Open-channel expansions for subcritical flow

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Authors Hashimi, Sayed Abdul Halim, 1937-

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 OPEN-CHANNEL EXPANSIONS

FOR SUBCRITICAL FLOW

by

Sayed Abdul Halim JHasMmi

A T h e s is Subm itted to the F a c u lty of th e

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

In P a rtia l F u lfillm en t of th e R equirem ents

For th e D egree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE '

In th e G rad u ate C o lle g e

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 6 6
 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This t h e s i s h a s b een su b m itted in p a rtia l fulfillm ent of re q u ire ­

m ents for an a d v a n c e d d eg ree a t th e U n iv e rs ity of Arizona and is
d e p o s ite d in th e U n iv e rsity Library to be made a v a ila b le to borrowers
u nder ru le s of the Library.

Brief q u o ta tio n s from t h is t h e s i s are a llo w a b le w ith o u t s p e c ia l

p e rm is sio n provided th a t a c c u r a te a ck n o w led g m en t of the so u rc e is
m a d e . R eq u e sts for p e rm is sio n for e x te n d e d m a n u sc rip t in w hole or in
part m ay be g ran ted by the h ead of th e m ajor departm en t or the Dean of
the G rad u ate C o l l e g e . In a ll o th er i n s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r, p e rm issio n
m ust be o b ta in e d from the a u th o r.

SIGNED:

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This t h e s i s h a s b een ap p ro ved on th e d a te shown below:

Thomas C arm ody odv /

A s s is ta n t P ro fe s s o r of
C iv il Engineering
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

All e x p e rim e n ts w ere c o n d u c te d a t the H y d ra u lic s L a b o ra to ry ,

U n iv e r s ity of A rizona. D r. E. M , L a u r s e n , h e a d . D epartm ent of C iv il

E n g in ee rin g , w a s v e ry c o o p e ra tiv e in th e o v e r - a l l s p o n s o r s h ip of the

p r o je c t. D r. T. C arm ody, a d v is o r of th e w r ite r, w a s of in v a lu a b le

a s s i s t a n c e in providing a d v ic e a n d re c o m m e n d a tio n s. H abib Y aziji

w a s of g re a t a s s i s t a n c e to th e w rite r in th e model t e s t i n g an d d ata

c o lle c tio n p r o c e d u re s . The a s s i s t a n c e of M r. Louis G e m so n , te c h n ic ia n

for th e D epartm ent of C iv il E n g in ee rin g , h a s b een i n v a lu a b le .

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . ............................ iii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.................... v

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v ii

ABSTRACT................... v iii

C h a p te r
I. INTRODUCTION.............................. 1

II. HYDRAULICS OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW.................. 4

III. METHOD OF STUDY...................................... 13

IV. RESULTS ............................................... . .25

V. ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S .......................... 36

VI. C O N C L U S IO N S .................................................................. 44

REFERENCES ................................... 48
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Energy in a H o rizo n tal O pen C h a n n e l Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2. M odel S e t-u p for th e S - s h a p e Curve T ran sitio n B /b = 2 .0 . . . .14

3. C a lib ra tio n of A ir-W ater and W a te r-M e rc u ry M anom eter . . . .15

4. C a lib ra tio n Curve of W a te r-M e rc u ry M anom eter U sed

on 4 In ch Elbow M eter ................................................................. 16

5. C a lib r a tio n C urve of A ir-W ater M ano m eter U sed on

3 In ch Supply Line ......................................................... 17

6. P ito t Tube C a l i b r a t i o n . . ........................................... 19

7. P ito t Tube C a lib r a tio n Curve . ........................ 20

8. P ier Form ation for th e Ratio B /b = 2 . 0 ........................ 22

9. S - s h a p e C urve W ith Vanes: B /b = 2 . 0 ....................... 22

10. G rad u al C h a n g e 12 1 / 2 ° E xpansion In clu d in g Baffle

P ie rs: B /b = 3 .0 24

11. G rad u al C h an g e 12 1 / 2 ° E xpansion In clu d in g Baffle

P ie rs: l/S y g : B /b = 3 . 0 .................... 24

12. D im e n s io n le s s C u rv es of C ^ vs F j : B /b = 2 .0 . . . . . . . . . .27

13. V elocity P attern for an Abrupt Expansion: B /b = 3 . 0 . . . . . . .28

14. V elocity P a tte rn , 12 1 / 2 ° E xpansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

15. V elocity P a tte rn , 12 1/ 2 ° E x p a n sio n , 4 In te rio r V a n e s ................. 30

16. V elocity P a t t e r n , 17 1 / 2 ° E x p a n sio n , 4 In te rio r Vanes . . . . .31

17. V elocity P a t t e r n , 12 1 / 2 ° E xp ansion Tetrahedron I n s e r t . . . .32

v
 vi

List of I l l u s t r a t i o n s —C o n tin u e d

Figure Page

18. V elocity P a t t e r n , 12 1 / 2 ° E xp ansio n In clu d in g 3 Baffle

P iers . .....................................................................

19. V elo city P a tte rn , 12 1 / 2 ° E xp ansio n In clud in g 7 Baffle

P iers . . . . ........................................................

20. V elocity D is trib u tio n , 1 4 ° 5 ' E xpan sio n . ................... . . . 35

 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. N om enclature ' i 'x

v ii
 ABSTRACT

V elocity p a tte r n s an d l o s s c o e f fic ie n ts for a n o pen c h a n n e l

e x p a n s io n w ere d eterm in e d through th e u s e of c o n tin u ity an d e n e rg y

re la tio n sh ip s.

D ifferen t ty p e s of e x p a n s io n s w ere s tu d ie d for the two

p h a s e s of th e e x p e rim e n t. One a r a tio of B/b = 2 . 0 an d th e o th er

a ra tio B/b = 3 . 0 .

D epth r e a d in g s and v e l o c i ty w ere m e a su re d in th e flow

an d from t h e s e th e e n e rg y l o s s e s and v e l o c i t y p a tte r n s w ere

d e te rm in e d .

The r e s u l t s c l e a r l y in d ic a te t h a t sim ple ty p e s of t r a n s itio n s

w ith i n s e r t s c o u ld be u s e d in s t e a d of the c o s t l y an d e la b o r a te

tra n s itio n s .

v iii
 TABLE I

NOMENCLATURE

Area of the a p p ro ach flow in squ are feet; A^

Area of the flow in the d ow nstream c h a n n e l in sq u are fe e t; Ag

W idth of a p p ro a c h c h a n n e l in feet; b

W idth of dow nstream c h a n n e l in feet; B

D isc h a rg e c o e ffic ie n t;

C o e ffic ie n t of h ead lo s s ; C^

Froude number for th e a p p ro a c h flow; F \ ~ V \ / 97}

G ra v ita tio n a l a c c e l e r a t io n fe e t per sq u are seco n d ; g

S p ecific head of the a p p ro ach flow in fe e t; H ^ = y j+ V ^ /2 g

S pecific h ead of the dow nstream flow in feet;

O u tlet head l o s s in fe e t; H l= H j-H 2

D isc h a rg e in c u b ic f e e t per seco n d ; Q

V elocity of the a p p ro a c h flow , in fe e t per seco nd ; Vj

V elocity of the in the dow nstream c h a n n e l in f e e t per seco n d ; V2

Depth of th e a p p ro a c h flow in feet; Yj

Depth of flow in the d ow nstream c h a n n e l in feet; . Y2

Bottom e le v a tio n of c h a n n e l in feet; Zo

D en sity ;
f
S pecific w eight; ^

ix
Table I - - C o n tin u e d

V iscosity;

Surface te n sio n ;
 CHAPTER I

In tro d u ctio n

A c h a n n e l t r a n s i t i o n m ay be d e fin e d a s th a t portion of a c h a n n e l

w ith in w h ic h th e c r o s s s e c tio n is a lte r e d from one form or s iz e to

a n o th e r.

T ra n s itio n s m ay be c a te g o r iz e d into th re e groups: th o s e

p roviding c h a n g e in form but not m agnitude of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a ,

t h o s e providing d e c r e a s e in c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a re a and p e rh a p s c h a n g e in

form ( c o n tra c tio n ) , and th o s e providing i n c r e a s e in c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a re a

an d p e rh a p s c h a n g e in form ( e x p a n s i o n s ) . H erein o n ly e x p a n s io n s are

d iscu ssed . S ep aratio n o c c u r s in a l l but th e m ost g ra d u a l e x p a n s i o n s .

