GLASS MATERIAL

 Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent and brittle.

 Glass is an inorganic, homogeneous and amorphous substance obtained through the cooling of a
molten mass.

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF THE GLASS:

 Transparency

 Strength

 Workability

 Transmittance

 U value

 Recycling property
 
TRANSPARENCY OF GLASS:

 Transparency is the main property of glass

which allows the vision of the outside world
through it.
 The transparency of glass can be from both
sides or from one side only. In one side
transparency, glass behaves like a mirror from
the other side.

STRENGTH OF GLASS:

 The strength of glass depends on the modulus

of rupture value of glass.
 In general glass is a brittle material but by
adding admixtures and laminates we can make
it as stronger.

WORKABILITY OF GLASS:

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  A glass can be molded into any shape, or it can be blown during melting. So, workability of glass is a
superior property.

TRANSMITTANCE OF GLASS:

 The visible fraction of light that passing

through glass is the property of visible
transmittance.
 86% of total solar light can be transferred
from the glass.
 90% of the total visible light can be
transferred from the glass.

RECYCLE PROPERTY OF GLASS:

 Any glass can be 100% recyclable.

 It can also be used as raw material in glass
making process.
 The broken glass pieces are also called as
the cullet.

U VALUE OF GLASS:

 The U-value of a window is a
measurement of the rate of heat loss
indicating how well your windows are
keeping valuable heat in.
 It is expressed as Watts per square
meter Kelvin W/m2 K.
 The lower the U-value the better
the thermal performance of the 
glass.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF GLASS:

1. It has no definite crystalline structure.

2. It has no sharp melting point.
3. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.

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 4. It is affected by alkalies.
5. It is an excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures.
6. It is extremely brittle.
7. It is available in beautiful colors.
8. It is not affected by air or water.
9. It is not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.
10. It is capable of being worked in several ways.
11. It can take up a high polish (and may be used as substitute for very costly gems).
12. It is possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion.
13.  As a result of advancement made in the science of glass production, it is possible to make glass
lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger than steel.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN COMPONENT OF GLASS?

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SILICA (SiO2):

 It is the major constituent of all types of glass.

 As it fuses at very high temperatures some alkaline admixtures like sodium carbonate or potassium
carbonate is added to it so as to make it fuse at lower temperature.
 The admixtures added to lower the fusion temperature also make the liquid silica viscous and better
workable.

POTASH (K2O):

 It renders glass infusible and gives fire resisting properties to it.

SODA:

 It accelerates fusion of glass, as such excess of it is harmful.

LIME (CaO):

 It gives durability and toughness (hardness) to glass.

LEAD OXIDE:

 It gives color to glass.

CULLET:

 It is broken glass, which is used as a raw material to reduce to its cost.

 These are the important components, mostly using all type of glass making process.

PROCESS:

 The main component of glass is silica sand which has to be fine grained and clean and constitutes
about 70% of the raw materials required for glass manufacturing.
 During the glass making process soda is added to silica to reduce the very high melting
temperature of silica.
 Along with-it calcium carbonate is added to make it more stable and consistent. The glass is
etched with a color by using different ions.

Silica (SiO2) comes from quartz in sand. Other components needed are sodium oxide (Na2O) and 10.5%
calcium oxide (CaO). Minor additives include 1.3% aluminum oxide (Al2O3), 0.3% potassium oxide

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(K2O), 0.2% sulfur trioxide (SO3), 0.2% magnesium oxide (MgO), 0.04% iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), and
0.01% titanium oxide (TiO2).

COMPOSITION OF GLASS:

 it’s not a single compound and it’s difficult to give a particular chemical formula.
 commonly expressed as combination of alkali oxides, metal oxides and silica dioxides aX 2O, bYO,
6SiO2
Where,

 a, b are no. of molecules;

 X is an atom of an alkali metal i.e. Na, K etc.
 Y is an atom of a bivalent metal i.e. Ca, Pb etc.

