be surprised to see how
starkly this illuminates your most closely-held assumptions.

Exercises to Organize Your Thoughts

 Map or draw your paper: Write some keywords (or even any thoughts you have
on the subject) on a series of notecards, then shuffle them. Lay them out on a
large table and spend some time moving them around, writing out connections
between different cards as you see them. Even if the thoughts and words seem
unconnected at first, you might make some surprising connections that will form
 a good thesis statement. You can get started writing later by transcribing the
content of some of your card clusters.
o This practice is very similar to the strategy used by John McPhee, the
celebrated author of modern classics in creative nonfiction like The Pine
Barrens. See this profile for a more detailed description of his process.  
 Talk out the paper: Talk about what you want to write someone who's willing to
listen to your ideas for fifteen to thirty minutes. Having to explain ideas or tell the
story of your paper’s development to someone else often clarifies your main
argument. If your listener is willing, they can ask guiding questions as you speak
or take notes on what you say that you can reference or transcribe later.
 Tape the paper:If you’re too shy to talk out the paper to someone else, recording
yourself largely accomplishes the same purpose. You can even start writing by
transcribing parts of the recording.

Exercises to Stay on Task

 Write by hand: Put all electronic devices on the other side of the room and try to
fill up a notebook page without their help. You can edit the work as you transcribe
it to the screen—suddenly, you have a second draft on your hands!  
 Use timers:Set a timer for ten minutes and write continuously, without opening
the Internet or leaving your computer, until the timer goes off. The sentences
don’t have to be polished, but you’ll be surprised how much content you can
generate in just ten minutes at a time.
o If you’re feeling confident, or you’re pushing against a deadline, you can
increase the time span.
 Write in a place with no internet connection: And temporarily disable your
phone’s internet access, using it only as a timer.

Strategies to Manage Your Stress Level

 Set manageable goals: Writing an entire paper in an hour is daunting, but
writing just two paragraphs in an hour is very doable. Plan out how much time
you have before the deadline and how much writing you need to do, and make
yourself a manageable schedule of small tasks.
o It can be productive to think of even modest achievements like reaching a
low word count or writing continuously for a short amount of time as goals
worthy of reward. Anticipating the break or treat you’ve promised yourself
can motivate you to keep going just a little while longer.
 Take short breaks when you need them: It’s hard to write anything when you
need sleep or have been staring at a screen for too long.
 Remember that no one has to see your first—or even second—draft.Even
an awful opening sentence is a better start than a blank document. Everyone has
to work through disorganized thoughts and jumbled sentences before they get to
their final, polished state.
Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis
Statements
Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement
1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

 An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts,

evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the
audience.
 An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
 An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with
specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a
cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is
to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative),
a thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.
2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss
in your paper and should be supported with specific evidence.
3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.
4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement
to reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper.
Thesis Statement Examples
Example of an analytical thesis statement:
An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting
students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds.

The paper that follows should:

 Explain the analysis of the college admission process

 Explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class,
and socializing with peers.
The paper that follows should:

 Explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with
peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service
projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.

The paper that follows should:

 Present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue
community projects before entering college

Four Main Components for Effective

Outlines
Ideally, you should follow the four suggestions presented here to create an effective
outline. When creating a topic outline, follow these two rules for capitalization: For first-
level heads, present the information using all upper-case letters; and for secondary and
tertiary items, use upper and lower-case letters. The examples are taken from
the Sample Outline handout.
Parallelism—How do I accomplish this?
Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a
verb, the second heading should be a verb. Example:

I. CHOOSE DESIRED COLLEGES

II. PREPARE APPLICATION

("Choose" and "Prepare" are both verbs. The present tense of the verb is usually the
preferred form for an outline.)
Coordination—How do I accomplish this?
All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the
information contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should
be less significant than the headings). Example:

1. VISIT AND EVALUATE COLLEGE CAMPUSES

2. VISIT AND EVALUATE COLLEGE WEBSITES

1. Note important statistics

2. Look for interesting classes

(Campus and websites visits are equally significant. They are part of the main tasks you
would need to do. Finding statistics and classes found on college websites are parts of
the process involved in carrying out the main heading topics.)
Subordination—How do I accomplish this?
The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the
subheadings should be more specific. Example:

