Harmony Rebetika PDF

British Forum for Ethnomusicology
The Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music, 1930s to 1960s
Author(s): Risto Pekka Pennanen
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 6 (1997), pp. 65-116
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
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VOL. 6 BRITISHJOURNALOFETHNOMUSICOLOGY 1997
The developmentof chordal harmony

in Greek rebetika and laika music,
1930s to 1960s
Risto Pekka Pennanen
This article addresses the effects of chordalharmonyon makam- or dromos-basedGreek

popular music, a feature almost completely ignored in previous research. The goal is to
reconsider the asserted rapid Westernizationof rebetika and especially laika styles after
the World War II. Processes of change examined are Westernization,modernizationand
Orientalization. The analyses are based on interviews with professional musicians and
transcriptions from a large corpus of gramophone recordings. The most important
characteristicsstudied are droning,relative majorand minor chords and common-practice
and modal harmonyin makam-relatedsongs. The analyses lead to a new theoryfor dromos
harmonization.Culturalmeaningsof developmentsin Greekpopularmusic are analysedas
well. It is evident that many musicians, researchersand listeners have interpretedGreek
popularmusic as more Westernizedthanit actuallyis.
INTRODUCTIONOF CHORDALHARMONYis a typical sign of Western

. influence in a non-Westernmusic culture.The aim of this articleis to show
HiE
how, in spite of Westernizationin Greekurbancultureand the harmonizationof
melodies in makam-basedcompositionalsystems of Greekpopularmusic called
dromoi (sing. dromos "road"),some characteristicsof the dromoi have been
retained in both rebetika music and its successor laikal. I shall analyse the
developmentof this aspectin Greekpopularmusic in the periodfromthe 1930s to
the 1960s and presenta theoryfor dromosharmonizationbased on performance
practice.The period chosen covers importantdevelopmentsfrom the rise of the
bouzouki-basedrebetika as a recordedgenre in the early 1930s till the birthof
new laika sub-stylesin the 1960s.
1 Rebetikatragoudia(pl.) once designatedsongs which were originallyperformed,listenedto and/or

danced by rebetes, men of waywardness and non-conformity.Nowadays the term is used for much of pre
mid-1950s non-Western Greek popularmusic. I use the term "laika"somewhat unconventionally. Usually
it is used for "urbanGreek popular music" in general as distinct from the rural dimotika music. (For the
debate concerning the terms, see Gauntlett 1982/83:91-2; Dietrich 1987:7 n. 1.) Instead of using the Greek
singular ("rebetiko")for one song and "rebetiki"for the music, I call the music "rebetikamusic" and one
song a "rebetikasong". Laika tragoudia (pl.) are post mid-1950s Greek popular songs. As with rebetika,I
call the music "laika music" and one song "laikasong".
65

66 British Journal of Ethnomusicology,vol. 6 (1997)
The analysisis primarilybasedon a corpusof some 1500 commercialrebetika

and laika recordings or their reissues. There is a gap in the recordedmaterial
between April 1941 and early June 1946 caused by the cessation of recording
activities duringthe Axis occupationof Greece and its aftermath.Owing to the
lack of complete and reliable Greekdiscographies,recordingand releasingdates
are often undependable(Smith 1989; 1991; Pennanen1996:244-5). I have had
some problems with the dates of issue, which are of vital importancefor the
chronology.Originalrecordingsandproperlyeditedreissuescan be reliablydated
because of the available catalogue numbers that reveal the date of release.
Occasionallyeven the matrixnumbersindicatingthe datesof recordingare given.
However,most Greekreissues containvery sparseinformationaboutthe original
recordings.Fortunatelycompositionsand recordingsof a few importantrebetika
and laika musicians have been partly catalogued (Torp 1993; Hristianopoulos
1994; Maniatis 1994:87-143; Anastasiou 1995; Kleiasiou 1997:400-43;
Adamidou 1998:365-94). In addition,many datings are based on information
contained in original EMI artiste's recordingsheets, including matrix numbers
andrecordingdates, kindlyprovidedby Diane Mueller.
Referencesto bouzoukiplayingtechniques,rebetikaperformancepracticesand
verbalizationson music arebasedon privatebouzoukilessons andinterviewswith
musiciansin Athens,PiraeusandAeginabetweenthe years 1989 and 1998.2
Rebetikacan be subdividedinto two main styles (ConwayMorris 1980). The
Orientalstyle associatedwith the largerefugeepopulationfrom Asia Minorin the
1920s and 1930s can be called caf6 music because of its main performance
milieu. Probablyfor nationalisticreasons, this style is usually called Smyrnaic
(smyrneiko)in Greece, which is quite misleading. Only a part of the repertoire
originatedfrom the popularmusic of Izmir (Smyrna):the majorityof melodies
came from Istanbul,the centre of Ottomanclassical and popularmusic. In the
1920s and 1930s, Greekcaf6 musiciansrecordedremakesof Ottoman varkyand
kanto as well as urbanand ruraltiirkii songs of popular vein (cf. ibid.:82-3;
Ayangil 1994; Jouste 1997). Therewere also many originalcompositionsbased
on Ottomantradition.Caf6 musiciansmostlyused musicalinstrumentscapableof
producing microintervals(i.e. violin, kemenge or lyra, kanun, ud, ciimbiiU),
althoughthey also frequentlyplayed the guitar,mandolinand accordion.Songs
were accompaniedby heterophonicmelodic lines providedby instruments,and/or
rhythmic bass formulae from the ud or guitar. Percussion instrumentswere
sometimesused.
The other main style of rebetika, the bouzouki-based Piraeus style, was
associatedwith the urbansub-cultureof Greece. ConwayMorris(1980) calls its
early stages "tekestyle" afterthe most commonperformancecontext, i.e. teke or
hashish den. The main musical instrumentsof this style were the bouzouki, its
2 Professional musicians of the older generationconsulted for this article were Thanasis Athanasiou (born
1920), Takis Binis (b. 1924), and especially Spyros Kalfopoulos (b. 1923). Younger musicians were
Stelios Biblis (b. 1959), Hristos Kalambokis (b. 1968), Kostas Koukoulinis (b. 1957), Nikos Kralis (b.
1960) and Hristos Spourdalakis(b. 1961).

Pennanen:Chordalharmonyin Greek rebetikaand laika 67
miniature version the baglamas and the guitar. The repertoirewas based on
alreadyexisting musical materialand original compositionsmostly in hasapiko
(2/4 or 4/4 time) and various zeibekikorhythms(slow 4+5/4 for zeibekiko, fast
4+5/4 for kamilierikoand slow 5+4/4 for aptaliko)3.Droning,rhythmicbass tones
or chords from the guitarwere used for accompaniment.In cadences, the guitar
often played the melody in paralleloctaves. Aroundthe mid-1930s, some caf6
composers and singers startedmaking and recording songs in the fashionable
Piraeusstyle with bouzoukiandguitaraccompaniment.
The laika style is related to its predecessor, rebetika, in a complex way.
Whereas rebetikawas originally music of the urbansubculture,laika was true
popularmusic of the urbanpopulation-just as the basic meaning of the Greek
word would suggest. A remarkableshift from the rebetikastyles of the 1930s to
the directionof what was to becomethe new laika style seems to have takenplace
after 1947. Post-war rebetika was often performedin increasingly luxurious
bouzoukitavernscalled kosmikestavernes("beaumondetaverns")for the higher
strata of Greek society. Western popular music was also performedin these
taverns by musicians who had few connectionswith the rebetikatradition,and
these musicians also participatedin rebetikabands. The repertoireof kosmikes
tavernes became remarkablyhybrid, and rebetika and Western-style popular
music composersproducedsongs thatfit the taste of the new audiences(Gauntlett
1985:12933, 150).4 From the mid-1950s onwards, this yielded a new style of
Greek popular music-laika-performed at night-clubs by large electrically
amplifiedensembles.The new type of bouzoukiwith fourdouble-coursesinstead
of the traditionalthreebecamea virtuosoinstrument.Laikavocal styles also differ
from those of rebetika. Laika acquired influences from rebetika, Western
European,LatinAmerican,NorthAmerican,TurkishandEgyptianpopularmusic
andIndianfilm music.
Rebetika and laika have been valued very differentlyby writerson rebetika.
While rebetikahas often been seen by its proponentsas a pureGreek-Oriental(or
even Byzantine) style with great artisticvalue, laika has usually been described
using negative attributessuch as foreign-influenced,corruptandcommercial(see
e.g. Papafoannou 1973:291; Holst 1983 [1975]:59-60; Dragoumis 1975:25;
1984:64; Konstandinidou 1987:78-80 passim). If there has been very little
scholarly solid musicological researchon rebetika,laika is terra incognita for
musicologists. This is largely owing to the myths of authenticmusic, national
3 There are also fast 5+4/4 pieces that can be called kamilieriko-aptaliko; this term, however, is not
included in the emic vocabulary of rebetika musicians. The distinction between 9/4 pieces in 4+5/4 or
5+4/4 is crucial.
4 The rare sound document recorded by a well-off customer at the Athenian tavern Tzimi tou Hondrou in
1955 gives a hint of the hybrid programme(issued on Venus V-1053). In the live recording,MarikaNinou
sings rebetika hits by Vasilis Tsitsanis and Yiorgos Mitsakis, the popularnon-rebetikasong "To monopati"
by Yiorgos Mouzakis and the film song "•ikar yuicelerdenhaber sorarim"by Sadettin Kaynak and Vecdi
Bing61land "Gezdigim dikenli agk yollarmnda" by KadriSenqalar',the last two in Turkish.