For example,

 Soda-lime Glass - Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2

 Potash-lead Glass - K2O, PbO, 6SiO2
 Potash-lime Glass - K2O, CaO, 6SiO2

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM:

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MANUFACTURING STEPS:

The manufacture of glass is in 5 phases:

1. Collection of raw materials,
2. Preparation of batch,
3. Melting in a furnace,
4. Fabrication,
5. Annealing

1.COLLECTION OF RAW

 It depending upon the type of glass to be manufactured, suitable raw materials are collected.
 There are some raw materials required for each type of glass.

TYPES OF GLASS RAW MATERIALS

Soda lime glass Chalk soda ash (Na2CO2) and clean fresh sand

Potash lime glass Chalk, Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) and clean fresh sand

Litharge (lead monoxide PbO) or Lead sesquioxide (Pb2 O4), Potassium carbonate (K2CO2) or
Potash lead glass
pure sand

Common glass Chalk, Salt cake (Na2S04), coke, Ordinary sand, etc.….
COLLECTION OF RAW MATERIALS FOR GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

 In addition to the raw materials, the cullet and decolorizers are also added for each type of glass.
 “CULLET” it indicates waste glass (or) pieces of broken glass.
 It is used to increase the fusibility of glass and prevent loss of alkali by vitalization during the
reaction in forming new glass. They also reduce the cost.
 Generally, the raw materials contain traces of the iron compounds.
 The ferrous oxide imparts a green color, and ferric oxide imparts a very light-yellow tint. To avoid
such effects, the decolorizers are added.
 The usual substances used as decolorizers are:
1. Antimony oxide (Sb2O3)
2. Arsenic oxide (As2O3)
3. Cobalt oxide (C0O)
4. Manganese dioxide (MnO2)
5. Nickel oxide (NiO)

2. PREPARATION OF BATCH:

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  The raw materials, cullet and decolorizer are finely powdered in grinding machines.
 These materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed together
 The mixing of these materials is carried out in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is obtained.
 Such a uniform mixture is known as the Batch or Frit.

3. MELTING IN FURNACE:

 The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank furnace.

 The heating is continued until the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, Sulphur dioxide and other
gases stops.
 and it is fused in furnace at high temperature of 1800°C this charge melts and fuses into a viscous
fluid.

POT FURNACE:

 In this furnace, the pots are adopted as units.

 A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay.
 These pots are placed in specially prepared holes in
the furnace.
 The charging and collecting doors are kept projecting
outside so that raw materials may be added and
molten glass may be taken out conveniently.
 The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is
heated by means of producer gas. When the mass
has melted down, it is removed from the pot and it is
taken for the next operation of fabrication.
 The melting of glass by pot furnace is an
intermittent process.
 It is used to melt small quantities of glass at a time or to prepare
special types of glass.

TANK FURNACE:

 It is constructed with reinforced

masonry.

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  The roof is given special shape to deflect the flames of heated gas.
 The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer gas.
 The doors are provided for charging and for taking out the molten glass.
 A bridge separates the tank into 2 unequal compartments.
 The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains somewhat impure glass.
 It flows through opening of bridge into small compartment. The gall or floating impurities are
collected at the top of large compartment.
 The refractory lining is provided to the interior surface of tank.
 The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated by allowing producer gas through ports.
The charging of raw materials and taking out of molten mass are simultaneous. This is a continuous
process and it is adopted to melt large quantities of glass at a time.

4. FABRICATION:

 The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this stage.

 It can either be done by hand or by machine.
 The hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and machine fabrication is adopted for
large scale production.
 Fabrication of glass techniques include cutting, grinding, laminating, and drilling. Glass fabrication
requires polishing, bending, finishing and edging in most of the cases.
 Different ways of fabrication:
1. Blowing
2. Casting
3. Drawing
4. Pressing
5. Rolling,
6. Spinning

BLOWING:

 12mm dia and 1.8m length Blow-pipe is used for this purpose.
 One end of the blow-pipe is dipped in the molten mass of glass and a lump of about 50 N weight is
taken out.
 This lump of glass will then lengthen to some extent by its own weight.