1. DESCRIBE AN INFLUENTIAL PERSON IN YOUR LIFE

1. Favorite high school teacher
2. Grandparent

(A favorite teacher and grandparent are specific examples from the generalized
category of influential people in your life.)
Division—How do I accomplish this?
Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:

1. COMPILE RÉSUMÉ

1. List relevant coursework

2. List work experience
3. List volunteer experience

(The heading "Compile Résumé" is divided into 3 parts.)

Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if
you seem to have a lot, it may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.

Why and How to Create a Useful Outline

Why create an outline? There are many reasons, but in general, it may be helpful to
create an outline when you want to show the hierarchical relationship or logical ordering
of information. For research papers, an outline may help you keep track of large
amounts of information. For creative writing, an outline may help organize the various
plot threads and help keep track of character traits. Many people find that organizing an
oral report or presentation in outline form helps them speak more effectively in front of a
crowd. Below are the primary reasons for creating an outline.

 Aids in the process of writing

 Helps you organize your ideas
 Presents your material in a logical form
 Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
 Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
 Defines boundaries and groups

How do I create an outline?

 Determine the purpose of your paper.

 Determine the audience you are writing for.
  Develop the thesis of your paper.

Then:

 Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper.
 Organize: Group related ideas together.
 Order: Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract
to concrete.
 Label: Create main and sub headings.

Remember: creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your
thoughts a lot easier. Whether you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but
making any kind of outline (even just some jotting down some main ideas) will be
beneficial to your writing process.

Types of Outlines and Samples

Alphanumeric Outlines
This is the most common type of outline and usually instantly recognizable to most
people. The formatting follows these characters, in this order:

 Roman Numerals
 Capitalized Letters
 Arabic Numerals
 Lowercase Letters

If the outline needs to subdivide beyond these divisions, use Arabic numerals inside
parentheses and then lowercase letters inside parentheses. Select the "Sample
Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of this outline.
The sample PDF in the Media Box above is an example of an outline that a student
might create before writing an essay. In order to organize her thoughts and make sure
that she has not forgotten any key points that she wants to address, she creates the
outline as a framework for her essay.
What is the assignment?
Your instructor asks the class to write an expository (explanatory) essay on the typical
steps a high school student would follow in order to apply to college.
What is the purpose of this essay?
To explain the process for applying to college
Who is the intended audience for this essay?
High school students intending to apply to college and their parents
What is the essay's thesis statement?
When applying to college, a student follows a certain process which includes choosing
the right schools and preparing the application materials.
Full Sentence Outlines
The full sentence outline format is essentially the same as the Alphanumeric outline.
The main difference (as the title suggests) is that full sentences are required at each
level of the outline. This outline is most often used when preparing a traditional essay.
Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to download the sample of
this outline.
Decimal Outlines
The decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline. The added benefit is
a system of decimal notation that clearly shows how every level of the outline relates to
the larger whole. Select the "Sample Outlines" PDF in the Media Box above to
download the sample of this outline.

Developing Strong Thesis Statements

The thesis statement or main claim must be
debatable
An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing must begin with a debatable thesis or
claim. In other words, the thesis must be something that people could reasonably have
differing opinions on. If your thesis is something that is generally agreed upon or
accepted as fact then there is no reason to try to persuade people.
Example of a non-debatable thesis statement:
Pollution is bad for the environment.

This thesis statement is not debatable. First, the word pollution implies that something is
bad or negative in some way. Furthermore, all studies agree that pollution is a problem;
they simply disagree on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem. No one
could reasonably argue that pollution is unambiguously good.
Example of a debatable thesis statement:
At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution.

This is an example of a debatable thesis because reasonable people could disagree

with it. Some people might think that this is how we should spend the nation's money.
Others might feel that we should be spending more money on education. Still others
could argue that corporations, not the government, should be paying to limit pollution.
Another example of a debatable thesis statement:
America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars.