music and anti-musicwhich have effectively turnedacademicresearchersaway

from the newer style. (Forthe myths,see Kurkela1989:327-67; 1997:188-92.)5
The most commonview in the writingsin both popularand scientific veins is
thatafterWorldWarII, increasedemphasison chordalharmonyandthe spreadof
functional harmony caused the disappearanceof dromoi related to Ottoman
makams. Vasilis Tsitsanis (1915-84) has often been mentioned as the most
importantpioneerin this development(see e.g. ConwayMorris1980:83;Manuel
1989:83). For several reasons, this interpretationof Tsitsanis' role is very
questionable(Pennanen1997:127-8 n. 7).
Accordingto PeterManuel(1989:78-9, 83), "thetraditionalmodes came to be
used essentially as mere scales". He states that modernmainstreambouzouki
music continues to use Hitzas-family(e.g. D-E,-F#-G-A-BV-c-d) and raised-
fourth (D-E-F-G#-A-B-c-d; scale of makamNikriz) scales "with traditional
harmonization patterns",while most other dromoi have fallen into disuse.6
Manuel's descriptionand conclusions seem not to be based on the analysis of
recordedrepertoire.In the dromosequivalentof makamNikriz(withraisedfourth
and seventh), the raised fourth degree is frequently lowered even in new
compositions. This detail in melodic movementimplies that the dromos is not
used as a scale to the extent Manuelbelieves; instead,some traditionalmelodic
formulaeandprogressionshave been retained.7
Culturalprocesses in Greekpopularmusic
In writingsaboutGreekpopularmusic of the 1940s to 1960s, Westernizationhas
been seen as by far the most significant development. This oversimplified
deduction needs reconsideration,in the form of an analysis based on actual
sources. A more appropriateinterpretationof the development would be that
acculturationprocesses in music during these decades consisted of more than
straightforwardadoptionof Westernmusical features.The old was not simply
replacedby new Westernelements.Commercialrecordingsrevealthattherewere
at least two other important lines of development, i.e. modernization and
Orientalization.
5 Liavas (1994) gives a good summaryof the myth of culturalcontinuity in Greek music from the classical
period to the modern times.
6 With some exceptions, Ottoman makam names are used to refer to the corresponding basic makam
structures in this study. Since nominally equivalent makams and dromoi can refer to dissimilar tonal
structures,I shall specify the system by mentioning the term "makam"or "dromos".In most cases, I shall
follow the convention of almost all Greek bouzouki and dromos books and write down scales with the tone
D as the root of I. This convention coincides with the practice of playing tunes on the standardtuning of
the three-course bouzouki (D'D-A'A'-DD) which favours D-based keys. Thus the fixed theoretical
the
relationships of Ottoman makams for example in modulation are lost. The key-of-D principle shows
prevailing dominance of performance practice over systematic theory in rebetika.
7 Lilliestam (1995:30) has defined musical formula as a characteristicmotif or patternthat has an easily
limits.
recognisable nucleus, although the exact realizationof a formula may vary within certain

Pennanen:Chordalharmony in Greek rebetikaand laika 69
Accordingto BrunoNettl (1978:171;1985:20),modernizationcan be described

as the incidental movement of a system or its componentsin the direction of
Westernmusic and musical life withoutrequiringmajorchangesin those aspects
of the non-Westerntraditionthatare centralandessential.In Greekpopularmusic
there are many excellent examples of the modernizationprocess. Many leading
composers and performersof the 1950s and 1960s-Yiorgos Mitsakis, Vasilis
Tsitsanis, Manolis Angelopoulos,StratosDionysiou, Panos Gavalas,Kaiti Grey,
Stelios Kazantzidis,Yiota Lydia-made and recordedmore or less modified and
modernizedremakes of old songs. In addition,traditionalmelodic formulae in
various makams and dromoi were used for compositions and taximi unmetred
improvisations.Good examples of new compositions based on earlier melodic
models are "Ala turkahorepsemou"(1957, HMV AO 5417) by Vasilis Tsitsanis
relatedto "To haremisto hamam"(1935, ColumbiaDG 6165) by Anestis Delias
(1912-44) in the rebetikaequivalentof makamU??ak,and "O kapetaniostou
spitiou" (1962, ColumbiaSCDG 3116) by L. Vamvakarisand Nikos Dalezios
based on the dromosPireotikos-Hitzaskiarsong "To bohori"from the beginning
of the century.Both traditionalandnew instrumentsand techniques,often mixed
with each other,were used in the remakes.
The period of Orientalizationin Greekpopularmusic is a complex subjectthat
deserves more detailed analysis than is possible here.8It is often forgotten that
Greekurbanmusic culturewas not influencedsolely by the West in the 1950s and
1960s. Indeed, the effect of "Oriental"music cultureson non-Orientalones has
not been a commonresearchsubjectamongethnomusicologists.After a decrease
from the latterhalf of the 1930s broughtaboutby the censorshipof the Metaxas
dictatorship and its repercussions, a considerable amount of melodies from
Turkey were recorded in Greek and Turkish after the late 1950s.9 The cover
versions gained great popularity.To a lesser extent, Egyptian film songs and
instrumentals(e.g. "Cleopatra"by MohamedAbdel Wahab)were also recorded
by Greeks.1oMost Turkishand Egyptianmelodies were makam-based,and the
Greekcover versionsoften containedtaximiain the correspondingdromoi.
Anotherimportantcomponentof Orientalizationoriginatedin India.According
to the matrixinformationsheets, the first Greek cover version of an Indianfilm
song was recordedin early 1959. The success of Indianmusic films in Greecehad
startedsome yearsearlier.Overone hundredfilms were shownbetween 1954 and
8 Until 1998, the era was a taboo among many veteran rebetika musicians and in popular writing about
Greek popular music (cf. Gauntlett 1991:19). In his biography, Vasilis Tsitsanis (in Hatzidoulis 1980:39-
44) calls the period "the decade of theft and Indocracy" owing to the fact that some Greek composers
tended to copyright compositions of foreign origin. The biography,consisting of interviews plus inaccurate
transcriptionsof Tsitsanis' works, contains none of his compositions in Indianstyle.
9 E.g. HMV AO 5616) and "Zeytinyaglyyiyemem, aman"
"f3inanay"as "Siko horepse koukli mou" (1960,
as "Yiati thes na fygeis" (1961, HMV 7PG 2872).
10 There is at least one early example of the interactionbetween Greek and Egyptian popular music. The
refrain of "As' ta kolpa" by Panayiotis Toundas, recorded in 1934 by Rita Abatzi (HMV AO 2156), was
used by Mohamed Abdel Wahab in the song "Sahirtou"from the 1935 film "Doumou' El Hob" (reissued
on AAA 019). The chronology suggests that Abdel Wahab borrowedthe theme from Toundas.

1968, afterwhich theirpopularitywaned.At least 105 Greekcover versionsof the

songs were recorded during the period (Abatzi and Tasoulas, forthcoming).
Owing to the success of the Indianfilm "MotherIndia"and its music in 1960,
some Greek composersstartedmakingoriginalmelodies in Indianstyle. Before
1960 therearepracticallyno tracesof Indianfilm music style in originalworks by
Greek composers. (For an importantexception, see Pennanen 1995:138.) The
Indianhits and Greekoriginalcompositionsimitatingthembecamepopularto the
extentthatit is even possible to speakof Hinduizationin Greekpopularmusic (on
the term, see Nettl 1997:5). Indian raga formulae,rhythms,singing style and
instrumentationwere imitated.One reasonfor the popularityof Indian songs in
Greece was their hybridism,which made it easier for urbanGreeks to accept
them. (For Westerninfluences in Indianfilm music, see Manuel 1988:179-84
passim.)
The frequentsudden shifts between parallelmajor and minor tonalities that
became commonin Greekpopularmusic of the 1960s originatefrom the melodic
models of Indianfilm songs in ragaMi'ra Pili. The peculiarityof this ragais the
unstablethirddegree (cf. Nimbus NI 5365). The most influentialmodel song for
Greekcomposersof the new style was the 3/4 (or 6/4) time (Indiandadra tala)
"Dunyamen hum"by NaushadAli in Mi'ra Pili from the film "MotherIndia"
(for dadratala, see Manuel 1988:177).The first Greekcover version titled "Den
me ponese kaneis"was recordedin 1960. Fig. 1 is an excerptfrom a Greekearly
1960s laikasong in 3/4 time imitatingragaMi'raPlili.
Fig. 1: Excerptfrom "M'ehounyelasei dyo mavramatia"by VasilisTsitsanis.