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  Then the operator blows vigorously from other end of blow pipe. And it can also be done with the
help of an air compressor.
 This blowing causes the molten mass to assume the shape of a cylinder. Then it is heated for few
seconds and is blown again.
 The blowing and heating are continued till the cylinder of required size is formed.
 Then it is placed on an iron plate and it is disconnected from blow pipe.
 Then the cylinder is cut vertically by a diamond.

CASTING:

 The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to cool down slowly.
 The large piece of glass of simple design can be prepared by this method.
 It is also adopted to prepare mirrors, lenses, etc.

DRAWING:

 This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass either by hand or by mechanical equipment.
 Iron bar is dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass.
 It is lifted up horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten glass.
 Then this sheet is allowed to pass over a large rotating roller. The roller is helps to spread the molten
glass to thin sheet.

PRESSING:

 In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds. The pressure may either be applied by hand
or by mechanical.
 This process is adopted for ornamental products, hollow glass products, etc.

ROLLING:

 There are 2 methods of rolling.

 1st method is, the molten mass of glass is passed between heavy iron rollers and flat glass plate of
uniform thickness is obtained.
 2nd method is, the molten mass of glass is poured on a flat iron casting table and it is then turned flat
with the aid of a heavy iron roller.

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SPINNING:

 In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a machine to form very fine glass fibers.
 This glass has tensile strength equal to that of mild steel. It does not fade, decay or shrink.
 It is not attacked by acids, fire, and vermin’s. It is very soft and flexible. It is used for providing
insulation against heat, electricity and sound.

5. ANNEALING:

 The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and gradually.
 This process of slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as the annealing of glass.
 The annealing of glass is a very important process.
 If glass articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial layer of the glass cools down first,
as glass is a bad conductor of heat.
 The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it is therefore in a state of strain. Hence such
glass articles break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances.

 There are 2 methods of annealing:

1. Flue treatment
2. Oven treatment

FLUE TREATMENT:

 In this method, a long flue is provided and it is

constructed in such a way that there is gradual decrease in
temperature from one end of flue to the other.
 The red-hot articles of glass are allowed to enter at the
hot end of flue and they are slowly moved on travelling
bands. They become cool when they reach the cool end of
flue.
 This method is useful for large scale production.

OVEN TREATMENT:

 In this method, the red-hot glass articles are placed in

ovens in which arrangement is made to control the temperature.
 After articles are placed in the ovens, the temperature is slowly brought down.

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  This method is useful for small scale production.
 An annealing oven (known in the industry as a lehr) heats the container to about 580 °C (1,076
°F), then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20–60-minute period.

TREATMENT OF GLASS:

The glass may be given any of the following treatment:

1. Bending,
2. Cutting,
3. Opaque making,
4. Silvering.

BENDING:

 The glass may be bent into desired shape by placing it in ovens in which the temperature can be
regulated.
 The glass in the form of rods, sheets, or tubes is placed in such ovens and heated. Then it is bent
when it is suitably heated.

CUTTING:

 The glass is cut in required sizes with the help of diamond or rough glasses or small wheels of
hardened steel.

OPAQUE MAKING:

 The glass can also be made opaque or impervious to light.

 It is done by grinding the glass surface with emery. It can also be achieved chemically by the
application of hydrofluoric acid.

SILVERING:

 A thin coat of tin is applied to the surface.

 Silver is deposited on this layer of tin. A suitable paint is applied on top to give protection against the
atmospheric effects.

COLOURED GLASS:

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  To make colored glass, the coloring pigments is added to the raw materials while preparing the batch
for its manufacture.
 The whole mass is heated till it becomes homogeneous.
 The coloring pigment may consist of metallic oxides, finely divided metals, carbon, salts of metal,
Sulphur, etc.
 The colored glass is used for various purposes such as artificial precious stones, window panels,
fancy articles, decorative tiles, etc.