In this example there is also room for disagreement between rational individuals. Some
citizens might think focusing on recycling programs rather than private automobiles is
the most effective strategy.
The thesis needs to be narrow
Although the scope of your paper might seem overwhelming at the start, generally the
narrower the thesis the more effective your argument will be. Your thesis or claim must
be supported by evidence. The broader your claim is, the more evidence you will need
to convince readers that your position is right.
Example of a thesis that is too broad:
Drug use is detrimental to society.

There are several reasons this statement is too broad to argue. First, what is included in
the category "drugs"? Is the author talking about illegal drug use, recreational drug use
(which might include alcohol and cigarettes), or all uses of medication in general?
Second, in what ways are drugs detrimental? Is drug use causing deaths (and is the
author equating deaths from overdoses and deaths from drug related violence)? Is drug
use changing the moral climate or causing the economy to decline? Finally, what does
the author mean by "society"? Is the author referring only to America or to the global
population? Does the author make any distinction between the effects on children and
adults? There are just too many questions that the claim leaves open. The author could
not cover all of the topics listed above, yet the generality of the claim leaves all of these
possibilities open to debate.
Example of a narrow or focused thesis:
Illegal drug use is detrimental because it encourages gang violence.

In this example the topic of drugs has been narrowed down to illegal drugs and the
detriment has been narrowed down to gang violence. This is a much more manageable
topic.
We could narrow each debatable thesis from the previous examples in the following
way:
Narrowed debatable thesis 1:
At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on helping upgrade business to clean
technologies, researching renewable energy sources, and planting more trees in order to control
or eliminate pollution.

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just the amount of
money used but also how the money could actually help to control pollution.
Narrowed debatable thesis 2:
America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars because it would allow
most citizens to contribute to national efforts and care about the outcome.

This thesis narrows the scope of the argument by specifying not just what the focus of a
national anti-pollution campaign should be but also why this is the appropriate focus.
Qualifiers such as "typically," "generally," "usually," or "on average" also help to limit the
scope of your claim by allowing for the almost inevitable exception to the rule.
Types of claims
Claims typically fall into one of four categories. Thinking about how you want to
approach your topic, or, in other words, what type of claim you want to make, is one
way to focus your thesis on one particular aspect of your broader topic.
Claims of fact or definition: These claims argue about what the definition of
something is or whether something is a settled fact. Example:
While some pundits have framed a four-year college education as something necessary for adult
success, this notion should not be treated as a given.
Claims of cause and effect: These claims argue that one person, thing, or event
caused another thing or event to occur. Example:
Federal student loan policies have contributed to widespread growth in college tuition.

Claims about value: These are claims made of what something is worth, whether we
value it or not, how we would rate or categorize something. Example:
The student debt crisis is one of the most serious problems facing the country today.

Claims about solutions or policies: These are claims that argue for or against a
certain solution or policy approach to a problem. Example:
Rather than encouraging all students to attend four-year colleges, we should instead emphasize
the validity of two-year colleges, technical schools, and trade schools as well.

Which type of claim is right for your argument? Which type of thesis or claim you
use for your argument will depend on your position and knowledge of the topic, your
audience, and the context of your paper. You might want to think about where you
imagine your audience to be on this topic and pinpoint where you think the biggest
difference in viewpoints might be. Even if you start with one type of claim you probably
will be using several within the paper. Regardless of the type of claim you choose to
utilize it is key to identify the controversy or debate you are addressing and to define
your position early on in the paper.

Organizing Your Argument

How can I effectively present my argument?
In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that
the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative
methods—the Toulmin Method, Classical Method, and Rogerian Method—give
guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.
Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument.
Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s
directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).
Toulmin Method
The Toulmin Method is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation
for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in The Uses of
Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support
structure for each of an argument's key claims.
The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:
Claim: In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you
make your main argument.
Data (Grounds): You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide
the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.
Warrant (Bridge): In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim.
As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in
reason.
Backing (Foundation): Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be
necessary to support the warrant.
Counterclaim: You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in
your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar
with the opposing perspective.  If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased
(and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include
several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.
Rebuttal: In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the
counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your
essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it
supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they
may draw different conclusions.
Example of the Toulmin Method:
Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
Data1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.
Warrant 1: Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to
industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting
pollution.
Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.
Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a
hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.
Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.
Warrant 3: The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.
Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture
of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and
encouraging the use of mass transit systems.
Rebuttal: While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in
many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid
cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.
Rogerian Method
The Rogerian Method (named for, but not developed by, influential American
psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This
strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience
understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s
position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an
opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian
Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

1. your position seems like a reasonable compromise.