E x p a n sio n s of th e n o n s e p a ra tin g type u s u a l l y a re im p ra c tic a l and u n e c o ­

n o m ic a l. M o reo v er, th e v e l o c it y d istrib u tio n a t th e e x it of a n o n s e p a r a t­

ing e x p a n s io n m ay be v e ry n o n -u n ifo rm . An im portant problem i s to

d ev elo p short tr a n s it i o n s of sim ple d e s ig n th a t w ill r e s u l t in a r e a s o n a b ly

uniform d is trib u tio n of v e lo c i ty im m e d ia te ly d o w n s tre a m .

C h a n n e l tr a n s i t i o n s e x i s t in m any forms s u c h a s a tr a n s itio n

b etw een a flume and la rg e r c h a n n e l, th e e n tr a n c e or e x it of in v erte d

s ip h o n s , c h u t e s , and in s tru c tu re c o n n e c t io n s . If th e re is an i n c r e a s e

1
in th e m agn itud e of a n y tr a n s v e r s e d im e n s io n , an e x p a n s io n tra n s itio n is

req u ired .

In the p re s e n t s tu d y , h o w ev er, the s im p le s t geo m etry (flow from

one r e c ta n g u la r c r o s s s e c tio n to a n o th e r w ith o u t c h a n g e in bottom e l e v a ­

tion) is c o n s id e r e d .

The problem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith e x p a n s io n s are:

1. D evelopm ent of dow nstream uniform ity of flow e s p e c i a l l y

w hen e ro sio n i s p o s s i b l e .

2. Energy l o s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a l l s tr u c tu r e s t h a t ch an g e th e

s h a p e or c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a re a of th e flow c a u s in g d is tu r ­

bances .

T hese d is tu r b a n c e s m ay be o b je c tio n a b le due to the re s u ltin g l o s s e s in

h ead and p o s s ib le s c o u r.

The flow of w a te r in an open c h a n n e l of v a ria b le s e c tio n is s u c h

a c o m p lic a te d phenom enon th a t an e x a c t a n a l y s is by m a th e m a tic a l

m ethods i s not a p o s s i b i l i t y . E xperim ental t e s t i n g is re q u ire d for th e

so lu tio n of the problem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith e x p a n s io n t r a n s i t i o n s . How­

e v e r , the t e s t i n g program sho uld be p la n n e d and e v a lu a te d w ith due

c o n s id e ra tio n of th e p r in c ip le s of fluid flo w .

As a m eans of ex am inin g th e s u b je c t, t e s t s w ere performed

in clu d in g cu rv ed w a lls in a d d itio n to a num ber of a r b itr a r y s h a p e s of

v ary in g d egree of s tre a m lin in g . Baffle p i e r s , v a n e s and a te tra h e d ro n

w ere p la c e d in th e stream to a s s i s t in e x p an d in g th e flow in a minimum

d ista n c e .

E xperim ental d a ta p r e s e n te d h e re in in d ic a te th e h ead lo s s and

v e l o c i ty d is trib u tio n for th e v a rio u s ty p e s of e x p a n s i o n s .

 CHAPTER II

H y d rau lics of O p e n -C h a n n e l Flow

As in o th e r problem s of s te a d y flow in open c h a n n e ls of n o n -

uniform c r o s s s e c t i o n , the v a ria tio n in v e l o c i ty and dep th through a

c h a n n e l e x p a n s io n w ill d ep en d on:

I. G eom etry of c h a n n e l b o u n d a rie s

A. Form of c h a n n e l w a lls

B. The s lo p e and form of the floor

C . A pp urtenan ces w ith in the e x p a n s io n

D. Surface ro u g h n e s s of flo o r and w a lls

II. S ig n ifican t flow v a r ia b le s

A. V elocity

B. Depth

C. Turbulence

III. F luid p ro p e rtie s

A. S p ecific w eigh t

B. D e n s ity ( f )

c. Surface t e n s io n

D. V is c o sity ( A )

4
 . 5

S p ecific w e ig h t i s n ot an in d e p e n d e n t flu id p ro p erty , but is t h e ,

product of d e n s it y an d g ra v ita tio n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n . A g r a v ita tio n a l a c c e l ­

e ra tio n is e s s e n t i a l for o p e n - c h a n n e l flow a s it is com m only d e fin e d .

Surface te n s io n in flu e n c e s flow s ig n if ic a n tly o n ly in sm all m o d e l s , or

w here s p ra y might be s ig n i f i c a n t . Its e f f e c t s are u s u a ll y igno red in

t r a n s itio n s t u d i e s . V is c o s ity is s e c o n d o n ly to d e n s ity in g e n e ra l im por­

t a n c e w ith regard to in flu e n c in g flu id m o tio n . An in v ic id flu id w ould

su ffer no l o s s of e n e rg y during m o tio n , w h e r e a s v is c o u s flu id s are

s u b je c te d to th e g e n e ra tio n of in te rn a l tu rb u le n c e by Reynolds s t r e s s e s

and u ltim ate d is s i p a t i o n of e n e rg y through h e a t g e n e ra tio n by N ew tonian

shear s tr e s s e s .

If t h e s e differen t in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s are com bin ed by the II

theorem of d im e n sio n a l a n a l y s is into a s e r i e s of d im e n s io n le s s r a t i o s ,

a s m any le n g th r a tio s w ill be o b ta in e d a s a re n e c e s s a r y to d e s c rib e th e

r e la tiv e g eo m e tric a l proportions of the b o u nd ary to g e th e r w ith a flow .

p aram eter of th e Froude t y p e . The l a t t e r i s g e n e r a lly w ritte n in th e form:

(F = V / VgT (1)

w here V=mean v e lo c ity

h=mean dep th of th e a p p ro a c h in g flow

F=Froude number

For g iv en bound ary c o n d i t io n s , th e r e la tiv e form of th e free s u r ­

fa c e and th e r e la tiv e v e l o c it y d istrib u tio n w ill depend upon th e m agnitude

of th e Froude num ber. As in a ll c a s e s of o p e n - c h a n n e l flo w , th e c r i ti c a l

m agnitude F = 1 m arks th e border b e tw e e n two s ig n if ic a n tly d ifferen t

ty p e s of su rfa c e c o n fig u ra tio n . For F -C 1 , th e d ep th being g re a te r

th a n th e c r i t i c a l , a g ra d u a l e n larg em en t of the c r o s s s e c tio n w ill r e s u lt

in a g ra d u a l in c r e a s e in m ean s u rfa c e e le v a tio n and a co rresp o n d in g

re d u c tio n in m ean v e l o c i t y . For F >~ 1, th e d epth being l e s s th an th e

c r i t i c a l , the same g rad u al e n larg em en t of th e c r o s s s e c tio n w ill r e s u l t in

a g rad u al re d u c tio n in m ean s u rfa c e e le v a tio n and a co rresp o n d in g

in c r e a s e in m ean v e l o c i ty . O nly th e c a s e of s u b c r itic a l flo w , F «<_ 1,

h a s b een c o n s id e re d in th is s tu d y . It is s t i l l p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , to h a v e

lo c a l Froude e f f e c ts w hen o p e ra tin g c l o s e to th e c r i ti c a l Froude num ber.

H
The d e p e n d e n t p a ra m e te rs are th e l o s s c o e f f ic ie n t C T=. - —5------ and
L V^/Zg
th e r e la tiv e v e lo c ity d istrib u tio n .
”0

The c o n d itio n s un der w h ich th e ir stu d y w a s perform ed are a s

fo llow s:

1. H o riz o n ta l floo r

2. Smooth v e r tic a l w a lls

3. C o n s ta n t ra te of d is c h a rg e (Q )

4 . Varying d ep th of flow ( i . e . , d ifferen t F ) .

Types of e x p a n s io n tr a n s i ti o n s s tu d ie d w ere:

1 . Abrupt

2 , Abrupt w ith p ie rs
 3. Abrupt w ith te tra h e d ro n

4. S - s h a p e curv e

5. S - s h a p e curve w ith vanes

6. G rad u al c h a n g e 25° c e n tr a l a n g le
\
7. G radu al c h a n g e 25° c e n tr a l an g le w ith v a n e s equally-

d is tr ib u te d

8„ G rad ual c h a n g e 35° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith v a n e s 7° ap art

9. G rad u al ch an g e 25° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith te tra h e d ro n

10. G radu al c h a n g e 25° c e n tr a l an g le w ith baffle p iers

11. G rad u al ch a n g e 25° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith baffle piers Y%

To f a c i l it a te th e a n a l y s i s for t h i s s tu d y th e follow in g sim p lify ­

ing a s s u m p tio n s w ere m ade:

O n e - d im e n s io n a l flow

At a n y point in a tr a n s itio n th e t o t a l h ead w ith r e s p e c t to a

g iven datum is

H = V2 / 2 g + P/^ + Z

in w h ich V and. P are th e v e lo c i t y an d p r e s s u re i n te n s it y a t th e e l e v a t i o n .

