GPR Theory

GPR Systems
GEORADAR systems
GPR theory and Radar technics
Version 23-Nov-2015 all rights reserved 1

GPR Systems
• Module 1: GPR theory and technics

• Fundamentals
• Principle of GPR functionality
• Parameters of influence and performance
• Radar map interpretation

GPR Systems
Introduction
• G.P.R. (Ground Penetrating Radar) transmits electromagnetic energy with radiofrequency to
investigate the structure of subsoil or manmade constructions, without modifications into
phisical properties.
• The returning signals provide information about depth of changing ground characteristics. Basic
radar output presents this as patterns of signals at depth against the distance travelled through the
ground by the energy. The radar measures depth in terms of the time it takes for a signal to return
after emission. The depth in cm or metres depends on soil conditions and how fast the
electromagnetic waves can travel through the ground
• So that the prospection is faster and cheaper respect traditional dig
surveys.
• Therefore G.P.R. is useful for different applications:
 Utility detection (pipes, cables).
 Archaelogical sites recognition.
 Evaluation of civil structures integrity (walls, tunnels, paves).
 Geological applications (research of cavitis, fractures).
 Foundations verify.

GPR Systems
Electromagnetic waves
• GPR uses high frequency pulsed electromagnetic waves (from 25
MHz to 2,000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information.
• On each perpendicular plan to x axis, E and H have the same value (wave
plan).
• The wave lenght is =c/f

GPR Systems

• Fundamentals
• Radar map interpretation

GPR Systems
Principle of working
 The radar transmits a small pulse of

EM wave through an antenna
 The reflected energy from the
discontinuity is captured and
received by the antenna.
 The time delay contains information
on the target depth
 The depth and the resolution are
related to the antennas frequency, to
the power transmitter and to the
dielectric properties of the ground.
GPR Systems
GPR Pulses - Definitions
• Transmitted signal is  T : period or range
constructed by a periodic  PRF = 1/T : Pulse repetition
series of pulses with frequency (GPR IDS
sinusoidal shape. =400KHz)
 R = (v T)/2 : Max distance
Trigger antenna-target
t
 R = (v )/2 : Resolution in
T depth
  : Pulse time

Example:
 = 1 nsec 
R
R = 5 cm in common soil

GPR Systems
Transmitter
• The group transmitter-antenna produces a single cycle of
sinusoid because of the antenna band
Power pulses of
Trigger of antenna Irradiated pulses
transmission
TX

GPR Systems
Receiver
• The receiver amplifies received signal and transforms it from
RF to an audio band signal through a S&H (sample and hold)
Signal in • S&H: circuit riducing signal

audio band
RX frequency, taking off a
sample from each signal
Trigger of repetition and manteining
that since the next sample
receiver take off.
S&H

GPR Systems
Sketch of GPR RIS
Sketch of GPR RIS HDD
Transmitter Receiver A/D Processing Visualization
Antenna TX. Antenna RX.
Surface of investigated
medium
Target

GPR Systems
Sampling theory
• A received signal by GPR is sampled and saved in digital
format by a DIGITAL ANTENNA DRIVER (DAD).
• Sampling theory (Nyquist) tells that, in order to have not
loss of any information, the sampling frequency must be
at least double of upper limit of sampled signal band.
fs > 2 fmax

GPR Systems
Conversion for sampling
Sampled signal t
(radiofrequency)
Reconstructed signal
t
(audio band)
Receiving Trigger
Transmitting Trigger
T’
tc
T=1/PRF

GPR Systems
Generation of the map
Monitor 4 Generated electric

pulse 1
Transmitter Receiver
1 3 Mote of Irradiated electric
antenna pulse 2
Antenna
2
Received electric
pulse 3
BURIED
OBJECT
Sketch of principles 4
Radar map

GPR Systems
Buried object is seen by GPR in deformed shape
x-N x-1 x0 x1 xN x
x-NTrasmettitore x0 x
Ricevitore N
Mote of
Monitor antenna d0
Antenna d1
d-1
d-N d0 dN d-N dN
BURIED
OBJECT
Hyperbola
Acquisition generation Radar map
RADAR “sees” the Buried object is detected if:

target around a - it is in the antenna irradiation cone
location at a minimum - ratio signal/clutter > minimum value sufficient to
distance reveal that