Recordedin 1961 by Kaiti Grey(HMV7PG 3004).
A J= 52Dm =3
L
I
i-iE rlv -w
IKX&c-
o',lr
rc- Iio Fo EM
ipe ThV'KOC- TOCOT -00 -- rovU e
3pi- KE, •Cep - i6c Aou! - n -icr rW-
7, DA - ro
tE qMYW r -
rTro XU-
Westernization,Orientalizationand modernizationwere often present in a

single piece of music, creatinga complexhybrid.ManyTurkishand Indiansongs
or original compositionsin those styles were accompaniedin the Europeanized,
rhythmicallysimplifiedbai6n (baido)rhythmof Brazilianorigin.(Forthe original
baiaopolyrhythm,see Rocha& Pinto 1986:96.)
Table 1 lists severalGreekpopularsongs in chronologicalorderfrom the 1950s
to the early 1960s with some of the main influences of the era. The foreign

title composer,year text contents rhythm melody vocal instrum
Tsitsanis1952 love 4/4 hasapiko dromosHouzamO- malevoc, fern& bouz,ac

"Toskalopatisou" 3 maleharmvoc
"Mambozeibekano"I Th.Derveniotis Greekadaptation9/4 zeibekiko minor fernvoc bouz,g,

1958 of mambo 4/4 "mambo"
"LaoskaiKolonaki" Hiotis1958 poor/rich,love 4/4 swing minor fernvoc bouz,ac

maleharm.voc
"IKalliopiap' ti PanosPetsas socialsatire 9/4 zeibekiko minor malevoc bouz,g,

Gouva"2 1961? maleharm.voc
mou
"Perasmenes Hiotis1962 love 4/4 "Latin" dromosHitzas femalevoc bouz,ac
agapes" malevocaltrio
Tsitsanis1962 longingfor 4/4 "bai6n" rebetikaformof femalevoc bouz,v,

"Talimania" makamHUseyni dr,darb
beloved
"Taxenaheria" Tsitsanis1962 suffering 4/4 hasapiko12/8 minor femalevoc bouz,ac

absencefrom
home
Zambetas1962 love 3/4 dadratila (waltz) rAgaMira Pill femalevoc 2 bouz,

"Itelefteamera"
imitation
klaiei" Tsitsanis1964 longingfor spokenintro minor malevoc, fern& 2 bouz,

"Okapetanios beloved freerhythmvoc. maleharmvoc
3/4 d~dritila (waltz)
5/8
Table1: Greekpopularsongsfrom the 1950s to 1960s withsomemaininfluencesof the era.
andlyricscontainborrowingsfromthe internationalhit of 1954"MamboItaliano"by Bob Mervil.Similarlocalizationof an internationalhit was u

1 The melody
Savonia"of 1956by Hany Bergstr6mandJaakkoMerenheimo.)TheFinnishmambowas sungin Savo dialect.
LatinAmericanhit "BrigitteBardot"by BrazilianMiguelGustavo,firstrecordedin 1959. (Fordetails,see Kurkela& Pe
2 A Greekadaptationof the international

elements are from Italian popularmusic, WesternizedLatin Americanmusic,

swing, USA popular song style of the 1950s and Indianfilm music. There are
combinationsof rhythmsand compositionalsystems, performancepracticesand
instrumentations thatoriginatedfromtraditionsnot relatedto each other.
Some of the new combinations were meant for listening rather than for
dancing,which had been one of the mainfunctionsof rebetikasongs. One of the
songs in Table 1, "Mambozeibekano"starts as a zeibekiko but ends up as a
Europeanversion of the fashionablemambo.Since mambowas an international
hit dance in the 1950s, many young urbanGreeksknew how to dance to it. By
contrast,the Indian-style"O kapetaniosklaiei"consists of a spokenintroduction,
a free rhythmvocal introductionimitatingthe Indiandldpsection,an instrumental
section in 3/4 followed by a vocal section,an unmetredinstrumentalbridge,anda
vocal section in 5/8 time. With such varietyof sections and rhythms,the song is
clearlynot intendedfor dancing.
There are some attemptsby Greeksociologists to explainthe initial social and
culturalreasonsfor the wave of Orientalsongs in Greecein the late 1950s. It has
been seen as a reactionagainstthe extremeWesternizationof Greeksociety (cf.
Gauntlett1991:19). Similarreasonshave been given for the success of Egyptian
film music after the mid-1930s in Turkey during the massive Westernization
campaign led by Kemal Atattirk(cf. Stokes 1992:92-4; Tekelioglu 1996:208).
This interpretationstressesdomesticcultural,politicaland social factors,which is
typical of modern Hellenocentrism.A wider frameworkreveals other possible
explanations.
Apartfrom the internalreasons,therewere externalones. Accordingto Pekka
Gronow (pers. comm. 1997), internationalwaves of ethnic styles (e.g. Gypsy
music, Argentiniantango,Hawaiianmusic andItalianpopularsong) precededthe
final breakthroughand diffusion of rock. Orientalismin popularmusic was not
restrictedto Greece.Many Middle Eastern-stylesongs-e.g. "Uskudara" (1952),
"Shish Kebab" (1958), "Hava nagilah"(1961)-were internationalhits in the
1950s and 1960s, and some of these were also recordedin Greek."1At the same
time, Indianfilm music was fashionableoutside its country,also elsewherethan
in Greece.Accordingto Stokes (1992:96),Indianmusic enjoyeda shortperiodof
popularityin Turkeyin the 1950s;presumablyStokesmeansfilm music.
For the analysis of the developmentof Greekurbanmusic, it is importantto
understandthat urbanGreekmusic culturewas not closed to internationalwaves
of influences. Rebetika and especially laika were affected by many kinds of
musicaltraditionsfromabroad.
"Modal harmony" in rebetika and laika

Chordal harmony has been treated only marginally by most musicologists on
fusion musics (but see Zganec 1955:89-90; Manuel 1989; Hughes 1991:17-9).
11 E.g. "Moustafa" by the Egyptian jazz musician Bob Azzam and the French record producer Eddie
Barclay, recorded in 1960 by Manolis Angelopoulos.

Pennanen:Chordal harmonyin Greek rebetikaand laika 73
This is also the case in researchon rebetika.Occasionally chordalaccompani-

ments have not even been includedin the transcriptionsand analyses,probably
owing to the view that rebetika is basically monodic music (e.g. Dragoumis
1975:19-24; van Straten 1989:69-109 passim). A similar paradigmhas some-
times had a distorting effect on the analysis of Greek rural music (e.g. Frye
1973:243-56, 305-6). In writingon rebetika,the evolutionof harmonyhas been
sketched only in very broad lines. Musicological studies often contain general
arguments with sparse concrete documentation(e.g. Papa'foannou1973:289;
Dietrich 1987:161-2; Manuel1989:79-84).
When discussing chordal harmonyin makam-basedmusic, we should start
from the melody. The relationshipof certainmakamswith non-equaltempered
intervalsto chordalharmonyhas sometimesbeen seen as blackandwhite,with no
possibility of combiningthe two systems (see Manuel 1989:78, 83; criticized in
Pennanen1997:126). However, musicianshave three differentways to react to
chordal harmony. Firstly, Arab and Ottomanmakamsand ruralcompositional
systems in various non-equal temperedintonationshave been performedwith
chordalaccompaniment(see Stokes 1992:85-8; cf. Greve 1995:205).Secondly, in
some styles the change of intonation is not complete: equal-tempered
accompanimentdoes not preventthe vocal or instrumentalsoloist from intoning
some tones of melodic formulaein a non-equaltemperedway. The thirdpossibil-
ity is to change the intonationcompletelyinto equal temperamentwhile retaining
the other basic characteristicsof a makam(cf. Signell 1977:46, 126). The adjust-
ment of intonation towards equal temperamentis a typical modernization
tendencyin non-Westernmusic cultures(cf. Nettl 1978:161, 165). Forexample,it
is common to adjustmakamscale structuresslightly to fit Westernharmony.(For
Egyptianpopularmusic, see Braune1992.)
Somewhatillogically, when comparedwith his claim of totalincompatibilityof
non-equaltemperedintervalsandchordalharmony,Manuel(1989:78)also admits
that "in the syncretic musics discussed here, the neutralintervalsemployed in
Hicaz and othertraditionalmodes are generallyadjustedto morediatonicpitches
when combined with major-minorharmonies."As we shall see, precisely this
process has taken place e.g. in dromos Sabah of the bouzouki-basedrebetika
tradition. Therefore dromos Sabah is used in rebetika and laika, though its
OttomanmakamequivalentmakamSabahas "prominentneutralintervals"and a
"chromaticscale" (Fig. 2a, b; cf. Manuel1989:83).
There are some basic problems of orientation in the previous studies on
harmonizeddromoi.Insteadof analysesbasedon actualperformancepractice,the
writerswho have acceptedthe existenceof rebetikadromoiin equaltemperament
have constructedsystems based on applicationsof Westernmusic theory.One of
the first to try his handat harmonizationsof Greekfolk songs to createfolkloristic
fusion music with a special music theory was Georges Lambelet(1875-1932).
His theory was influenced by analyses from the 1870s by L.-A. Bourgault-
Ducoudray(criticizedin Konstantzos1997). Lambeletbased his analyses of the
melodies he arrangedmostlyon "Greekmodes"andchordswhichonly used notes
from within the mode (cf. Powers 1980:418). The arrangementsincluded songs