If th e v e lo c ity is c o n s ta n t o ver th e c r o s s s e c tio n and th e p r e s s u re

d is trib u tio n is e s s e n t i a l l y h y d ro s ta tic ( i.e .,P + X Z = c o n s t a n t ) » th is

e q u a tio n m ay be a p p lie d to th e e n tire s e c tio n by w riting

 8

H - ZQ = H0 = Q2/2 g A 2 + Y (2) •

in w h ich Z Q is th e bottom e le v a tio n and H q th e s p e c if ic h ead a t the c r o s s

s e c tio n in q u e s tio n .

V elocity d is trib u tio n

For ra p id tr a n s i ti o n s it b eco m es v e ry d iffic u lt to d e fin e the

m agnitude of th e t o ta l h ead e v en w hen th e d ep th is k n o w n . This d iffic u lty

i s due to a non-uniform v e lo c i ty d is trib u tio n w h ich i s extrem e if th ere is

s e p a r a tio n . The lo c a l v e l o c i t y h ead m ay th u s d iffer c o n s id e r a b ly from

th e m ean v e l o c i t y h e a d . This v a ria tio n i s r e fle c te d upon th e to t a l h e a d ,

s o th a t th e o n e - d im e n s io n a l tre a tm e n t in term s of the m ean v e l o c it y c a n

be c o n tin u e d o n ly if a c o rre c tio n f a c to r fo r th e proper k in e tic en erg y of

th e c h a n n e l is in tro d u c e d .

S ep aration of flow .

F or rap id e x p a n s io n s s e p a ra tio n is bound to o c c u r due to the

v e ry la rg e a d v e r s e p re s s u re g ra d ie n ts w h ic h w ould be re q u ire d if the flow

did not s e p a ra te from th e bo u n d ary . T hese p r e s s u re g ra d ie n ts a f fe c t th e

la y e r s of flu id in th e im m ediate v i c i n i t y of th e bound ary of low v e lo c ity

due to th e boundary r e s i s t a n c e . The n e g a tiv e p re s s u re g ra d ie n ts in a

c o n tra c tio n w ill augm ent th e momentum of t h e s e slo w e r l a y e r s . For th e

p o s itiv e or a d v e r s e p r e s s u re g ra d ie n ts in an e x p a n s io n th e p re s s u re

f o rc e s jo in w ith th e boun dary s h e a r in te n d in g to red u ce e v e n further the

momentum of th e bound ary la y e r . T h u s , w h e re a s a c c e l e r a t iv e boundary

flow is In h e re n tly s t a b l e , d e c e le r a tiv e b o un dary flow a lm o s t in v a ria b ly

l e a d s to s e p a r a tio n . It is o fte n c o n s id e re d th a t s e p a ra tio n e n c l o s e s

re g io n s of d ead w a t e r , but th e high i n t e n s i t y of s h e a r alo n g th e s e p a ra ^

tio n s u rfa c e a c t u a l l y p ro d u ces a p p r e c ia b le c irc u la tio n in th e ed d y or

r o lle r th u s form ed . T hese ro lle rs and th e s h e a r p la n e , or z o n e , b etw een

th e r o lle r and through flow are th e so u rce of m uch of th e h ead l o s s

a s s o c i a t e d w ith s u c h flo w .

Of th e th re e fu n d am en tal p r in c ip le s so often em ployed in flow

a n a l y s i s , c o n tin u ity , e n e rg y and mom entum , o nly th e fir s t two w ere u s e d .

C o n tin u ity of m a s s flow ra te

W ith re fe re n c e to F ig . 1, a p p lic a tio n of th e c o n tin u ity e q u a tio n

Q=Ai Vi =A2V2 (3)

in term s of mean v e lo c ity and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a re a in v o lv e s o n ly th e

r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e ra te of flow p a s t a n y s e c tio n an d lo c a l v e lo c it y

d istrib u tio n :

(4)
A

Although a t s e c tio n 1 th e l o c a l v e l o c i t y m ay be a s s u m e d a p p ro x im a te ly

a s th e m e a n , t h is a s su m p tio n is not n e a r ly so tru e for s e c tio n 2, e s p e ­

c i a l l y if th ere i s s e p a r a ti o n . Since th e e x c e s s k in e tic e n e rg y w ill be

l a r g e ly d i s s i p a t e d d o w n stre a m , ho w ev er, it is p e rm is s ib le to u s e th e
 A 2

20
FLOV^

D A TU M

O A' 2

F ig u r e I.- E n er g y in h o r iz o n t a l o p e n -c h a n n e l flow

o
 11

mean v e lo c ity in th is r e g a r d . W hen the i n t e r e s t is th e v e l o c i t y d is t r i b u ­

t i o n , one n e e d s to follow th e flow for some d is ta n c e dow nstream before

s u ffic ie n t uniform ity a g a in o c c u r s .

C o n s e rv a tio n of Energy

The to t a l e n e rg y in fo o t-p o u n d s per pound of w a te r in a n y

stre a m lin e p a s s in g a c h a n n e l s e c tio n may be e x p r e s s e d a s th e to ta l h ead

in fe e t of w a te r , w h ich is e q u a l to th e sum of th e e le v a tio n abo ve a

datum , the p re s s u re h e a d , and the v e lo c ity h e a d . For e x a m p le , w ith

re fe re n c e to F ig . 1, th e to ta l h ead H a t a n y u p stream s e c tio n along a

stre a m lin e of flo w , A, in a h o riz o n ta l c h a n n e l may be w ritte n a s

K = YA + ZA + VA2 / 2 g (5)

w here YA i s th e d ep th of th e p oint A below th e w a te r su rfa c e

ZA is th e e le v a tio n of point A ab ov e th e datum plane

VA 2
— i s th e v e lo c ity h ead b a s e d on the lo c a l v e lo c ity
2g

In g e n e r a l, ev e ry s tre a m lin e p a s s i n g th rough a s e c tio n w ill have a d if ­

fe re n t v e l o c i t y h ead ow ing to th e n on-uniform v e l o c it y d is tr ib u tio n . But

in th e c a s e of tu rb u le n t flow of th e ty pe found in m ost o p e n - c h a n n e l flo w ,

th e v e l o c i t y d istrib u tio n a p p ro a c h e s u niform ity to a s u ff ic ie n t e x te n t th a t

th e v e lo c ity h ead is e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s ta n t thro ug h ou t th e c r o s s s e c t io n s

u pstream from a t r a n s i t i o n .
 12

According to th e p rin c ip le of c o n s e rv a tio n of e n e rg y , the t o t a l

head at s e c tio n 1 (F ig . 1) sh o uld be e q u a l to the to t a l h e a d a t th e dow n­

stream s e c tio n 2 plu s th e l o s s of e n e rg y b e tw e e n th e two s e c t i o n s , or

Yi + Zj + V jV z g = Y 2 + Z 2 + V2 2/ 2g + % (6)

s in c e Z ^ - Z 2 = 0 F ig. 1 e q u a tio n (6) c a n be w ritte n a s

(7)
Y1 +"v 12/ 2 g = Y2 + V2 2/ 2 g + HL

°r H o fH o ^H b - (8)

w here H0 is th e s p e c if ic h e a d .

B asic e q u a tio n s have b een e s t a b l i s h e d w h ich w ill be u s e d in

th e a n a l y s i s of th e e x p e rim e n ta l d ata o b ta in e d to arriv e a t a c o n c lu s io n

reg ard in g th e h ead l o s s for th e d ifferen t ty p e s of e x p a n s io n tr a n s i t io n s „

 CHAPTER III

M ethod of Study

A h y d rau lic m odel sim u latin g approxim ate fie ld c o n d itio n s

p e rtin e n t to the flow of w a te r th rough a c h a n n e l w a s c o n s tr u c te d a t th e

U n iv e rs ity of Arizona H y d ra u lic s Laboratory* The t e s t f a c i l i t i e s c o n s is t e d

of a 3 /4 in c h th ic k m arine plywood flume 10 f e e t long an d 3 f e e t w ide

lying h o riz o n ta lly a c r o s s two re c ta n g u la r ta n k s 10 f e e t lo n g , 6 fe e t w id e

a n d 2 .5 f e e t high a s show n in F ig . 2.