GPR Systems
Antenna
Position of
the
antenna
Delay time

GPR Systems
Position
Delay Time

GPR Systems
Characteristics of the antennas
• IDS antennas are dipols (see

picture). A dipole is composed by a Direction of
positive and a negative charge vector Electric
that, in attraction, generate an Field
electromagnetic field
• The electric field cone has an
opening of 90° parallel to the
antenna survey direction and of
60° perpendicularly.
• Antennas are shielded by
interferences coming from
surrounding spaces (GSM etc.).

GPR Systems
Polarization:
• Antennas are characterized by a Very
polarization, that is the good
direction of irradiated and
received fields. detection
• The targets are detected more E
clearly if the vector Electric
Field is parallel to them during
the scan. Bad
• With the co-polar antennas, we detection
can detect the perpendicular E
targets respect to the scan
direction.
• With the cross-polar antennas
we can detect better the targets Very
being at 45° respect to the scan good
direction.
E detection

GPR Systems
• Monostatic type: tx-rx

attached between them T R
and located in the same X X
case.
T R
X
• Bistatic type: tx-rx X
spaced and located in
different cases.
• Crosspolar type: tx-rx
RX
T
perpendicular between X
them.

GPR Systems
Characteristics of the DAD RADAR UNIT
• PRF = 400KHz
• Scan rate = up to 850scan/sec
• Number of samples/scan = 128-8192
• Data saving = Hard disk
• Max data size acquired = unlimited
• Max number of channels = 8
• Max range = 9999nsec
• Max number of antennas used = 8
• Lead Battery Input = 12V
• Consumption = 8W/h per channel
• Autonomy per channel = about 10h

GPR Systems

• Fundamentals
• Radar interpretation

GPR Systems
Physical Properties of Antenna
Low Long Bigger antenna More depth Lower resolution

freq wavelength size penetration
High Short Smaller antenna Less depth Higher

freq wavelength size penetration resolution
GPR Systems
Critic zone of pipes detection
Critic zone Pipe radius/wave lenght < 0.1
Dimension below that we have an important loss of radar power
Antenna 200MHz Antenna 400MHz Antenna 600MHz
Pipe radius = 5cm Pipe radius = Pipe radius =

2.5cm 1.25cm

GPR Systems
Scattering of the EM waves
• Scattering of EM wave: reflection of wave in a multiple of
casual directions.
• It happens when there are changements in electric properties
pair to the geometric entity of the wave lenght.
• The scattering makes the targets detection more difficult.
• From the practical point of view, the scattering can be caused
by porosity, irregular dimensions or shapes of structures under
investigation.
Incident Reflexed Incident
wave wave wave
Flat surface Irregular surface

Two Electrical Properties Of ImportanceGPR Systems
To GPR Work
• Electrical conductivity (inverse of resistivity)

• Electrical permittivity (“Dielectric Constant”)

Electrical ConductivityGPR Systems
siemens/meter (S/m) or mho/m
 The ability of a material to conduct electric current

-9
 Value ranges from 4 to 10 S/m
 The reciprocal is resistivity measured in ohm x
meters
 The value is primarily controlled by water content
and/or clay content
 Higher conductivity makes radar signal penetration
difficult
 Conductivity > .01 S/m (resistivity < 100 ohm x meters) are
difficult GPR conditions

GPR Systems
Effect Of Water Content On Electrical Conductivity
Water content, grams H2O/grams soil

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
-1
-2
log conductivity, mhos/m
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8

GPR Systems
General Divisions Of Materials By Electrical Conductivity
 Low conductivity - excellent radar conditions

(cond. <10-7S/m)
 air
 dry granite, dry limestone
 concrete, asphalt
 Medium conductivity - medium radar conditions
(10-7 cond. < 10-2S/m)
 freshwater, freshwater ice, snow
 sand, silt, dry clay, basalt, seawater ice
 High conductivity - poor radar conditions
-7
(cond. > 10 S/m)
 wet clay, wet shale
 seawater