74 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol. 6 (1997)
Fig. 2: (a) Thescale of OttomanmakamSabadwithdistancesbetweentones in Holderian

commas. (b) Dromos Sabah scale in equal temperamentwith traditionalharmonization.
(c) Thescale of the octave-repeateddromosSabah with theoreticalharmonization
(Payiatis 1987:26; Boukouvalas1991:96).12 Wholenotes arefinals and half notes are
tonal centres. For standardaccidentalsin Turkishmusic,see Appendix.
[23] 55
a^
rpmu F
T 9 8 5 11.5 4 9 5 12 5
5 6.5
6.5 6.5
T
VIIb i II vib
S ii -- III IVb+ v VIb VIIb

i ii -3-5 IIl IVb+5 v VIb VIIb i
thatbelongedto the caf6-stylerepertoireof Ottomanpopularmusic (see Lambelet

1934:142-4, 188-91, 192-3).
The works of Greek non-academicwriters on dromoi (primarilyauthorsof
bouzouki methods and dromos booklets) are based only loosely on actual
performance practice. The scale and harmony concepts of these writers are
basicallyWestern.They have writtenthe dromoidown as octave scales, and some
of themin theirtheoreticalpresentationshavebuiltchordson every scale step (see
Payiatis 1987; Boukouvalas1991:94-9). However,the use of all theoreticalchord
degrees in a dromoscompositionis conventionalneitherin rebetikanor in laika
performancepractice.In addition,many dromosscales producetriadsthat are not
acceptablein popularstyles.
In rebetika and laika performance practice, chords are not always based
exclusively on scale degrees.Instead,melodies are built aroundtonal centresand
melodic formulae,which leads to a harmoniclogic (whatI will call "traditional"
harmonization)differentfrom the Westernone. Tonal centresare dictatedby the
seyir of each makam.Seyir is a set of rules thatconductsthe melodic progression
in a theoreticalscale, thus setting the generalmelodic outline (Signell 1977:50-
65). However,in Ottomanand Greekpopularmusic seyirs have not been strictly
followed by composers and musicians. In particular,instrumentalsections in
vocal works often avoid classical rules. Still, tonal centres and makam-specific
melodic formulae are importantfor makam identification and classification.
12 In the revised edition of his book, Payiatis abandons the building of chords on every scale step; in
addition, his Sabah octave scale can contain either a perfect or diminished octave (Payiatis 1992:50).

Pennanen: Chordal harmonyin Greek rebetikaand laika 75
Owing to these, the compositionalsystemsof songs and taximiimprovisationsin

equaltemperamentare often identifiableas makamsor dromoion recordings.
The importanceof tonal centresand melodic formulaeis a factorthatexplains
why theoreticalharmonizationsachieved throughdeductiondiffer from "tradi-
tional"performancepractice.The theoreticalharmonizationsdisregardthe tonal
centres. In addition, they are based on the Westernscale concept, accordingto
which a scale is repeatedsimilarlyin all octaves;in practice,makamand dromos
scale structuresoften arenot repeated,i.e. theiroctavesdifferfromeach other.
The problemof the interrelationship betweenmelody and scale is an important
issue of early 20th century folk music research.In his famous article "Melodie
und Skala",ErichM. von Hornbostel(1913), who had stressedthe importanceof
scales in musical analysis, criticized music theoristsfor taking scale instead of
melodic structurefor the primaryelementin music. Dromos Sabah,the rebetika
equivalentof the OttomanmakamSaba, is a strikingcase of this dilemma.In the
following we shall observe the transformationprocess of makam Saba into
dromos Sabah, and compare the performance practice to the theoretical
harmonization.
Fig. 2a is the basic theoretical scale of the modern Ottomanmakam Saba,
consisting according to one view of U??aktrichordon A (diigah) with a low
extension,Hicaz pentachordon c (9argih)andHicazpentachordon g (gerdaniye).
A tone where two generameet is a tonal centreor giiFlii (often called "melodic
dominant"by Westernresearchers).Accordingto the seyir, a Saba melody must
starteitheron the first (final) or the third(giiqlti)degree.Thereis also some other
variance in the seyir. Some Turkishmusicians consider both sixth and seventh
degree as importantsecondarytonalcentres(Signell 1977:61-5). The pitch of the
second degree of the U?gaktrichordnotatedas B4 (segah) varies in practice.In
ascendingphrases,the pitch is one Holderiancommal3flat but it changesto 2.5
commas flat in descending ones (Torun 1993:166; cf. Feldman 1996:206-13
passim).14The second degree of the first Hicaz pentachordis usually some 2.5
commas flat instead of the conventional 4 commas (Signell 1977:37-8, 158;
Torun1993:233;Aksoy 1997:15-6). However,in specificallyHicaz formulae,the
intonationchanges to that of the conventionalHicaz. The second Hicaz penta-
chordis conventional.In Saba scale, the octave of the final is usuallydiminished,
and the low extensionunderthe final differsfrom the correspondingregionin the
basic octave.15
Fig. 2b is the scale of the equal-tempereddromos Sabah of the bouzouki
traditionthat is based on the analysis of the recordedreportoireand interviews
with musicians.Eachnon-equal-tempered pitchof makamSabahas been adjusted
13 For the Holderian comma, see Dussant 1957.

14 The varying intonation of the U31ak note group may explain the Phrygian cadence in some Finnish
Gypsy, Hungarianand Balkan songs in naturalminor (cf. Ziegler 1979:228, 231, 252; Jalkanen 1981:204;
Sairosi1986:15).
15 This short description of the Saba scale structureis by no means complete. In classical compositions,
the upperoctave may contain many kinds of components.

to the nearest equal-temperedone.16In Ottoman,modern Turkish and Greek

popularmusic, Saba melodies tend to be simplerthanthose of Ottomanclassical
music, and they do not ascendas high as in the classical style. As will be shown
below, the traditionalharmonizationof dromosSabahsongs utilises chordsi, III,
vi6 and VII. The roots of the threefirst chordsare importanttonal centresof the
dromos: instead of the seventh degree as in makamSaba, the sixth degree is a
secondary tonal centre. As will be explained below, this is owing to the
harmonizationof the dromosHitzas componentin dromosSabah,leading to the
use of chordvib.The fifth of VIIIis not a scale degreein the basic octave,which,
however,does not preventmusiciansfromusing the chordin cadences.
Fig. 2c is the form of Sabahgiven in bouzoukiand dromosbooklets.Because
of the Western scale concept, the octave has been written as perfect. No tonal
centres have been indicated,and the scale is supposedto recuridenticallyin all
octaves. Underthe scale is the theoreticalharmonization.Chordformsii-3-5 and
are not consideredacceptableby the musiciansinterviewed,whereaschord
IV,+5
VI is a product of the octave-repeatedscale, making it unsuitablefor dromos
Sabah melodies. Chordsi, III, v, VI and VII6would be basic triads,but as we
have seen in Fig. 2b, v and VI6arenot used at all. However,not all bouzoukiand
dromosbooklets are similarlydistantfrom performancepractice(see Loukareas
1985:42;Koukoulinis1995:43;Grigoriadis1997:41).
Manuel (1989:83) contendsthat the Westerncommonpracticeharmonyused
for rebetikaand laikamelodiesin majorandminorcoexistedwith modalharmony
used for melodies based on e.g. Phrygian,the raised-fourthand Hitzas-typescales
in the mainstreamrebetikaof the 1930s. (For a moredetailedanalysis,see Jouste
1994:71-85.) Quite unlike Jouste(ibid.:83)and Pennanen(1994:98-100), Papa-
ioannou (1973:289) and Manuel (1989:71) consider modal harmonywithout
noticing that characteristicchordprogressionsfor some makam-baseddromoido
not differ from those of commonpracticeharmony.Apparentlythese researchers
have not been able to identify these dromoi and have taken them for Western
major.
The dromoi in questionhere are Rast, Houzam0-3 (OttomanmakamSegth)
and a modification of the latter,HouzamM-1. The basic scale of dromos Rast
looks similar to the Western major (Fig. 3a), but as we shall see below, even
modem Rast melodies of the bouzoukitraditionhave distinctivemelodicformulae
not foundin major.
In my classification,"Houzam0-3" meansthatin its originalform,the final of
the dromosis on the thirdof I, while "HouzamM-1" means thatin its modified
form, the final is a majorthirdlower than the original,i.e. on the root of I (see
Pennanen1997:135-41). The reasonfor the changeof the final has probablybeen
the harmonization;the final has been drawndown by the root of I (Fig. 3b, c). I
have divided the Houzam 0-3 forms into two classes, varying and restricted.
16 In Sabah melodies of the bouzouki tradition,the second degree is occasionally flattened in the sectional
close. It is difficult to say whether this is owing to the 2.5 comma flat second degree of descending makam
Saba, or an imitation of a Saba Zemzeme formula.