The s e t - u p u s e d a r e c irc u la tin g w a te r s y s t e m . The dow nstream

tan k w a s c o n n e c te d to two pumps of 10 H. P. a n d 7 ,5 H, P. w hich

s u p p lie d w a te r into th e u p stream tank throu gh p ip e s of 4 in c h and 3 in c h

d ia m e te rs r e s p e c t i v e l y . The 3 in c h and 4 in c h pipe l i n e s w ere c o n n e c te d

to a p erfo rated pipe m anifold a t th e u p stream ta n k to m inim ize larg e s c a l e

t u r b u l e n c e , th u s a llo w in g a r e l a t iv e ly uniform a n d tu rb u le n t- f r e e flow in .

th e a p p ro a c h to th e e x p a n s i o n .

In o rder to o b tain th e q u a n tity of w a te r e a c h pump s u p p lie d , a .

v e r tic a l a i r - w a t e r m anom eter w a s hooked up on th e 3 in c h pipe lin e an d a

s lo p in g w a te r-m e rc u ry m anom eter on a 4 in c h elbow m e te r. To c a lib r a te

th e m an om eters an 8 in c h w e ir w a s i n s t a l l e d . The pro cedu re for c a l i ­

b ratio n w a s a s fo llo w s: U sin g e a c h pump s e p a r a t e l y , m anom eter re a d in g s

13
 TOP VIEW
4 el bow meter
4 diameter pipes^

3 diameter pipe^*^
■ Water- mercury
, manometer
2 . 5 '4 " - 2 . 5 ' -**-2.5
10 h.p. p u m p

Flow
A ir-w ater/
m anometer

— A i r - w a t e r Z -'
pump - 1/ 2" channels
manometer

SIDE VIEW

i
i
i 1J |
iiii
t c ^ ’
i

u 4
2.5' Ii____
I!
jU pi L. J _______________________ _ ... ..

Figure 2 . - - Mo d e l setup f or t he S - shape curve transition; B/b = 2.0.

 15

w ere ta k e n and c u rv e s of Q v s m anom eter read in g w ere p lo tte d for e a c h

m anom eter a s shown in F i g s . 4 and 5. Q w a s c a lc u l a te d from the w eir

formula

0 = | / 2 g b C dh 3/ 2 (9)

w here b=w idth, C ^ d i s c h a r g e c o e f f i c i e n t , Q = d isc h a rg e in c f s , h&w are

shown in F i g . 3. (Refer to Rouse F i g . 36, page 50)

F ig. 3 . — C a lib r a tio n of a i r - w a t e r and w a te r-m e rc u ry m anom eters

F in a lly both pumps w ere u s e d and m anom eter re a d in g s re c o rd e d . The

d is c h a rg e Q c a l c u l a t e d from the w e ir formula (g ), and th a t ta k e n from

the c u rv e s in F i g s . 4 an d 5 u sin g the m anom eter re a d in g s w ere a lm o st

e q u a l in d ic a tin g th a t th e c a lib r a tio n w a s s a ti s f a c t o r y and th e model w as

re a d y for u s e .

The o th er equipm ent n e c e s s a r y to co m p lete th e ex perim ent w a s

a Pitot tu be to m easu re the v e lo c i ty an d point g a u g e s to m easu re th e flow

 16

30-i

20-
in i n c h e s
readi ng
Ma n o me t e r

10-

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I .0

Discharge Q in cfs

F i g u r e 4 . - - Calibration curve water - m e r c u r y manometer

used on 4 inch elbow me t e r .
 17

6O -1

50-
inches

40 -
in
r e adi ng

30-
Manometer

20-

10-

0 4k
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
D i s c h a r g e Q in c f s

Fi g u r e 5 . - - C a l i b r a t i o n curve air-water manometer used

on 3 inch supply l i ne .
 18

d ep th s. The Pitot tu b e w a s c o n s tr u c te d a t th e d e p artm en tal w orkshop

and its c a lib r a tio n procedure w as a s follow s:

A 1-inch o rific e w a s in s t a l l e d a t the dow nstream end of the

c h a n n e l and the P itot tube put in c e n te r of th e uniform fre e o rifice jet to

m easu re i t s v e l o c it y . The t e s t c o n s i s t e d of running w a te r a t s e v e ra l

d e p t h s , m easu rin g the head up stream of the o r if ic e , th e d ia m e te r of the

je t a s w ell a s the q u a n tity of w a te r and Pitot tu be v e lo c ity m anom eter

read in g s.

The a c t u a l v e lo c ity w a s p lo tte d a g a in s t the m e a su re d v e lo c ity

a s shown in F ig . 6. The a c t u a l v e lo c ity i s th e a v e ra g e of the v e lo c i ­

t i e s c a l c u l a te d u sin g the m easu red head up stream of the orifice(v= y/2gh)

and u sin g th e q u a n tity of flow (v=Q /A ) . The c a lib r a tio n v e lo c ity is th a t

c a l c u la te d u sin g th e m anom eter re a d in g s (v= ^ 2 g h ^ j .

Figure 6 sh o w s th a t th e Pitot tu b e i s in error by + 1 . 4 %. Taking

t h is error into c o n s id e ra tio n the a c t u a l v e l o c i t i e s a g a in s t m anom eter

r e a d in g s w ere p lo tte d a s shown in F ig . 7. This c a lib r a tio n curve for the

Pitot tube w a s u s e d th roughout th e e x p erim en t for the d ifferen t ty p e s of

ou tlet.

The d a ta ta k e n during e a c h t e s t w ere w a te r s u rfa c e p ro file ,

upstream and d ow nstream d e p t h s , v e lo c i t y profile a t th e maximum

v e lo c ity for th e o u t le t , and flow p attern a c r o s s c h a n n e l w idth a t d ifferen t

s e c t io n s d o w n stre a m .
 LEGEND

Voctuo I = 2 7 5 ^pitot insub form.

vactual= 0.986 vpitot

+ 1.4% Error in tube

8 —

6 -

2.71

2.75

0 2 4 6 8

^measured

F i g u r e 6 . - - Pitot tube calibration.

 20

10 -
(vertical)

8-
i nches
in

6—
reading
Ma n o me t e r

4-

2-

0 2 4 6 8
^actual in f p s

F i g u r e 7 - - P i t at tube calibration curve.

 21

Two s e t s of tr a n s i t i o n s w ere u s e d in the two p h a s e s of the

s tu d y .

For th e f ir s t p h a s e , w h erein h ead l o s s w a s th e prim ary c o n c e r n ,

th e S. ratio w as 2 . 0 and the ty p e s of tr a n s i t i o n s u s e w ere a s follow s:

, 1. Abrupt

2. Abrupt w ith in ch x in c h baffle p ie rs -j in c h c e n te r to

12' 42 4

cen ter.

3 . Abrupt w ith ~ in c h x jr. in c h b affle p ie rs ^ in c h c e n t e r to

c e n te r

4. Abrupt w ith 4 -in ch high x 14 in c h long te tra h e d ro n

5. Smooth S - s h a p e curve

6. Smooth S - s h a p e cu rve w ith v a n e s

The a rra n g e m e n t of th e baffle p ie rs i s shown in F ig . 8 . For th e

8 - sh ap e w ith v a n e s , the v a n e s w ere p la c e d s u c h th a t th e flow would be

e q u a lly d is tr ib u te d d o w n stream . This arrang em en t is shown in F ig . 9 .

 22

□ □
□
n □ □
□ o
□
□ □ □
FLOW
b= \ 8 " □ □ □ 3 =3 6 "

□ □
□
□ o
□
□ □ p
□ □

B _
F ig . 8 . — Pier form ation for the ra tio y = 2 . 0

F ig . 9 . - - S - s h a p e curv e w ith v a n e s : y = 2 .0
 23

Head l o s s e s w ere c a l c u l a te d from e q u a tio n 8 w h ich is

Y + (O /b y j) 2
2
y 2 + ( Q /b y 2)
hl =
1 Zg-- 2g

w here H ^=head l o s s , Yj and Y2 =the upstream and dow nstream d e p t h s ,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , Q =the d is c h a rg e in c f s and g = g ra v ita tio n a l a c c e le r a ti o n .

The head l o s s w a s e x p r e s s e d in term of a l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t ,

as

C hl ( 10 )
L o------
v //2 g

w here V j^ the v e lo c ity in fps of the a p p ro a c h flow .