GPR Systems
Resistivity Values Of Common Materials

GPR Systems
Resistivity Values Of Common Materials
MATERIAL  mho/m r
Air 0 1
Pure Water 10-4 to 3.10-2 81
Seawater 4 81
Freshwater Ice 10-3 4
Granite (dry) 10-8 5
Limestone (dry) 10-9 7
Clay (saturated) 10-1 to 1 8 to 12
Firn Snow 10-6 to 10-5 1.4
Sand (dry) 10-7 to 10-3 4 to 6
Sand (saturated) 10-4 to 10-2 30
Silt (saturated) 10-3 to 10-2 10
Seawater Ice 10-2 to 10-1 4 to 8
Basalt (wet) 10-2 8
Granite (wet) 10-3 7
Shale (wet) 10-1 7
Sandstone (wet) 4.10-2 6
Limestone (wet) 2.5.10-2 8
Soil
-Sandy Dry 1.4.10-4 2.6
-Sandy Wet 6.9.10-3 25
-Loamy Dry 1.1.10-4 2.5
-Loamy Wet 2.1.10-2 19
-Clayey Dry 2.7.10-4 2.4
-Clayey Wet 5.0.10-2 15
Permafrost 10-5 to 10-2 4 to 8

Relative Dielectric Permittivity GPR Systems
(Dielectric Constant, r)
 Dimensionless measure of the capacity of a material to

store charge when an electric field is applied;
 The value ranges from 1 to 81 (1 = air, 81 = water);
 The value (for soils) is primarily controlled by water content
 Differences in dielectric properties between two adjacent
materials through which the radar wave propagates will
cause reflection of some of the radar energy back to the
surface, where its amplitude and return time (two-way travel
time) can be measured. The strength of reflections is
controlled by the contrast in the dielectric constants of the
two adjacent materials.
 Dielectric differences as small as 1 can cause reflections in
GPR data.
GPR Systems
Effect Of Water Content On Dielectric Constant
120
100
% Water Content
80
60
40
20
0
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 81
Dielectric Constant

GPR Systems
Dielectric Constants Of Some Common Materials
Air 1
Snow 1-2
Pvc 3
Asphalt 3-5
Freshwater Ice 4
Concrete 4-11 (5)
Granite 4-7
Sandstone 6
Shale 5-15
Limestone 4-8
Basalt 8-9
Soils And Sediments 4-
30
Fresh And Saltwater 81

GPR Systems
Dependence of v vs. dielectric constant
c Common soil v  10 8 m / s (or 10cm/nsec)

v
r
Medium r v (cm/nsec)
Air 1 30
c  3  10 8 m / s
Water 81 3
Sand 2.6 -25 19 - 6
Lime 2.5 - 19 19 - 7
Clay 2.4 - 15 19 - 8
Wet Basalt 8 11
Wet Granite 7 11
Wet Sandstone 6 12
Wet Limestone 8 11

GPR Systems
Dependence of v vs. dielectric constant
Rif. Bibl.: D. J. Daniels, Ground Penetrating Radar, The

Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom,
2005.
GPR Systems
Example
v  To estimate the target depth it’s necessary a calibration

2
r v (cm/nsec) Depth (cm)

  20 nsec 1 30 300
(air)
9 10 100
(common dry soil)
16 7.5 75
Delay time
(common wet soil)
81 3.3 33
(water)
Radar map
Common soil : r = 9 - 16 if r = 12 (the error is no more than 10cm)

GPR Systems
The clutter in GPR
• A factor to consider for evaluating the

performance in GPR is constituted by the clutter.
• For GPR the clutter is defined like the group of
signals not linked to target reflections but only due
to external effects with similar characterics.
• The clutter makes radar map interpretation more
difficult.
• Examples:
– Stones
– Building’s walls
– Sidewalk
– Masking