2. you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method is as follows:

Introduction: Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as
possible.
Opposing View: Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you
discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do
not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.
Statement of Validity (Understanding): This section discusses how you acknowledge
how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You
identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still
present your own argument.
Statement of Your Position: By this point, you have demonstrated that you
understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.
Statement of Contexts: Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you
explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can
recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.
Statement of Benefits: You should conclude by explaining to the opposing
side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages
of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other
side’s perspective.
Example of the Rogerian Method:
Introduction: The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to
some debate.
Opposing View: Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.
Statement of Validity (Understanding): Those parents who support uniforms argue
that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified
sense of school pride and inclusiveness.
Statement of Your Position: Students should not be required to wear school uniforms.
Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express
themselves through clothing.
Statement of Contexts: However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote
inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce
conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing
without the fear of being ostracized.
Statement of Benefits: Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests,
students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom
over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present
themselves to their peers.
Classical Method
The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize
your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later
developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to
focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the
underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand
the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.
The basic format of the Classical Method is as follows:
Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should
also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.
Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information
to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the
reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.
Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you
are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided
previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.
Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be
sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide
supplementary evidence and subpoints.
Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that
disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is
important to prove why your stance is more logical. 
Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also
caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader
more inclined to consider your argument.  
Example of the Classical Method: 
Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide.
The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little.
Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families
cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing
a minimum wage job.
Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle
to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and
professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.
Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to
better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage,
workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.
Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million
Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the
federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives
would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.
Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might
increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the
increase would not be great. Additionally,  worries about a cost of living increase must
be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking
Americans.
Conclusion (Peroratio):If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could
alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would
improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits
outweigh the potential drawbacks.
Essay Writing
This resource begins with a general description of essay writing and moves to a
discussion of common essay genres students may encounter across the curriculum.
The four genres of essays (description, narration, exposition, and argumentation) are
common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these
genres, also known as the modes of discourse, have been criticized by some
composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these genres
and students’ need to understand and produce these types of essays. We hope these
resources will help.
Overview
The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter
while in academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and
comfortable with this type of writing early on in her training.
Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned either
to be done in class, which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of
creativity) on the part of the student, or as homework, which likewise demands a certain
amount of preparation. Many poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of
a lack of preparation and confidence. However, students can avoid the discomfort often
associated with essay writing by understanding some common genres.
Before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.
What is an essay?
Though the word essay has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern
English, its origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the
English language through the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back
further, we find that the French form of the word comes from the Latin verb  exigere,
which means "to examine, test, or (literally) to drive out." Through the excavation of this
ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the academic essay: to encourage
students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.
Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of
skills such as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion,
conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is
much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at essay writing.
The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in
their writing with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to
view the essay as the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature)
concise and require clarity in purpose and direction. This means that there is no room
for the student’s thoughts to wander or stray from his or her purpose; the writing must
be deliberate and interesting.
This handout should help students become familiar and comfortable with the process of
essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.
This handout includes a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:

 Expository essays
 Descriptive essays
 Narrative essays
 Argumentative (Persuasive) essays

Descriptive Essays
What is a descriptive essay?
The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe something—
object, person, place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the
student’s ability to create a written account of a particular experience. What is more, this
genre allows for a great deal of artistic freedom (the goal of which is to paint an image
that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader).
One might benefit from keeping in mind this simple maxim: If the reader is unable to
clearly form an impression of the thing that you are describing, try, try again!
Here are some guidelines for writing a descriptive essay.