For th e se c o n d p h a s e , w h erein the flow p a tte rn w as th e primary

c o n c e r n , th e y r a t i o w a s 3 .0 and th e s tr u c tu r e s u s e d w ere a s follow s:

1. Abrupt

2. G rad ual c h a n g e 25° c e n tr a l a n g le

3. G radual chancre 25° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith v a n e s e q u a lly

d is tr ib u te d

4. G radual ch a n g e 35° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith v a n e s 7° ap art

5. G rad ual c h an g e 25° c e n tr a l an g le w ith a te tra h e d ro n

6. G radual c h a n g e 25° c e n tr a l a n g le w ith baffle p ie rs

7. G rad u al c h a n g e 25° c e n t r a l a n g le w ith baffle p iers 1/3 Y£

The arran g em en t of baffle p ie rs for N o. 6 w a s s u c h th a t a s in g le

baffle of dep th g re a te r th a n the flow w a s lo c a te d on the c e n t e r - l i n e a

 24

d i s t a n c e b dow nstream from th e end of the c o n tr a c te d s e c t i o n . The o th er

two b affles w ere lo c a te d 2 b dow nstream and w ere b a p a r t , n iv ing a

tria n g u la r arran gem ent a s shown in F ig . 10.

8 = /z

F ig . 1 0 . — G rad u al c h a n g e 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n in clu d in g baffle

p iers for B/b=3 .0

The n ex t arran g em en t (Fig. 11) of baffle p iers w a s su c h th a t

th re e b a ffle s of p a r tia l dep th w ere lo c a te d a d is ta n c e 3b dow nstream w ith

four o th er b a ffle s 4b d o w n stream . All b a ffle s in th is arran g em en t w ere

spaced ^ a p a rt.

F ig . 11 . — G rad u al c h a n g e 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n in clu d in g baffle

p ie rs l / 3 y 2 ^or B /b = 3 .0
 CHAPTER IV

R esu lts

The plot of C-^ v e r s u s F j , F i g . 12, show s th a t g eo m etry and

Froude number both in flu e n c e the l o s s of en erg y a t a t r a n s i ti o n . The

e f fe c t of the Froude num ber in th e range 0 . 2 5 - 0 . 6 0 i s g r e a te r th an w a s

e x p e c te d . The e f fe c t of g eo m etry in g e n e ra l is w hat w ould be e x p e c te d

e x c e p t for the c a s e of the S - s h a p e e x p a n s io n w ith v a n e s . W hy th is

tr a n s itio n should r e s u l t in a high l o s s c o e f f ic ie n t is not c l e a r . The high

lo s s c o e f fic ie n t for th e s e t of large baffle p ie rs (1 1 /2 "x3 ") p o s s ib ly

i n d i c a t e s g re a te r tu rb u le n c e g e n e ra tio n th an is n e e d e d for exp and ing the

f lo w .

The r e s u l t s of th e s tu d y of v e l o c i t y d istrib u tio n for s u b c r itic a l

flow in a n open c h a n n e l e x p a n s io n are g r a p h ic a lly p r e s e n te d in F i g s . 13

to 2 0 .

In the abrupt e x p a n s io n . F ig . 13, th e flow s e p a ra te d and th e j e t

swung to one sid e giving a n asy m m etric d is tr ib u tio n . Although th e edd y

le n g th w a s o nly about 5 l / 2 b , th e asy m m etry of th e flow w a s s til l

m e a su re d a t a d is ta n c e of 16 l / 2 b n e a r th e end of th e m o d e l. A te n d e n c y

to have a plunging j e t c a n be n o ted in th e v e r tic a l v e l o c it y p r o file s .

25
 26

This plunging je t o ccu rred o n ly in the s e c o n d p h a s e of the ex p erim en t

b e c a u s e the u p stream c h a n n e l w a s sh o rt in le n g th .

In th e 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n the s e p a ra tio n w a s m inor, but the

plunging j e t w a s more pronounced w ith a r o lle r a t the s u r f a c e . A r e a s o n ­

a b ly normal v e lo c ity d is tr ib u tio n w a s a c h ie v e d a t a d i s t a n c e dow nstream

16 l / 2 b from th e b e g in n in g of th e e x p a n s io n .

By u s in g four v a n e s in the 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n , F i g . 15, an

o v e ra ll u n ifo rm , but s e r r a t e d , v e lo c ity d is trib u tio n w a s o b ta in e d a t th e

e x it of the t r a n s itio n s tr u c t u r e . The p lunging je t w as v e ry n o tic e a b le but

d i s s i p a t e d in th e sam e d is ta n c e a s th e h o riz o n ta l n o n - u n if o r m itie s . That

th e v a n e d t r a n s itio n c a n ex p an d the flow q u ic k ly is i l l u s t r a te d by the

17 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n w ith four v a n e s , F i g . 16, w h ic h r e s u lte d in a flow

p a tte rn v e ry s im ila r to th e v an ed 12 1 / 2 0 e x p a n s io n .

The te tra h e d ro n in a 12 1/ 2 ° e x p a n s io n , F i g . 17; h as a s im ila r

a c tio n to th e v a n e s in th a t th e in te rio r s tr u c tu r e s d iv id e s and tu rn s th e

flow . The plunging flow i s a ls o tu rn e d up by th e t e t r a h e d r o n .

The baffle p ie rs in s e r te d in to th e e x p a n s io n s t r u c t u r e , F i g s . 18,

19 and 20, a ls o help e x p a n d the flow . The e ffe c t on th e plunging je t

d e p e n d s on the num ber of p ie rs and w h e th e r th e y are p a rtia l or full d e p th .

 27

LEGEN D

5-shape with vanes

Abrupt including
.0-

Abrupt

Abrupt including
I" I"
0 .8 - Ix x l-=
- piers

Abrupt Tetrahedron

CL 0.6 - 5- shope curve

0.4 —

0.2 -

0 0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Froude number Fj

0
Figure 12. -- D i me n s i o n l e s s curves of C L v s = 2.0.
 LEGEND
o 0.6 depth from the bottom

0.7 -
0.6 -
in f e e t

0 5 -

0 4-

0.3-
Dept h

0.2 -

0 I 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5 0

4-l/2b IO-l/2b !6 -l/2b

F low
b=4 B=1
2

0 I 2 3 4 5 I 0 5 0 5 0 5
Velocity in fps

Figure 13. -- V e l o c i t y pattern for an abrupt e x p a n s i o n :— = 3 . 0 .

CO
00
 LEGEND

o 0.2 depth from bottom

® 0.5 depth from bottom

• 0.8 depth from bottom

0.7

0.6
0.5

■- 0 . 4
t 0-3
o 0.2
0.1
0
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5

4-l/2b 10-1/25 .16-1/25

Flow
b=4 B=I2

12- 1/2

Velocity in fps

CO
Figure 1 4 . - - Velocity p a t t e r n , 12- 1/ 2° expansion : B/b =3.0. to
 L E G E N D

o 0.2 depth from the bottom

® 0.5 depth from the bottom

• 0.8 depth from the bottom

0.7
_ 06
0)
« 0.5
■- 0.4
£ 0.3
o 0.2

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5

4-l/2b 10-1/2 b 16-1/2 b

Flow B=1
2
b=4 —

Velocity in fps

CO
Figure 15.— V e l o c i t y pattern, 1 2 - 1 / 2 ° expansion, 4 interior V a n e s : B/b = 3.0 o
 LEGEND
O 0.2 depth from the bottom

® 0.5 depth from the bottom

• 0.8 depth from the bottom

0 7

0.4

0.2
0.1
0
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5

3b IO-l/2b 16-1/2 b

Flow b=4

Velocity in fps

GO
Figure 16 . — V e l o c i t y pattern, 17-1/2° expansion, 4 interior V a n e s : B/b = 3.0.
 LEGEND
o 0.2 depth from the bottom

c 0.5 depth from the bottom

• 0.8 depth from the bottom

h=1/2 >2^ 4"

a) 0 .5

0 5 0 5

4-l/2b 10-1/2 b 16- l / 2 b

b=4" hh

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5
V elocity in f p s

CO
Fi gur e 17. — V e l o c i t y pattern, 12- 1/ 2° e x p a n s i o n , tetrahedron insert: B /b = 3.0 . fO
 LEGEND
O 0.2depth from the bottom

c 0.5 depth from the bottom

• 0.8 depth from the bottom

0. 7
0. 6
0 5
0.4

0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 0 5

3b 4-l/2b 10 - l / 2b 16 - 1 / 2 b

Flow B=12
b=4

Velocity in fps

Figure 18. — V e l o c i t y pattern, 12-1/2° expansion i ncl udi ng 3 baffle p i e r s : B / b =3.0 CO

CO
 LEGEND
o 0.2 depth from the bottom

® 0.5 depth from the bottom

• 0.8 depth from the bottom

4-l/2b IO-l/2b l6/l/2b

h—b

Hr
Flow B=1
2
3b
b/2H

Velocity in fp s

Figure 19. — Velocity pattern, 12-1/2° expansion including 7 baffle piers: B /b =3.0. £
Flow
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Fi gure 2 0 . - - Velocity distribution, 14 ° 5 ' expansion.