GPR Systems
Radar map interpretation

GPR Systems
Never estimate diameter!!!!!
Soil conditions will influence Propagation speed that will influence hyperbole curve
Deeper targets has wider amplitude due to beam with – see example next.
GPR Systems
GPR Systems
Reconstruction of pipes layout from parallel scans

PIPE A PIPE B
A
Scan 1
B
A
B
Scan 2
A
Scan 3
Pipes layout
In order to determine the pipelines layout, several parallel scans have to be performed
GPR Systems
Reflections
The pipe on the right is a

concrete water pipe; a
further reflection is
generated from the bottom
of the pipe.
The delay between the 2

reflections is a function of
the pipe diameter
GPR Systems
Reflection - top & the bottom of a sewer pipe
Main reflection from

the top of the sewer
Reflections from the

bottom of the water pipe
GPR Systems
Metallic & plastic pipes
Metallic pipe Metallic pipes

Empty plastic pipe
When the relative

permittivity of a target is
lower than of the
surrounding medium
(e.g. air filled void or
pipe), there is no phase
reversal of the
backscattered wave
On the contrary and for
metallic targets, a phase
reversal is produced
GPR Systems
Imaging of a reinforced concrete slab

Concrete reinforcement
GPR Systems
Pipes & geological layers

GPR Systems
Typical resolution difference
Lower frequencies
Higher frequencies
GPR Systems
700 MHz
250 MHz
GPR Systems
Manhole cover
GPR Systems
User selectable colour pallets

GPR Systems
Different colour palette selection can improve target results

GPR Systems
Interpretation example - water leak detection
GPR Data before and after interpretation

GPR Systems
Interpretation example – Contamination detection
Chemical contamination areas

GPR Systems
Interpretation example – Layer analysis

GPR Systems
GPR - Morphology
GPR Systems
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)

GPR is a method for shallow, high-resolution, subsurface investigations of the earth. GPR uses
high frequency pulsed electromagnetic waves (from 25 MHz to 3,000 MHz) to acquire subsurface
information.
G P R Principle
GPR Systems
Church Crypt
Top of the
gate
Gate below
the floor not
visible
GPR Systems
Vault
GPR Systems
Cave
Radar Sensor
4m
Cave
GPR Systems
Radar scan Tunnel

GPR Systems
Pipe
GPR Systems
Pipe
PVC Pipe
GPR Systems
Pipe
Shallow
utilities
Sewage pipe
Sewage pipe

GPR Theory

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GPR Systems

GPR theory and Radar technics

Version 23-Nov-2015 all rights reserved 1

• Module 1: GPR theory and technics

Version 20-Nov-2015 all rights reserved 2

Version 20-Nov-2015 all rights reserved 3

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• Module 1: GPR theory and technics

Version 20-Nov-2015 all rights reserved 5

 The radar transmits a small pulse of

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Signal in • S&H: circuit riducing signal

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Sketch of GPR RIS HDD

Transmitter Receiver A/D Processing Visualization

Antenna TX. Antenna RX.

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Monitor 4 Generated electric

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RADAR “sees” the Buried object is detected if:

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• IDS antennas are dipols (see

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• Monostatic type: tx-rx

• Crosspolar type: tx-rx

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• Module 1: GPR theory and technics

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Physical Properties of Antenna

Low Long Bigger antenna More depth Lower resolution

High Short Smaller antenna Less depth Higher

Critic zone Pipe radius/wave lenght < 0.1

Dimension below that we have an important loss of radar power

Antenna 200MHz Antenna 400MHz Antenna 600MHz

Pipe radius = 5cm Pipe radius = Pipe radius =

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Flat surface Irregular surface

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• Electrical conductivity (inverse of resistivity)

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 The ability of a material to conduct electric current

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Water content, grams H2O/grams soil

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 Low conductivity - excellent radar conditions

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 Dimensionless measure of the capacity of a material to

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c Common soil v  10 8 m / s (or 10cm/nsec)

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Rif. Bibl.: D. J. Daniels, Ground Penetrating Radar, The

r v (cm/nsec) Depth (cm)

Common soil : r = 9 - 16 if r = 12 (the error is no more than 10cm)