 Take time to brainstorm

If your instructor asks you to describe your favorite food, make sure that you jot down
some ideas before you begin describing it. For instance, if you choose pizza, you might
start by writing down a few words: sauce, cheese, crust, pepperoni, sausage, spices,
hot, melted, etc. Once you have written down some words, you can begin by compiling
descriptive lists for each one.

 Use clear and concise language.

This means that words are chosen carefully, particularly for their relevancy in relation to
that which you are intending to describe.

 Choose vivid language.

Why use horse when you can choose stallion? Why not use tempestuous instead

of violent? Or why not miserly in place of cheap? Such choices form a firmer image in
the mind of the reader and often times offer nuanced meanings that serve better one’s
purpose.

 Use your senses!

Remember, if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to the senses of
the reader. Explain how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted, or looked. Embellish
the moment with senses.

 What were you thinking?!

If you can describe emotions or feelings related to your topic, you will connect with the
reader on a deeper level. Many have felt crushing loss in their lives, or ecstatic joy, or
mild complacency. Tap into this emotional reservoir in order to achieve your full
descriptive potential.

 Leave the reader with a clear impression.

One of your goals is to evoke a strong sense of familiarity and appreciation in the
reader. If your reader can walk away from the essay craving the very pizza you just
described, you are on your way to writing effective descriptive essays.

 Be organized!

It is easy to fall into an incoherent rambling of emotions and senses when writing a
descriptive essay. However, you must strive to present an organized and logical
description if the reader is to come away from the essay with a cogent sense of what it
is you are attempting to describe.

Argumentative Essays
What is an argumentative essay?
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a
topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a
concise manner.
Please note: Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the
expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs
from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research
involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project
in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed
research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository
essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.
Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or
previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical
research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or
experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to
understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a
position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the
amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear
thesis and follow sound reasoning.
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.

 A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first
paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by
reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is
important (exigence) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students
should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be
appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student
does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective
or persuasive essay.

 Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and

conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without
logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and
the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section
and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.

 Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow
for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an
ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the
body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the
opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with
evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the
evidence supports the thesis (warrant).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of
view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should
dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting
opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong
outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not
be well informed or how they might be out of date.

 Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current

information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some
factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However,
students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the
paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss
opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not
support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong
outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date
on the topic.

 A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in
light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of
the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader.
Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the
conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay.
Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You
may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed
in light of your work.
A complete argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a
classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those
who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to
the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point,
questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the
conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving
no doubt as to its intent or argument.
The five-paragraph essay
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach.
This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds
straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory
paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of
opposing views and (c) a conclusion.
Longer argumentative essays
Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays.
Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research
will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the
context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a
number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these
factors will be determined by the assignment.