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 CHAPTER V

A n aly sis of R e su lts

Figure 12 i l l u s t r a t e s th e h ead l o s s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e

B
d ifferen t ty p e s of t r a n s i t i o n s for th e ratio y - 2 . 0 . All c u rv e s d e s c rib e

sim ilar p a t h s . I n c re a s in g l o s s c o e f fic ie n t w a s e n c o u n te re d in th e

follow ing order:

1. S - s h a p e curve

2a. Abrupt

b. Abrupt w i t h p i e r s

c . Abrupt w ith te tra h e d ro n

3. Abrupt w ith y ^ x jr p iers

4. S - s h a p e c u rv e s w ith v a n e s

The follow ing s ta te m e n ts might serv e to e x p la in th e in c r e a s in g

l o s s c o e f fic ie n t e n c o u n te re d in the o rder show n a b o v e .

In th e o n e - d im e n s io n a l a n a l y s i s u s e d in th is stu d y it w as

a s s u m e d th a t th e e f fe c t of s e p a ra tio n w ould be n e g lig ib le . W ith th e

e x c e p tio n of th e S - s h a p e curve a l l o th er tr a n s it i o n s d is p la y e d some

s e p a r a tio n . To h elp ex p an d the flow b a ffle p ie rs and v a n e s w ere u s e d .

36
 37

Only t h e s e i n s e r t s a c t u a l ly d i s s i p a t e d more e n e rg y . The h igher the baffle

p i e r s , th e g re a te r th e e n e rg y d i s s i p a t e d .

C h a n n e l h e ig h t lim ited the range of F ^ / from 0 .2 5 to 0 . 6 5 . The

e f fe c t of th e Froude num ber w a s g re a te r th a n e x p e c te d s in c e it w as not

■anticipated t h a t th e w a te r su rfa c e c o n fig u ra tio n would h ave a m ajor e f fe c t

on th e flow p a tte r n . The s e c o n d s e t of t e s t s on v e lo c ity d is trib u tio n

show ed th a t a plunging je t c o u ld i s s u e from th e in le t into th e tra n s itio n

s tr u c tu r e . This p a tte rn w a s v e ry sim ilar to a p a tte rn one w ould e x p e c t

w ith a c r i t i c a l in le t c o n tr o l. W ith th e c r i t i c a l in le t one w ould e x p e c t th e

flow to p a s s on to s u p e r c r itic a l and be fo llo w ed by a h y d rau lic jump b ack

to s u b c r itic a l flo w . Although s u p e r c r itic a l flow and a jump did not o c c u r ,

th e je t p lunged an d a r o lle r w a s formed a t th e s u r f a c e .

As p re v io u s ly m entioned th e 8 - s h a p e curve h a s th e minimum l o s s

c o e f f ic ie n t. W hen com pared w ith th e o th e r ty p e s of t r a n s i t i o n s for =

0 . 4 , th e ir d ifferen ce ran g ed from 0 ^ = 0 .3 3 for th e abru pt to 0 ^ = 0 . 77 for

th e S - s h a p e curve w ith v a n e s . The r e a s o n for th e high l o s s c o e f fic ie n t

w ith th e v a n e s is unknown a s w e ll a s u n e x p e c te d . The v a n e d t r a n s itio n s

in th e s e c o n d s e t of ex p erim en ts g ave e v id e n c e th a t th e flow p attern

c o u ld be m anaged by v a n e s and it w a s p ro b ab ly a poor c h o ic e of geom etry

th a t led to high v a l u e s of e n e rg y l o s s o b ta in e d in th e f ir s t p h a s e t e s t .

The ex p e rim e n ts for the d ete rm in a tio n of v e l o c i ty d istrib u tio n

w ere c o n d u c te d w ith a c o n s ta n t F 2 = 0 .8 2 . This high F v a lu e w a s

 38

c h o s e n b e c a u s e high v e l o c i t i e s w ere d e s ir e d for m ea s u re m e n ts b y the

Pitot tu b e . U n fo rtu n ately for th is s tu d y , th i s high Froude num ber to g e th e r

w ith the c o n tra c tio n im m ed iately u p stream from th e in le t to th e e x p a n s io n

e m p h a s iz e d the plunging j e t to an e x tre m e . H o w e v e r, th e fin d in g s of th is

in v e s tig a tio n sh o u ld le a d to fu rther i n v e s tig a tio n of t h is e f f e c t.

The s im p le s t p o s s i b l e d e s ig n for a c h a n n e l o u tle t c o n s i s t s of

9 0 ° w in g w a lls a t th e end of th e c o n tr a c te d s e c t i o n . Such an o u t l e t ,

h erein i s referred to a s an abrupt o u t l e t . This d e s ig n m ak es no p ro v is io n s

for v e lo c ity r e d u c t i o n s , h ead r e c o v e ry , o r e n e rg y d is s i p a t i o n e x c e p t a s

it n a tu r a lly o c c u r s . The e n tire h y d rau lic a c tio n m ust o c c u r dow nstream

from the p lane of th e o u tle t; i . e . , in th e do w nstream c h a n n e l ; F ig . 13.

At th e c o n tr a c te d s e c tio n th e flow w as uniform o n ly to becom e a je t on

leav in g th a t s e c t i o n . The j e t flow from th e c o n tr a c te d s e c tio n flu c tu a te d

from one sid e to the. o th e r sid e of th e c h a n n e l . This je t c a u s e d tu rb u le n c e

c r e a te d by th e e d d y 7 l / 2 b in le n g th .

The v e l o c it y d is tr ib u tio n a t 4 l / 2 b from th e in le t c l e a r l y i n d i ­

c a t e s t h i s e ffe c t show ing a r e v e r s a l flow on the o p p o s ite s id e from th e

je t. Further d ow nstream a t 10 l / 2 b from th e in le t th e e d d y e f fe c t w as

n e g lig ib le and the j e t e f fe c t w a s l e s s a p p a r e n t. Except for th e co m p lex ­

i t y ad d ed by th e t e n d e n c y of th e je t to plunge and th e f re e s u r f a c e , th e

flow p a tte rn w a s s im ila r to t h a t o b s e rv e d by H in d all (4) w ith a two .

d im e n sio n a l j e t of a i r is s u i n g into a f in ite f i e l d . H in d all found th a t a t

sm all ex p an slo n .,ratio s th e ex p an d in g j e t w a s sym m etrical and th a t a t

 39

la rg e r e x p a n s io n r a tio s th is j e t w a s a s y m m e tric a l and c o u ld be d iv e rte d

to one s id e of the e x p a n s io n or th e o th e r. For the geo m etry an d flow

c o n d itio n s c h o s e n in th is s tu d y th e je t w as u n s ta b le , f lu c tu a tin g from

one sid e to th e o th e r w ith o u t e x te rn a l p ro v o c a tio n .

A common so lu tio n to th e problem of a n open c h a n n e l o u tle t at

s u b c r itic a l flow i s a g ra d u a l e x p a n s io n . The r u le -o f -th u m b for n o n ­

s e p a ra tin g e x p a n s io n is a w a ll an g le of 3 1 / 2 ° . The r u le -o f -th u m b for

open c h a n n e l e x p a n s io n s s in c e H inds (5) h a s b een a n e x p a n s io n ra te

m e a s u re d a t th e w a te r s u rfa c e a t in le t and o u tle t of s tru c tu re of 12 1/ 2 °

on a s id e . H ow ever, t h e s e e x p a n s io n s u s u a ll y inv olv e ch an g e of form

a s w e ll a s s iz e a n d a re of lim ited e x p a n s io n r a tio . N e v e r th e le s s a

12 1/ 2 ° e x p a n s io n s tru c tu re w a s s tu d ie d and u s e d w ith in te rio r

a p p u r te n a n c e s in th is s tu d y .

Figure 14 sh ow s th e flow p attern for th e sim ple 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n ­

s io n . There w as some s e p a r a tio n , but com pared to the ab ru p t o u tle t the

j e t e f f e c t w as l e s s a p p a r e n t. At 4 l / 2 b dow nstream from the s ta r t of th e

e x p a n s io n th e flow p attern w a s a lm o st uniform h o r iz o n ta lly , but a t 0 . 8

d ep th from th e bottom , th e flow a c t u a l l y w a s in th e u p stream d ire c tio n .