Fig. 3: Thebasic scales of dromosRast, a

dromosHouzam0-3 and dromos
HouzamM-1 and theirharmonizations.
I V
bA c Ho
Houzam.0-3
I V I V
Varying Houzam 0-3 melodies are characterizedby a wide range, chromatic

alterations and some modulations. Because restricted dromos Houzam 0-3
melodies do not extend below the final, contain very few chromaticalterations
and have theirfinal a majorthirdhigherthanRast andmajor,they areoften taken
for the Westernmajorfinishingon the third.Two-voicedrestrictedHouzam0-3
melodies are a special case. Usually they are classified as normalfinal-on-tonic
major because the harmonyvoice a third below or sixth above the first one is
takenfor the actualmelody (see ibid.:160-5).
Since the conventionalI-V-I progressionis used for melodies in these three
dromoi, the progression is not necessarily a sign of major-minortonality in a
syncreticmusic culture.
Characteristicsof dromoiandWesterntonalitymay also coexist in one and the
same piece of music. The syncreticnatureof post-warrebetikais illustratedin
Fig. 4. The melody begins with a brokenmajortriad,which is a typicalWestern
feature. In the first bar, however, there is a common dromos Houzam 0-3
(makamSegah) formulain F thatis built aroundthe gtiglii,in this case the tone c.
The giiqli is surroundedby its leading tone and upperneighbour.In the second
bar, the melody descends to the final (A) of Houzam0-3 via the second degree.
After this, Houzamgives way to the WesternD minortonality.
The piece cannot be readily analysed through either Ottoman or Western
theoriesof music alone. In Ottomanmusic, this kind of modulationto transposed
makam Segah in makam Nihavend-the closest equivalent of the Western
minor-is not a standardmodulationpractice.The modulationis influencedby
the Westernconcept of relativekeys. In addition,most of the compositionis tonal
Fig. 4: Excerptfrom "Otanpineis stin taverna"by VasilisTsitsanis.Recordedin

1947 by SotiriaBellou and the composer(HMVAO2774).
d: I iv V7 of iv iv
II V7 i iv i V7 i V7 i

in character.On the otherhand,Westerntheoryis not capableof explainingthe

Houzam formula, derivingfrom makammusic. Rebetikain the 1940s was still
more or less somewherebetween Ottomanand Westernmusic, and it frequently
containeddistinctiverebetikafeaturesderivedfrom neithersystem or developed
from the combinationof them. It had its own musical practicesand aesthetics.
This is why musical analysis of rebetikacalls for elements from the theories of
OttomanandWesternmusic, andultimatelya specialrebetikatheorythatremains
to be constructed.
One of the main problemsin fieldworkon rebetikahas been the memory-based
and uncanonizednatureof rebetika.17Bouzoukimusicianshave acquiredperfor-
mance practice in dromoi without learning an analyticaltheory that describes
them, hamperingthe verbal articulationof musical concepts (see e.g. Einarsson
1989:53 n. 2). Uncanonizedas it is, the dromostraditionis non-uniform:inter-
vallic structureandrulesof melodicmovementassociatedwith each dromosname
can vary considerably according to the musician's age and background. In
addition, although the emic rebetika terminology concerning compositional
systems mostly derives from Ottomanmusic, the nominalequivalentsof the two
traditions often have different contents, which complicates the comparison
between them. As we shall see, althoughmost dromoi are related to Ottoman
makams,the names are frequentlyinterchangeable. Thereare also dromoiwith no
Ottomanstructuralequivalents.This is not at all a unique situationin the inter-
relationshipsof Middle Easternmusic cultures(cf. Chabrier1991:103).Owing to
these facts, the resultsfromattemptsof utilisingmodernTurkishmusic theoriesin
the analysis of the bouzouki-basedrebetikahave not always been encouraging
(see Dietrich1987:85-8, 147).
From the Ottoman point of view one dromos category may denote many
makamcategories.The bouzoukimusiciansI interviewedfor this study classify
several makams under one dromos category in their verbalizationsapparently
because they stress intervallic structureas the main criterionfor tonal classifi-
cation, whereas the Ottomantraditionutilises several other criteria(see Signell
1977:125-51; Aksoy 1997 passim). Table 2 shows the most common rebetika
classification of some Ottoman makams. Because of their relatively similar
intervallic structure,makamSeghl is often called dromosHouzam and makam
Hiizzamdromos Segah. Most bouzoukimusicianscall the rebetikaequivalentof
makamKarcigar"dromosKiourdi",the termderivingfrom"makamKiirdf".The
changein terminologyis owing to the closing formulaof Ktirdithatcontainsa flat
fifth degree-an important structuralcharacteristicof Karcigar (cf. Ozkan
1984:111, 176). The emic category "dromosOussak"may contain melodies in
makamsKiurdi,U??ak,Beyati and Hiiseyniwhich differfrom each otherin terms
of intervallic structure, seyir and melodic formulae. However, in the equal-
tempered system of the bouzouki traditionthe intervallic differences between
these makamsare largelyblurred."DromosOussak"has come to denotea classi-
17 "Memory-based" is my translation of the Finnish term "muistinvarainen"that is more accurate in

musical contexts that the conventional "oral".

Table2: Some Ottomanmakamsand theirclassificationin the bouzoukidromos

tradition.
makams:Segah Huzzam KarcigarKtirdi U??ak Beyati Hiiseyni
dromoi: HouzamSegah Kiourdi Oussak
ficational category of melodies and scales with predominantlya flat second

degree.
Owing to the confusionin printedsourcesandamongmusiciansinterviewedon
dromos names and their tonal structures,I have chosen to call only some of the
dromoi by their emic names. In this article the dromos names Rast, Houzam,
Segah, Hitzas, Hitzaskiar,Sabahand Pireotikosrefer to the structuresagreedby
most professional bouzouki musicians, whereas the makam names Nihavend,
Nikriz, U??ak,Hiiseyni, Ktirdfand Karcigarare used to denote their structural
equivalentsin the bouzouki-basedrebetikaandlaikatradition.
Since the mid-1980s, rebetikamelodies have been classified accordingto the

Ottomansystemin some Greekprintedsources.The authorsof these publications
have studiedTurkishmakamtheoriesor performancepractice,and they tend to
accept the Ottomanmakamclassificationfor Segah, Hiizzam,KarcigarandKiird^
(see Loukareas1985;Tabouris1993;Koukoulinis1995;Grigoriadis1997). These
sourceshave, however,had little effect on professionalmusicians'verbalizations.
As I have shown elsewhere (Pennanen1997), Westernizationand moderniza-
tion processes in Greece did not lead to a simple decrease in the number of
dromoiafterthe war. On the contrary,new ways of using the existing dromoiand
new dromos modifications were developed. Although there was a tendency
towards a scale-like concept of dromoi in compositions, many of the basic
melodic featuresandmodulationconventionsinheritedfrom Ottomanmusic were
preserved. To summarise,chordal harmonydid not prevent the use of a wide
varietyof dromoi.
Dromoi and chordalharmonyin touristmusic

The analysis of the standardrepertoireon Greekbouzoukicassettes and CDs for
touristconsumptionreveals that Manuel's claim as to the degree of Westerniza-
tion is evidently exaggerated.According to Einarsson(1990:202), touristikais
Greek music, whose repertoireand style has been modified according to the
preferencesof Westerntouristlisteners.The repertoireconsists of new interpreta-
tions of rebetikaand laika pieces and new compositionsprimarilymade for a
touristaudience.