Concision
The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not
always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Writers often fill
sentences with weak or unnecessary words that can be deleted or replaced. Words and
phrases should be deliberately chosen for the work they are doing. Like bad employees,
words that don't accomplish enough should be fired. When only the most effective
words remain, writing will be far more concise and readable.
This resource contains general concision tips followed by very specific strategies for
pruning sentences. For more help, visit the Purdue OWL's vidcast on cutting during
the revision phase of the writing process.
1. Replace several vague words with more powerful
and specific words.
Often, writers use several small and ambiguous words to express a concept, wasting
energy expressing ideas better relayed through fewer specific words. As a general rule,
more specific words lead to more concise writing. Because of the variety of nouns,
verbs, and adjectives, most things have a closely corresponding description.
Brainstorming or searching a thesaurus can lead to the word best suited for a specific
instance. Notice that the examples below actually convey more as they drop in word
count.
Wordy: The politician talked about several of the merits of after-school programs
in his speech
(14 words)
Concise: The politician touted after-school programs in his speech.
(8 words)
Wordy: Suzie believed but could not confirm that Billy had feelings of
affection for her.
(14 words)
Concise: Suzie assumed that Billy adored her.
(6 words)
Wordy: Our Web site has made available many of the things you can use for
making a decision on the best dentist.
(20 words)
Concise: Our website presents criteria for determining the best dentist.
(9 words)
Wordy: Working as a pupil under someone who develops photos was an
experience that really helped me learn a lot.
(20 words)
Concise: Working as a photo technician's apprentice was
an educational experience.
(10 words)
2. Interrogate every word in a sentence
Check every word to make sure that it is providing something important and unique to a
sentence. If words are dead weight, they can be deleted or replaced. Other sections in
this handout cover this concept more specifically, but there are some general examples
below containing sentences with words that could be cut.
Wordy: The teacher demonstrated some of the various ways and methods for cutting
words from my essay that I had written for class.
(22 words)
Concise: The teacher demonstrated methods for cutting words from my essay.
(10 words)
Wordy: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band of musicians together in
1969, giving it the ironic name of Blind Faith because early speculation that was
spreading everywhere about the band suggested that the new musical group would be
good enough to rival the earlier bands that both men had been in, Cream and Traffic,
which people had really liked and had been very popular.
(66 words)
Concise: Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood formed a new band in 1969, ironically
naming it Blind Faith because speculation suggested that the group would rival the
musicians’ previous popular bands, Cream and Traffic.
(32 words)
Wordy: Many have made the wise observation that when a stone is in motion rolling
down a hill or incline that that moving stone is not as likely to be covered all over with
the kind of thick green moss that grows on stationary unmoving things and becomes a
nuisance and suggests that those things haven’t moved in a long time and probably
won’t move any time soon.
(67 words)
Concise: A rolling stone gathers no moss.
(6 words)
3. Combine Sentences.
Some information does not require a full sentence, and can easily be inserted into
another sentence without losing any of its value. To get more strategies for sentence
combining, see the handout on Sentence Variety.
Wordy: Ludwig's castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness. By his
death, he had commissioned three castles.
(18 words)
Concise: Ludwig's three castles are an astounding marriage of beauty and madness.
(11 words)
Wordy: The supposed crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest in
extraterrestrial life. This crash is rumored to have occurred in 1947.
(24 words)
Concise: The supposed 1947 crash of a UFO in Roswell, New Mexico aroused interest
in extraterrestrial life.
(16 words)

Changing Phrases
1. Change phrases into single-words and adjectives
Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes
to wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.
Wordy: The employee with ambition... (4 words)
Concise: The ambitious employee... (3 words)
Wordy: The department showing the best performance... (6 words)
Concise: The best-performing department... (4 words)
Wordy: Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the
installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing. (23 words)
Concise: At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we
install microfilm equipment in the data processing department. (20 words)
Wordy: We read the letter we received yesterday and reviewed it thoroughly.
Concise: We thoroughly read the letter we received yesterday.
Wordy: As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch
small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything
else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas
found in nouns rather than verbs. (53 words)
Concise: As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.
(13 words)
2. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses
into phrases
Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word
contributes to wordiness. Convert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when
possible.
Wordy: The report, which was released recently... (6 words)
Concise: The recently released report... (4 words)
Wordy: All applicants who are interested in the job must... (9 words)
Concise: All job applicants must... (4 words)
Wordy: The system that is most efficient and accurate... (8 words)
Concise: The most efficient and accurate system... (6 words)'
3. Change Passive Verbs into Active Verbs
See our document on active and passive voice for a more thorough explanation of this
topic.
Wordy: An account was opened by Mrs. Simms. (7 words)
Concise: Mrs. Simms opened an account. (5 words)
Wordy: Your figures were checked by the research department. (8 words)
Concise: The research department checked your figures. (6 words

Sentence and Clause Arrangement for

Emphasis
Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving
Emphasis
An abrupt short sentence following a long sentence or a sequence of long sentences is
often emphatic. For example, compare the following paragraphs. The second version
emphasizes an important idea by placing it in an independent clause and placing it at
the end of the paragraph:
For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as
a cheap source of raw materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and
overstocked merchandise, and as a training ground for junior executives who needed
minor league experience.
For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of
raw materials, as a place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise,
and as a training ground for junior executives who needed minor league experience. But
those days have ended.
Varying a sentence by using a question after a series of statements is another way of
achieving emphasis.
The increased number of joggers, the booming sales of exercise bicycles and other
physical training devices, the record number of entrants in marathon races—all clearly
indicate the growing belief among Americans that strenuous, prolonged exercise is good
for their health. But is it?
Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving Emphasis
Since the terminal position in the sentence carries the most weight and since the main
clause is more emphatic than a subordinate clause in a complex sentence, writers often
place the subordinate clause before the main clause to give maximal emphasis to the
main clause. For example:
I believe both of these applicants are superb even though it's hard to find good
secretaries nowadays.
Even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays, I believe both of these
applicants are superb.