This w as due to th e plunging of th e w a te r a t the c o n tr a c te d s e c t io n .

F urther dow nstream a t 10 l / 2 b th e flow a s s u m e s sym m etry, but w ith

h igh er v e l o c i t i e s at th e w a lls th a n a t th e c e n te r l i n e . T hese higher

v e l o c i t i e s a t th e w a lls are pro bably due to the bottom j e t being turned

 40

upw ards beyond the end of the e x p a n s io n s tr u c tu r e . 8 - s h a p e d w a ll s or

d e f le c to rs on th e bottom m ight improve t h e s e flow c o n d it i o n s . The flow

p a tte rn w a s q u ite d ifferen t from th a t o b s e rv e d by L aursen (11) for

extrem e e x p a n s io n s on the P a r a c b a -P u a i p ro je c ts w here d e fin ite

s e p a ra tio n o c c u rre d .

Since in th e 12 1 / 2 ° e x p a n s io n th e je t e ffe c t was. o b s e rv e d , a

p o s s i b le rem edy w a s in te rio r v a n e s . Four v a n e s w h ich d iv id ed th e w id th

of the c h a n n e l into five e q u a l seg m e n ts w ere u s e d ; w a lls and v a n e s w ere

stra ig h t.

Figure 15 show s th e flow p a tte rn s for th is v a n e d e x p a n s io n .

The purpose of th e v a n e s w ere a c c o m p lis h e d a s c an o b v io u s ly be s e e n by

th e v e lo c ity d is tr ib u tio n , alth o u g h it is a p p a re n t th a t the s p a c in g a t th e

in le t might be a d ju s te d and S - s h a p e v a n e s m ight give a b e tte r flow p a tte r n .

The plunging e ffe c t a t th e in le t w as not e lim in a te d . The v e lo c ity d is tr ib u ­

tio n a t 0 .8 depth from the bottom h as th e c l e a r in d ic a tio n of a .r o l le r . The

s e p a ra te d v e l o c i ty d is tr ib u tio n w as q u ic k ly d i s s i p a t e d .

A s h o rte r le n g th of tr a n s itio n w as u s e d in a n o th e r four v a n e d

s tr u c t u r e . Five s p a c e s of 7° in c lu d e d a n g le r e s u lte d in a t o t a l ang le of

35° or a w a ll an g le of 17 1 / 2 ° .

Figure 16 sh ow s the flow p a tte rn for th is t r a n s i t i o n . Very li t tl e

d iffe re n c e w a s o b s e rv e d b e tw e e n th e flow in th is tr a n s itio n an d the 12 1/ 2 °

e x p a n s io n w ith v a n e s . The v e lo c ity p a tte r n s w ere a lm o st id e n tic a l and

 41

the e f f e c t s p r a c t i c a l l y th e same. It is p o s s i b l e t h a t s ix or eig h t v a n e s

c o u ld be u s e d and w ith s h a p e d v a n e s a minimum le n g th of stru c tu re c o u ld

be o b ta in e d w ith a v a n e d e x p a n s io n .

The te tra h e d ro n in s e r t has b een u s e d in e x p a n s io n s and h as an

e ffe c t sim ilar to v a n e s in th a t i t s prim ary purpose i s to gu ide the flo w .

B ecause of the w idth of th e te tra h e d ro n it a l s o r e s e m b le s in some w ay s a

large baffle pier in s e r te d in th e s tr u c tu r e . The te tra h e d ro n h in c h e s

h ig h , 3 h in c h e s long and 2 h in c h e s w ide w a s in s e r te d h in c h e s aw ay

dow nstream w here h = 1 / 2 Yg # 4 . 0 ".

Figure 17 show s th e flow p a tte rn s for th is t r a n s i t i o n . The

te tra h e d ro n w as e f fe c tiv e in one w a y , th e r e v e r s a l flow at 0 . 8 d epth from

th e bottom due to th e plunging e ffe c t w a s re d u c e d a s o b s e rv e d in the

v e l o c i ty d istrib u tio n a t 4 l / 2 b . Another in d ic a tio n th a t flow w a s being

tu rn e d upw ards w a s o b s e rv e d by th e v e l o c i t y d istrib u tio n a t 10 l / 2 b

d o w n stream , w here th e flow a t c e n te r in c r e a s e d w ith the d e p th . At

4 l / 2 b dow nstream th e m ain flow w as at th e s id e s of the c h a n n e l, w h ile

a t th e c e n te r it w as v e ry d is tu r b e d . This d is tu rb a n c e w a s due to the

s e p a ra tio n of flow a t th e e n d s of the te tra h e d ro n w h ic h formed an e d d y

p o ck et th a t en d ed a t a d i s t a n c e of 4b d o w n stream . F urther dow nstream

the flow a s s u m e d a uniform d is tr ib u tio n . A d iffe re n t g eo m etry cou ld

improve th e flow p a tte r n , but if o n ly one i n s e r t is to be u s e d a w ake

 42

b ehin d th e te tra h e d ro n and c o n c e n tra tio n of flow a t th e w a lls se e m s i n e v ­

ita b le .

The n ex t arrang em en t w a s brought to th e a tte n tio n of the w riter

through a r e c e n t p u b lic a tio n by Yu (10), in w h ich the b a ffle s were

e x te n d e d through the e n tire dep th of flo w . The arran g em en t c o n s i s t e d of

o n ly th re e b a f f l e s , a s in g le b affle w a s lo c a te d on th e c e n t e r lin e a

d i s ta n c e b dow nstream from th e end of the c o n tr a c te d s e c t i o n . The o th er

tw o b affles w ere lo c a te d on a lin e furth er d is ta n c e b d o w n stre a m , and a

d is ta n c e b a p a r t. All b a ffle s w ere sq u are w ith a s id e d im ensio n of 0 .1 8 b .

F igure 18 show s t h a t arran g em en t and its v e l o c i t y p a tte r n . The

uniform sp read in g shown in F ig . 20 for Yu's ex p erim en t w a s not o b ta in e d

by t h i s s tu d y . The fo llow ing r e a s o n s m ight serv e to e x p la in th is d iffe r­

en c e :

Yu's exp erim en t w as performed for a Froude num ber sm a lle r th an

the p r e s e n t s tu d y , a n d the upstream c h a n n e l w as much lo n g e r than the

p r e s e n t s tu d y , H e n c e , the plunge of th e je t a t the in le t of th e stru ctu re

w a s e v id e n tly e lim in a te d . In the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th is e ffe c t h a s

b een an im portant f a c to r not o n ly in t h i s e x p a n s io n , but i n a l l the

s tr u c tu r e s t e s t e d .

P o s s ib ly b e c a u s e of th e plunging flo w , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e the

geo m etry sh o u ld be a fu n c tio n of the Froude num ber, the flow p attern

o b ta in e d w a s not a s uniform a s th a t o b ta in e d by Yu, F ig . 20. It is c l e a r ,

h o w e v e r , th a t a few fu ll h eig ht p ie rs c a n have a m ajor in flu e n c e on th e

flow p a t t e r n . The p ier d ire c tly in te rf e r e s w ith th e m ean flow p a tte rn w ith

a w ake behind and th e flow d iv e rte d to e a c h s id e . The tu rb u le n c e ad d ed

to the flow w ill a ls o a ffe c t th e m e a n -flo w p a tte rn th rough the m ixing

a c tio n of th e tu rb u le n t flo w .

The fin a l arran gem en t c o n s i s t e d of se v e n b a ffle s o n e - th ir d th e

flow d epth for th e ir h eig h t w ith s id e d im e n sio n s of 0 .2 5 b . The f ir s t

th re e b a ffle s w ere lo c a te d 3b dow nstream and a d is t a n c e b / 2 a p a r t . The

o th e r four a fu rth er d i s t a n c e b dow nstream and b / 2 d is ta n c e a p a r t .