Fig. 5 containsexcerptsfrom "Sikohorepsesyrtaki",one of the most popular

pieces in touristikastyle of the 1960s. The composeris Yiorgos Zambetas(1925-
92), an outstanding bouzouki virtuoso, who recorded vocal and bouzouki
instrumentalmusic extensively in the 1960s.18He has been regardedas the main
innovatorin the Western-influencedtouristikastyle (see Mylonas 1993b:208).
Syrtaki(or sirtaki) is a touristversion of the traditionalhasapiko dance in 4/4
time, but unlike hasapikoproper,it consists of two sections, the slow hasapiko
that acceleratesgraduallyand thusbecomes the up-tempohasaposerviko.Syrtaki
as a music genre and a dance was modelled after Mikis Theodorakis'famous
instrumentalpiece and the choreographyto it in MichaelCacoyannis'film Zorba
the Greek(1964) (see Torp 1992).19The dance tune mainly consists of Rast and
Houzam0-3 formulae,but the last sectioncloses in HouzamM-1. Owingto their
melodic possibilities, Westernmajorsound and functionalharmonization,these
dromoiare favouredby syrtakicomposers.
"Siko horepse syrtaki"first appearedin the film I kori mou i sosialistria in
1966. The original recording consists of two vocal sections (text by Alekos
Sakellarios)followed by up-tempobouzoukisections.Laterthe compositionhas
usually been played instrumentallyon bouzoukis.The analysisbelow is based on
the first instrumentalrecordingof 1966 by ZambetasandStelios Zafeiriou.
The two sections of the slow part(Fig. 5; startingtempo =116) are in dromos
Houzam0-3 (makamSegah). As often in makammusic of popularcharacter,the
seyir does not observe the classical rules. In Ottomanclassical music, makam
the
Seg.h melodies tendto begin fromthe final tone. Duringa repeatof sectionB
tempobegins to accelerate.At first, the fast section C (tempo =190) seems to be
in Houzam0-3. However,in the thirdline the melody moves a thirdlower, thus
bringingthe final tone down to the root of chordI, which indicatesdromosRast.
Correspondingly,the distanceof the secondvoice fromthe first one changesfrom
a third to a sixth. The first three sections are largely based on melodic
sequences-a featuretypicalof laikastyle.
Section D contains a chromaticformulaF-E-D#-E-F typical of dromosRast
melodies on the recordedbouzouki-basedrepertoire.The formulais harmonized
with the V-I cadence. The Rast formulais very common in improvisationsand
composed pieces of Piraeus and later styles that were not as close to Ottoman
music as was the caf6 style. For example, it appearsin the simple taximi before
the song "Manges karavotsakismeni"(HMV AO 2161) recorded in 1934 by
StratosPayioumtzis.The originof the formulaoffers an interestingproblem.This
kind of chromaticismis not used in classical OttomanmakamRast. Nor does the
formulaoccur in Greekchurchmusic, becauseit would be consideredan elxis of
18 According to Dragoumanos (1994:137), Zambetasrecordedas many as 22 LPs between 1963 and 1973.
Eleven of these are instrumental records, some bearing non-Greek titles in the Latin alphabet such as
"Bouzouki Bouzouki" and "Greece my Love".
19 The slow section of "Zorba's Dance" is from Theodorakis' song "Strose to stroma sou yia dyo" from
the 1963 theatrical play "I yeitonia ton angelon" (see HMV GCLP7), while the fast section is his
arrangementof "Syrtos Armenohorianos"by the Cretan musician Yiorgos Koutsourelis (1950, Columbia
DG 6851).

Fig. 5: Excerptsfrom "Sikohorepsesyrtaki"by YiorgosZambetas.Recordedin

1966 by Stelios Zafeiriouand the composer(LyraLS 1146).
r'
-o'I'
AMC ir t Bb F 1
-3F
IFF~ 1 F e I
W BLWb 19 C- Fp 1#
A cgt~Et
an elxis, which is not acceptable.Accordingto modem churchmusic theory,an

elxis takes place when a primarytone pulls a secondaryone towardsitself, thus
either flattening the upper neighbour or sharpeningthe lower one (Seppila
1981:55-6).
The formulamay originatefrom the attemptsof musiciansusing instruments
incapable of producing microintervalsto establish a clear distinction between

dromos Rast and Western majorin simple melodies. The invention of the new
Rast melodic formulacould have servedas a passablesolutionfor the problemof
dromosidentity.20Anotherexplanationis thatbouzoukimusicianstriedto imitate
the gliding, portamentopassagesof makammusicwith chromaticism.
Section E startswith an Evig formula,i.e. a Seg~ihopeningformulatransposed
a fifth above. The modulationis not executed accordingto the Ottomanmakam
rules (cf. Pennanen1997:132-3, 148-9). SectionF is a conclusivesectionin Rast
thatends with the completecadenceI-IV-V-I.
It is obvious from the analysis above that touristikais not as Westernas has
been suggested.Thereare manymorenon-Westernrebetikacharacteristicsleft in
the style thanare audibleon the firstlistening.Manyof the featuresare hiddenor
smoothedout in the soft parallelthirdor sixthharmoniesandsoft tone colours.
In the following I shall discuss the developmentof chordalaccompanimentin
rebetikaand laika from the mid-1930s to the 1960s. I shall try to explain some
peculiaritiesof rebetikaharmonythroughselected aspects of bouzouki playing
techniques.
Droning
The simplest and probablyearliestway to accompanybouzoukisongs in Piraeus
style is rhythmic droning, which is often associated with hashish songs. The
bouzouki or baglamasplayer plays the melody on the highest and middle string
courses while the unstoppedcourse or courses give the drone accompaniment.
The left-handmovementson the fingerboardtend to be horizontal,i.e. along one
stringcourse.This is also typicalof the old playingstyle of the long-neckedlutes
used in Anatolia and the Balkans (see Stokes 1992:74-5). In the early Piraeus-
style recordings,other instrumentsof a group can participatein the drone. The
dronemay be an open I chord withoutthe third,or a full I chord. Guitardrones
consist of bass notes and occasionalmelodicpassagesin the bass registeror a full
triadon the top strings(cf. Fig. 27a;Jouste1994:74-7).
An earlyPiraeus-stylerecordingwith dronebouzoukiaccompanimentis "Tout'
oi batsoipou 'rthantora"(Columbia56137-F), recordedin New Yorkin 1929 by
20 Usually the Rast formula is transcribedwithout any attemptsat an analytical approach(see e.g. Jouste
1996:116-7, 125, 138), but the formula has been mentioned in two non-scholarly texts. In his book, the
material of which has been compiled from various sources, Loukareas (1985:16) calls this chromatic
formula "dromos Rast Mahouror Rast Atzem". However, the names "Rast and "RastAcem" have
Mihaor"
no specific meaning in Ottomanmusic. There is no such makam as Rast Mfihr, but the name could derive
from labels of some improvised vocal gazel (amane) recordings from the 1930s (see e.g. "Rast Mahour"
sung by Kostas Karipis [1928, Odeon GA 1268]). In this case, Rast is the main makam of the
improvisation, while MdAhtris the modulation. "Rast Atzem" could be related to "Acemli Rast", i.e. the
form of makam Rast scale with lowered seventh degree (see Ozkan 1984:115). Later the formula and the
terms were borrowed from Loukareas' book by HaralambosPayiatis. In his quasi-scientific book, Payiatis
(1992:36-7) repeats the information given by Loukareas and illustrates it with two music examples. He
does not mention Loukareas in his bibliography,which consists of books and articles that are in any case
mostly irrelevantto his home-spun dromos theory.

Yiannis Yiannidis and Manolis Karapiperis.Due to the censorship of hashish

songs and changedtaste of the recordbuying public, droneaccompanimentwas
rarein recordedrebetikaafter 1936. However,therearetwo examplesfromas late
as 1951: "San me idis kai sou sfyrixo" and "Kapoio vradi me fengari"
(Parlophone B 74186) by Markos Vamvakarisare replicas in the mid-1930s
Piraeusstyle which had gone out of fashionlong ago. Duringthe rebetikarevival
in the 1970s and '80s, some bouzoukimusiciansof the older as well as younger
generationrecordedold andnew drone-stylesongs.
Fig. 6 is a simple dromos Segah (makam Hiizzam) melody with a drone
accompanimentfrom the early 1930s. The melody begins with a brokenmajor
triadthat ascendsto the octave of the root of I. After this the melody descendsto
(A) via the leading tone G#. The second bar is similar,except thatthe
the giiGulu
descent reachesdown to the final. The high-pitchedbaglamasplays the I triadin
steady 16th notes. Anotherhigh-pitchedinstrumentimitatingthe baglamassound
in the recordingis a drinkingglass tappedagainst a string of worry beads (Gr.
komboloi). The guitar plays triad I and the bass notes that provide the basic
rhythm.
Fig. 6: Excerptfrom "Tamatiasou t'arapika"by MarkosVamvakaris.Recorded

in 1933 by the composer(HMVAO2086).
A !U Tim
J=IPQ TI o k m" " !
Toc e - mCx KOOv TPEX- pX6 - in - cx.
To •{ - &cx 1(0(1 TpOE:- .X&- Oi - KO(.
drinking 17 n3 jj j jjj jj j jj J
glass
baglaMs
Au D
guitar TAM
-o
,"91
U.. .. ?i
Oscillationbetweenrelativechords
A common harmonic progression in Piraeus style is an oscillation between
relativemajorand minorchords,i.e. III-i in minorand vi-I in major.In common
practiceharmony,the progressionfrom the mediantor submediantchordto the
tonic chord is considered weak because only one tone changes (see Piston