COLORING SUBSTANCES FOR GLASS:

NO COLOR SUBSTANCES

1 Blue Cobalt oxide, Cupric oxide

Dark brown
Or
2 Dark blue Cobalt, Manganese and Iron oxides
Or
Dark violet

3 Green Ferroso-ferric oxide, Chromium Sesquioxide

4 Red Caprous oxide, Metallic gold

5 Violet Manganese dioxide

6 White opaque Tin oxide, Calcium phosphorite

Yellow
7 Or Antimony trisulphide, Charcoal, Silver borate,
Brown

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 8 Orange red Selenium Oxide

9 Fluorescent yellow Ferric salt or Sodium uranet

10 Ruby red Gold chloride or Purple of classias

11 Glitter red Cuprous oxide, Cadmium sulphide

12 Peacock blue Cupric salt

Green
13 Potassium dichromate
green yellow

14 Yellow like lemon Cadmium sulphide

15 Brownish black Carbon

CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS:

For the purpose of classification, the glass may be grouped into the following 5 main categories:

1. Soda-lime glass or commercial glass

2. Potash-lime glass
3. Potash-lead glass
4. Common glass
5. Borosilicate glass

1.SODA-LIME GLASS or COMMERCIAL GLASS:

 This is also known as the soda-glass or soft-glass.

 sand is mixed with waste glass (from recycling collections), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and
limestone (calcium carbonate) and heated in a furnace.
 The end-product is called soda-lime- glass. It's the ordinary glass we can see all around us.

PROPERTIES:

1. It is available in clean and clear state.

2. It is cheap.

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 3. It is easily fusible at comparatively low temperature.
4. It is possible to blow or to weld articles made from this glass with the help of simple source of heat.

USES:

 It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes and other laboratory apparatus, plate glass, window
glass, etc.

2.POTASH-LIME GLASS:

 This is also known as the Bohemian-glass or Hard glass.

 It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate.

PROPERTIES:

1. It fuses at high temperature.

2. It is not easily affected by water and other solvents.
3. It does not melt so easily.

USES:

 This glass is used in the manufacture of glass articles which have to withstand high temperature such
as combustion tubes, etc.

3.POTASH-LEAD GLASS:

 This is also known as the Flint glass.

 It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate.

PROPERTIES:

1. It fuses very easily.

2. It is easily attacked by aqueous solutions.

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 3. It possesses bright lustre and great refractive power.
4. Its specific gravity is about 3 to 3.30.
5. It turns black and opaque, if it comes into contact with reducing gases of the furnace during heating.

USES:

 It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms, etc.

4.COMMON GLASS:

 This is also known as Bottle glass.

 It is prepared from cheap raw materials.
 It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate, and iron silicate.

PROPERTIES:

1. It fuses with difficulty.

2. It is brown, green, or yellow in color.
3. It is easily attacked by acids.

USES:

 It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.

5.BOROSILICATE GLASS:

 Most of us are more familiar with this type of glass in the form of ovenware and other heat-resisting
ware,
 It is mainly mixture of 70% to 80% of silica, and 7% to 13% boric oxide with smaller amounts of the
alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) and aluminum oxide.

PROPERTIES:

 It has a relatively low alkali content and consequently has good chemical durability and thermal
shock resistance.
 It has high softening point.
 It does not break when temperature changes quickly.

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USES:

 This glass is widely used in chemical industry, for laboratory apparatus, for ampoules and other
pharmaceutical containers,
 and for various high intensity lighting applications
 and as glass fibers used in the reinforced plastics to make protective helmets, boats, piping, car
chassis, ropes, etc. and also in textile industry.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLASSES:

 CLEAR FLOAT GLASS

 COATED GLASS
 SOLAR CONTROLLED
 PATTERN GLASS
 LAMINATED GLASS
 FIRE RESISTANT GLASS
 ACOUSTIC GLASS
 MIRROR
 COLORED GLASS
 SELF CLEANING GLASS

CLEAR FLOAT GLASS:

1. FLOAT GLASS OR PLATE GLASS:

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  Float glass manufactured from sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda-lime
glass.
 Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin,
although lead and other various low-melting-point alloys were used in the past.
 This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
 The application of float glass includes shop fronts, public places, etc.

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