Figure 19 sh o w s th a t arran g em en t and i t s v e lo c ity p a t t e r n . At

4 l / 2 b dow n stream from the s ta r t of th e e x p a n s io n the v e l o c it y p attern

i n d i c a t e s th a t b a ffle s a c t a s a n o b s tr u c tio n , m aking the je t p a s s o v er th e

top of th e b a ffle s w ith unim peded v e l o c i t y . The ad d ed tu rb u le n c e e v i ­

d e n tly a id s in o b ta in in g a normal v e l o c i t y d is tr ib u tio n , but further

in v e s tig a tio n would be n e e d e d to find optimum s iz e and arran g em en t of

baffle p ie rs „
 CHAPTER VI

C o n c lu s io n s

In p r a c tic a l s i t u a t i o n s » the h y d rau lic perform ance dem anded of

an e x p a n s io n tr a n s itio n s tru c tu re w ill v a ry from c a s e to c a s e . If the

v e lo c ity is low a t th e i n l e t , or if the do w nstream c h a n n e l is co m p o sed of

e ro sio n r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l , an ab ru p t e x p a n s io n m ay be p e rm is s ib le an d

m ay be th e m ost ec o n o m ic a l s o lu tio n . The r e s u l t s of the ex p erim en ts

w ith ab ru p t e x p a n s io n rep o rted h erein c a n be u s e d to a s s e s s the v e l o c i ­

t i e s to be e x p e c te d in the dow nstream c h a n n e l , and th e h e a d l o s s th a t

would be a s s o c i a t e d w ith s u c h a s t r u c t u r e . For a stru c tu re w ith w in g -

w a lls a t a v e ry sh a rp a n g l e , i . e . , up to 45° on a s i d e , th e r e s u l t s for

th e ab rup t e x p a n s io n c a n p ro b ab ly be u s e d w ith o u t s e rio u s erro r.

If the flow from th e e x p a n s io n stru c tu re m u st more c l o s e l y

approxim ate th e normal flow in the d ow n stream c h a n n e l, th e ex p erim en ts

rep o rted h erein show th a t the geom etry of th e w a lls or v a n e s , in s e r ts o r

p ie rs c a n be u s e d to improve the flow p a tte rn to th e e x te n t d e s ir e d .

Optimum s o lu tio n s in term s of flow p a t t e r n s , or probable c o s t , or le n g th

of s tr u c tu r e , w a s not d e te r m in e d . The m any p o s s ib le form,s, g eo m etrie s

an d flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p r e s e n t a form idable a rra y of co m b in atio n s to

in v estig ate. This s tu d y e x p lo red en o u g h of th o s e c o m b in a tio n s to

44
 45

d em o n strate t h a t m any p o s s i b i l i t ie s e x i s t to improve the flow in an

e x p a n s io n . The flow p a tte r n s and h ead l o s s c o e f f ic ie n ts p r e s e n te d

w ould be s u ff ic ie n t to d e s ig n e x p a n s io n s if th e h y d rau lic perform ance is

hot c ritic a l. On th e o th er hand if th e flow p a tte rn is e x tre m e ly im portant

a sim ple m odel s tu d y s h o u ld be u s e d a s a d e s ig n to o l for th e p a rtic u la r

s itu a tio n a t h a n d .

A s e r i e s of s tu d ie s w ould be w o rthw hile to provide inform ation

for d e s ig n e r s in n o n - c r i t ic a l s i t u a t i o n s , and a s f ir s t ap p ro x im a tio n s for

c ritic a l s itu a tio n s .

The Froude e f fe c t for th e ab ru p t e x p a n s io n s h o u ld be fu lly

e x p l o r e d . This inform ation w ould be of d ire c t u s e to d e s i g n e r s , and a l s o

for th e o th e r s tu d ie s inv olving more com p lex g eo m etry . In t h i s w a y , a

r e l a t iv e ly few c h e c k s of th e Froude e f f e c t on c h o s e n g e o m e trie s might be

s u f f ic ie n t.

The g rad u al e x p a n s io n sho u ld be s tu d ie d for v a rio u s w a ll a n g l e s ,

to in clu d e c h a n g e of form, and for a rang e of e x p a n s io n r a t i o s . E s p e c i a l ­

ly if sim ple w a ll f o r m s , r a th e r th a n w arp ed w a l l s , are u s e d , th is type of

t r a n s itio n is d e s ir a b le from a c o s t s ta n d p o i n t . Such a s tu d y m ust be

a p p ro a c h e d w ith c a re or th e num ber of g eo m etric cb m b in a tio n s cou ld

mount to an u n m an ag eab le num ber. The r e s u l t s a c c u m u la te d in th is s tu d y

w ould pro bab ly i n d ic a te th a t S - s h a p e w a lls r a th e r th a n s tr a ig h t seg m e n ts

are req u ired for optimum flow p a tte rn s to be o b ta in e d . O nce th e o ptim al

 46

w a ll sh ap e i s d eterm in ed through a s e r i e s of s t u d i e s , and c h e c k e d for

Froude e f f e c t , the q u e s tio n of e x p a n s io n a n g le and e x p a n s io n ratio sh ou ld

be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The a d v a n ta g e of in te rio r v a n e s i s to o b ta in a sh o rte r t r a n s i ti o n .

A sh o rte r s tru c tu re c a n c o m p e n s a te for th e ad d ed c o s t of v a n e s , e s p e c i a l ­

l y if th e re are fo u n d atio n d i f f i c u l t i e s , or if th ere a re o th er c o n s tr a i n t s on

th e s iz e of stru c tu re a llo w a b le . Since th e v a n e s , in e f f e c t , d iv id e th e

flow into s e v e ra l p a r a lle l s t r u c t u r e s , the r e s u l t s of th e sim p le open

e x p a n s io n sh o u ld serv e a s the b eg inn ing of th is s tu d y .

The te tra h e d ro n i n s e r t is sim ple in c o n s tru c tio n and h a s th e

a d v a n ta g e of not being v e ry lik e ly to c a t c h d e b r i s . The optimum dim en­

s io n s of th e te tra h e d ro n sh o u ld be s tu d i e d . Again th e r e s u l t s of th e s im ­

ple e x p a n s io n and of th e Froude e f fe c t s h o u ld provide a b a s i s from w h ich

to s ta r t th is s tu d y .

The baffle p ie rs w ere a ls o r e a s o n a b ly e f f e c t i v e . The full d ep th

p iers w ere not a s e f fe c tiv e in th is s tu d y a s rep o rted by Yu, probably

b e c a u s e of the plunging j e t . For in le t c o n d itio n s lik e th o s e of th is

i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e p a r tia l p ie rs w ere more e ffe c tiv e s in c e th e y o b s tru c te d

th e h igh v e l o c i t y bottom flow d iv ertin g it u p w a rd s. For a flow th a t d o es

not plunge a t th e in le t to th e e x p a n s io n , th e fu ll d ep th p ie rs are p ro b ab ly

more e ffe c tiv e in th a t t h e y h ave a d ire c t in flu e n c e on th e e n tire d e p th of

flow a s w e ll a s through the tu rb u le n t mixing r e s u ltin g from th e high s h e a r

p la n e s dow nstream from th e p i e r s .

 REFERENCES

1. B akhm eteff, Boris A . , "H y d rau lics of Open C h a n n e l s , " M cG raw -H ill
Book C o m p an y , I n c . , New York, New York, 1932, p p . 1 4 3 -2 1 5 .

2. C ho w , Ven Te, "Open C h a n n e l H y d r a u lic s , " M c G ra w -H ill Book

C o m pan y, I n c . , New York, New York, 1959.

3. G ib s o n , A. H„ , " H y d rau lic s and Its A p p lic a tio n s, " 4th e d . , D. Van
N o stran d C o m p an y , New York, New York, 1930, p . 9 3 .

4. H in d a ll, Steven M . , "Some F acto rs In flu en cin g Flow C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of a Two D im en sio n al E x p a n sio n , " U n iv e r s ity of Arizona Library,
1966.

5. H in d s , J u lia n , "The H y drau lic D e s ig n of Flum es and Syphon T ra n s i­

t i o n s , " T r a n s a c tio n s , ASCE, v o l. 9 2 , p p . 1423, 1928.

6. R ou se, H . , Bhoota, B. V . , an d H s u , E. Y. , "D esig n of C h a n n e l

E x p a n s io n s , " P ro c e e d in g s , ASCE, N ov. 1949.

7. R ouse, H . , "Engineering H y d r a u l i c s , " John W ile y & S o n s, I n c . ,

New York, 1961.

8. R ou se, H . , "Fluid M e c h a n ic s for H y draulic E n g in e e rs , " M cG raw -

H ill Book C om p an y , I n c . , New York, New York, 1938, pp. 1 3 -1 8 .

9. S co b ey , Fred C . , "The Flow of W a te r in F l u m e s , " U . S. D epartm ent

of A g ric u ltu re , T e c h n ic a l B u lletin , N o. 393, D e c . 1933.

10. Yu, James N . G . , "U se of Baffles in Open C h a n n e l E x p a n s io n s , "

P r o c e e d in g s , ASCE, Journal of th e H y d ra u lic s D iv is io n , v o l. 92,
N o. HY2, M arch 1966, pp. 1 -1 7 .

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