1978:22); thereforeit is not favoured.However, it is commonin some Western

popularmusic styles. In Greekpopularmusic, minor i and its relativemajorIII
are commonly used in succession in some dromoi, Sabahbeing a special case I
will analysebelow.
There are many compositionswith one section in the major-keydromos and
anotherin the relativeminor-keydromos.In addition,the instrumentalintroduc-
tion often startsin majorbut closes with the relative minor.This kind of use of
relative chords was alreadycommon in pre-warrebetika.Some of the melodies
are related to Ottoman makams, while with some others, especially of the
bouzoukitradition,the relationshipis hardto verify. Because of its static nature,
the vacillation between relative chords is not very different from the earlier
accompanimenttechniques.It can be seen as an elaborationof the drone.
As seen in Fig. 7, a section could startin a major-keydromosand finish in a
relative minor dromos, or vice versa. Fig. 7a begins in D Houzam 0-3, the
melody moving aroundthe giiglii (A) and the final (F#), but ends on the relative
minorvia the dominantchord.Fig. 7b startson the E minorchord,but the tonic is
G major.
The origin of this chordalformulain some dromoimay be connectedwith the
playing techniqueof the instrumentsof the bouzoukifamily.These tunes are easy
to compose by using the first position of baglamasor bouzoukiin DAD tuning.
Opencoursesprovidean open D chordandthe highestcoursestoppedon the third
fret a full D major,while a B minorchordis easily executedwith only two fingers
on the lowest andmiddlecourses(Table3). In all the chords,at least one courseis
open. Open stringswere consideredan advantagein the old bouzoukitechnique
since they contributedto the continuityof sound. When unfrettedfor a longer
time, they could serve as drones.Fig. 8 is a prison song thatis harmonizedwith
the open majorchordandits relativeminorwhen accompaniedon the bouzoukior
baglamas.The tablatureunderthe transcriptionand the fingeringchartin Table 4
Fig. 7: (a) Introductionfrom "Alaniaraap' ton Peiraia" by MarkosVamvakaris.

Recordedin 1935 by the composer(ParlophonB 21844). (b) Introduction from
"Oifonografitzides"by YiorgosBatis.Recordedin 1936 by the composer(HMV
AO 2334). Thesectionafter thefirst verse thatis similarto the rest of the sections
is transcribedsince thefirst occurrenceis executedsomewhatdifferently.
aAA L =126D pww.OE
bA 19 J=1 12 E

show how easily the melody can be played in the firstpositionwith DAD tuning.
Most songs by Yiorgos Batis (1890-1967), who recordedsimplehashishsongs in
the early 1930s, are based on similar low-position and open-stringplaying. It
seems thathe composedhis songs on his favouriteinstrument,the baglamas.
Table 3: Chordshape boxes

for bouzoukior baglamas in
DAD tuning. The vertical
lines symbolizethe courses,
the horizontallines thefrets.
The white circles markopen
strings, the black circles are
stoppedstring positions. openD D Bm
Fig. 8: Excerptfrom the bouzoukipart of "Andilalounoi fylakes" recordedin 1936 by

Markos Vamvakaris(Odeon GA 1918).21 Thehorizontallines of the tablaturesymbolize
the courses of the bouzoukior baglamasand the numberson themthefrets stopped in
the DAD tuning.
L116 D
A•&
AA&Bm D Bm
O
"rk- w O
I
Table 4: Fingering chart of the vocal section of "Andilaloun

oifylakes" for bouzoukior baglamas in DAD tuning.
21 An earlier version was recorded by MarikaPapagika in New York in 1919 as "Ta oula sou" (Columbia
E 5193).

Fig. 9 is a song from the early 1950s in the rebetikaform of makam Kiirdi.
Thereare two relativechordprogressions,i-HI and VI-iv. The progressioni-HI
related to the tonic function is very common in Kiirdi songs of the rebetika
repertoire.The fourth scale degree is the giiqlti, and it is no surprise that the
subdominantfunctionis likewise presentin two forms,i.e. VI andiv. The second
scale degree is raised in ascendingpassages but flat in descents.The flat second
degree belongs to the basic scale of Kiirdiin rebetikaand is thus more funda-
mental.Originatingfrom folk music, makamKUrdiis rarelyused in its pureform
in Ottomanmusic (Feldman1996:225;Ozkan 112). Accordingto the ney player
Yiorgos Symeonidis (pers. comm. 1998), this is owing to the 5-comma-flat
second degree that is consideredmelodically somewhatawkwardin ascents but
good in cadences. Therefore, the 1-comma-flatsecond degree occurs often in
Kitrdicompositionsof Ottomanclassicalandpopularmusic.
Fig. 9: Excerptfrom "Tovouno" by LukasDaralas and VangelisPrekas.Recordedin

1954 by Kaiti Grey and DimitrisRoumeliotis(HMVAO5164).
=58
.A1 F m
O'oc- v•to Klt 0r rpyoubrio

- - -- --
oMo n6 rN- X6-r- po gou- v6
0' C-KOUy- TOCr lv - p11- JIt- CC

ao 6 Tjo6tj ---
ir -oTI --
ot pir- v6~c
o Ir6vo oum vtc.

-
Echoes of the ambivalentPiraeus-stylerelativekey progressioncan be heardin

many post-war compositions. In Fig. 10, the chord progressionbegins with a
minor triad after which there is a modulation to the relative major via the
dominant.On the melodic level, the beginningis in minor,but the final on the
third degree of chord I suggests dromos Houzam0-3. The rest of the song is
clearlyin minor.Thereis anotherprogressionfromminorto relativemajorin the
secondbar.This time the progressiongoes fromchordiv to VI.
The fourth bar contains the secondary dominant V7 of iv. The chord
harmonizes a chromaticformula that is usually associated with Houzam. The
ascendingchromaticformulais anticipatedin the descendingbouzoukiinterlude
of the previousbar.In this case, Houzamwouldrequirea G majorchordsince the
formulashould startfrom the thirdof a majortriad.The use of the formulaout of
its originalcontextcould be construedas a symptomof the decline of the dromos

Fig. 10: Excerptfrom "0 trelos tsiganos"by loanna Yorgakopoulou

and
HaralambosVasileiadis.Recordedin 1947 by the composerand Stellakis
Perpiniadis(HMVAO2737).22
J=82 R 0:FA??hC
1 - F:ad
T -y-
T m- TroXyrv,, -to1- vroeVrpq
.•o t;
o El - voci K•(1- Ide

Xt -plo - deoo
A &-7Amchm l
MPCtv C p•p
KMXP- ou rV ol n
;o- - v6?.
Mt?
- St&
ornivKcXp plou rnxv To- n- v6?,
o Xw - pia - p6e oou Ef- V(ax K(xrl- ip6e
system causedby Westerninfluence.On the otherhand,it could also indicatethe

individualityof the composer,who uses the traditionalformulain a new way.
The final barof the section with the cadenceV7-i ensuresthatthe song is in E
minor. From the conventional Western point of view, there are opposite
tendencies on the harmoniclevel of the composition.The progressionsbetween
relative minor and major chords create a static mood, but the V7-I cadence
contains the feeling of dynamic movement.The wide variety of chords in use
creates variety, and in combinationwith harmonicambivalencethis also feels
dynamicin its own way.
There is anotherfeaturein the song thatechoes the old Piraeusstyle: couplets
in the refrainare repeatedin reverseorderto form a quatrain.However,unlike in
hashish songs of the bouzoukitradition,the melody and harmonyin the example
song are skilfullyvaried.
22 Contraryto the record label credits, the song is often attributedto Vasilis Tsitsanis (see e.g. Hatzidoulis
1980:114). The first phrase of "O trelos tsiganos" was later used for the song "Agapi pou 'yines dikopo
mahairi" in the film Stella (1955). The film credits and some other sources (e.g. Hatzidoulis 1980:114)

Especially in laika style a movement from a majortriad to its upper tertian

relative can take place. Fig. 11 is an excerpt from a Houzam composition by
Manolis Hiotis containingthe chordprogressionI-iii. The progressiontogether
with chromaticismcreatesa soft, dreamymood that supportsthe lyricism of the
song.
Fig. 11: Excerptfrom "Pareme sto tilefono"by ManolisHiotis.Recordedin

1959 by Mairi Lindaand the composer(ParlophoneB 74511).
4J i
-
m
Fm sc
II6pe V o-roT I -o ei
-
l"
- vo
a U - -I I
Xt- ydci VO(XT(