Strategies for Variation

Adding sentence variety to prose can give it life and rhythm. Too many sentences with
the same structure and length can grow monotonous for readers. Varying sentence
style and structure can also reduce repetition and add emphasis. Long sentences work
well for incorporating a lot of information, and short sentences can often maximize
crucial points. These general tips may help add variety to similar sentences.
1. Vary the rhythm by alternating short and long
sentences.
Several sentences of the same length can make for bland writing. To enliven
paragraphs, write sentences of different lengths. This will also allow for effective
emphasis.
Example:
The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some Native
American art. In Anchorage stores they found some excellent examples of soapstone
carvings. But they couldn't find a dealer selling any of the woven wall hangings they
wanted. They were very disappointed when they left Anchorage empty-handed.
Revision:
The Winslow family visited Canada and Alaska last summer to find some native
American art, such as soapstone carvings and wall hangings. Anchorage stores had
many soapstone items available. Still, they were disappointed to learn that wall
hangings, which they had especially wanted, were difficult to find. Sadly, they left
empty-handed.
Example:
Many really good blues guitarists have all had the last name King. They have been
named Freddie King and Albert King and B.B. King. The name King must make a
bluesman a really good bluesman. The bluesmen named King have all been very
talented and good guitar players. The claim that a name can make a guitarist good may
not be that far-fetched.
Revision:
What makes a good bluesman? Maybe, just maybe, it's all in a stately name. B.B. King.
Freddie King. Albert King. It's no coincidence that they're the royalty of their genre.
When their fingers dance like court jesters, their guitars gleam like scepters, and their
voices bellow like regal trumpets, they seem almost like nobility. Hearing their music is
like walking into the throne room. They really are kings.
2. Vary sentence openings.
If too many sentences start with the same word, especially The, It, This, or I, prose can
grow tedious for readers, so changing opening words and phrases can be refreshing.
Below are alternative openings for a fairly standard sentence. Notice that different
beginnings can alter not only the structure but also the emphasis of the sentence. They
may also require rephrasing in sentences before or after this one, meaning that one
change could lead to an abundance of sentence variety.
Example:
The biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting next to
each other at the Super Bowl.
Possible Revisions:

 Coincidentally, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at the Super
Bowl.
 In an amazing coincidence, David and I ended up sitting next to each other at the
Super Bowl.
 Sitting next to David at the Super Bowl was a tremendous coincidence.
 But the biggest coincidence that day happened when David and I ended up sitting
next to each other at the Super Bowl.
 When I sat down at the Super Bowl, I realized that, by sheer coincidence, I was
directly next to David.
 By sheer coincidence, I ended up sitting directly next to David at the Super Bowl.
 With over 50,000 fans at the Super Bowl, it took an incredible coincidence for me
to end up sitting right next to David.
 What are the odds that I would have ended up sitting right next to David at the
Super Bowl?
 David and I, without any prior planning, ended up sitting right next to each other
at the Super Bowl.
 Without any prior planning, David and I ended up sitting right next to each other
at the Super Bowl.
 At the crowded Super Bowl, packed with 50,000 screaming fans, David and I
ended up sitting right next to each other by sheer coincidence.
 Though I hadn't made any advance arrangements with David, we ended up
sitting right next to each other at the Super Bowl.
 Many amazing coincidences occurred that day, but nothing topped sitting right
next to David at the Super Bowl.
 Unbelievable, I know, but David and I ended up sitting right next to each other at
the Super Bowl.
 Guided by some bizarre coincidence, David and I ended up sitting right next to
each other at the Super Bowl