To -
E
t .3
Relativekeys in rebetikaandlaikacan also be used in a purelyWesternway. It

is hard to say if the relative-keyharmonizationformulaof the Piraeusstyle had
any effect on the frequentuse of relative keys in post-war rebetika,or if the
practicewas solely of Westernorigin.
We can illustratethe developmentof relativekey switches by comparingtwo
compositions.The progressionfrom a song recordedin 1938 is simple with only
tonic, subdominantand dominantchords(Fig. 12). However,thereis a hint of a
sudden key change from chord i of minor to I of the relative major that may
derivefromthe Piraeusstyle.
by VasilisTsitsanis.Recordedin 1938by Stratos

Fig. 12: Excerptfrom "Arhondissa"
Payioumtzisand StellakisPerpiniadis(ColumbiaDG 6440).
A =104D B7 m L
80(- I G .I • - ! . I i! I
_ -.--
%W-e
00-X(a-Gao - UEp - At- vOI;ES;TO

"o
5-
go,
By contrast,a typical compositionby Manolis Hiotis in his late 1950s to early

1960s style consists of short relative key sections. The modulationscheme is
much more sophisticatedthan in the 1930s. As seen in Fig. 13, the temporary
attributethe latter song to Manolis Hatzidakis, but the piano sheet music of 1956 (reproducedin Shorelis
1987a:90-1) attributesboth music and lyrics to Tsitsanis, who performedin the film.

modulationfrom majorto the relativeminoris signalledby a modulationformula

based on a scale passage descendingto the thirdof V(7) of i of the relativeminor.
This melodic formulaseems to be an innovationof Hiotis. The returnto majoris
usually not abrupt.Hiotis tends to use a chain of secondarydominants,a charac-
teristicmost apparentin Exx. 13a and 13d.
Fig. 13: Hiotis' modulationformulaand chordprogressionsin (a) "Iliovasile-

mata"(1958); (b) "Pareto dakrimou"(1959); (c) "Pareme sto tilefono"
(1959); (d) "Dentha boreso"(1959); (e) "Iskouna"(1962).
bQ A C# 7F#mC7FmF m E D F
Io iiin
y i I 1I11,I
0
dQ .9 A C#7Fm
eA
-0
Tr f lown II
C7Fe
~ I. ,If
I" MD
CAM AC#7 F#m DF E

Bm D Alm E A
~~~~~~
~e~d~sp~do
"i~ mrL I.I
0)ff
do I J; qW
Chord progressions
The previous section ended by tracingechoes of relative chord oscillationup to
recent times. But let us go back now to the 1940s, to consider an earlier step
towardscomplexity of chordprogressionsbeyond the oscillation stage. Record-
ings made in 1946 and latercontainnew progressionsfor Rast, Houzam0-3 and
major.In additionto the commonI-V-I, therearecompositionswith progressions
shown in Table 5. These authentic and plagal cadential formulae are also
frequentlyused in commonpracticeharmony(see Piston 1978:184-5, 189-90).
Table 5: Some typicalpost-war chordprogressionsfor Rast,Houzam0-3 and major.
I IV V7 I
I ii V7 I
IV I

It is also noteworthythat after the war, the tonic was no longer the standard
initial chord in major,Rast or Houzam.It becamemore common thanbefore to
begin a section on some otherscale degreethanthe conventionalI. DegreesV and
less frequentlyIV became alternativeinitial chords.Fig. 14 is a compositionby
Vasilis Tsitsaniscontainingthe progressionIV-I-ii-I.
Fig. 14: Excerptfrom "To parapono tou xenitemenou"by Vasilis Tsitsanis.

Recordedin 1950 by SotiriaBellou (HMVAO2995).
- yvu- pi-
ocv oc 7r6- Xrl po ow
One of the most characteristicfeaturesof the majorkey chordalharmonyin

dromosRast, dromos Houzam0-3 and Westernmajorin post-warrebetikaand
laikamusic is the frequentuse of the chordii as eithera complementarydegreeof
IV or a substitutefor it. The supertonicwas adaptedfrom the popularmulti-part
Atheniankantada (pl. kantades) serenades that were influenced by Italian-
Neapolitan music, or directly from Westernpopularmusic. Analysis of extant
recordingssuggests that"Totragouditis agapis"by Bayianderas(DimitrisGogos)
recordedin 1940 was the firstrebetikasong with ii.
Chord ii invokes additional dark colourings to major, Rast and Houzam
melodies. Accordingto the conventionsof Westernmusic, chordii is supposedto
be succeeded by IV or V7-I. However, in the idiomatic harmonicpractice of
rebetika,the progressionii-I is not unusual.Dramaticuse of the I-ii-I progression
is found in the rebetika classic "Synnefiasmenikyriaki"composed by Vasilis
Tsitsanis.The degree adds a subduedmood to this major-keycomposition,thus
supportingthe contentsof the melancholylyrics (Fig. 15).
kyriaki"by VasilisTsitsanisandAlekos
Fig. 15: Excerptfrom "Synnefiasmeni
Gouveris.Recordedin 1948 by ProdromosTsaousakisand SotiriaBellou (HMV
AO 2834).
a=70 D Em D L Em
ITov Xi auV-VF-
T6CVTXo (l6C- -VE- (c.
UUVV
AA& D GA7D
lvfflmI
Ip..H W-0 IUL -
XPIUrt K(Xl H~oc, vo--Yi
XPIUrt KOCi rHoc V - & jov!

The secondary dominantsV7 of iv and V7 of ii are common in post-war

rebetika songs. The history of the former chord in rebetika goes back to the
Westernizedstyle of the Metaxasera (1936-40). Fig. 16 is an excerptfrom 1936.
The refrain of this G-minor piece is based on a cycle-of-fourths sequence,
containingthe secondarydominantsV7 of iv and V of III. Similarprogressions
were common in Greekpopularmusic in the Westernvein, from which rebetika
composersapparentlyadoptedthem. (Cf. Fig. 18c and "Hatzi-baxes"[Columbia
DG 6598] by Vasilis Tsitsanisrecordedin 1946.)
Fig. 16: Excerptfrom "S' agapisa vre mortissa"by SpyrosPeristeris.Recorded

in 1936 by KostasRoukounas(ParlophonB 21830).
A148o
AX o - X -
AX T -p(X Tro - xo vtcI- (bt, Th41ocvE{ bE 0c JE oc- oE6
From the late 1940s there was a tendency towardsa faster harmonicrhythm
than before. Besides new compositions, this trend influenced remakes of old
rebetikasongs in the 1960s: they were very often harmonizedin a morecomplex
way thanthe originalversions (see Jouste 1994:80-4).23An originalcomposition
from 1958, Fig. 17 contains a rapidlymoving chord progressionin descending
melodic minor.The progressionis basedon functionalharmony,andthe harmony
leads the melody largelybasedon leaps of thirds.
Fig. 17: Bouzoukiintroductionfrom "Pali me haramata"by Panos Gavalas.

Recordedin 1958 by the composer(OdeonGA 7997).
Gm Fnl Cm G
J=62 Bbh Ab,
3wI-a
I Cn_$
IF-'
I--tmr-f4r4m
A
Ir"
30 -MKO md &6id L6F fm
AIWk
AWT" Ci* Ab Gm On G7
-4UWP'
11M-k rIMINOWNW
Aj 1NOMMM
ammommoom
L-
k
BbA FM_ C. CW Cm
wl
I-JAM
1 kmr7;2-
-L m"M-i Fr-
fM
10
-73" FI= F'i
23 See also.Haralambos Payiatis' arrangementof the 1930s song "Rixe tsiggana ta hartia"by Markos
Vamvakaris (Payiatis 1992:55). The original guitar part consists of a minor-triaddrone with some octave
doubling of the bouzouki melody, while Payiatis changes the triad on every beat, using six different
chords. This kind of harmonizationis totally alien to the traditionalstyle, and it is rarely used in contem-
poraryperformances.

The changing role and characterof chordalharmonyin rebetikaand laika is

also reflectedin commercialsheet music. Althoughrebetikawas a memory-based
form of music and the primaryways of distributionwere live performancesand
gramophonerecordings,hit songs were also publishedas sheet music. They were
probablymade for tavernaand night-clubmusicianswith otherbackgroundthan
rebetika.It seems that until 1953, these publicationswere single-staff notations
without chord symbols. Piano arrangementsof rebetikahits startedto be pub-
lished around1953, and they quickly surpassedthe single-line notations.Chord
symbols were added to the piano scores as late as around1960. (See Shorelis
1987b:104-5, 216-7.)
Chromaticismand chordforms
In the early 1950s, the influence of Westernpopularmusic on rebetikabecame
more pronounced.This was apparentfirstly in chromaticismand the use of non-
harmonictones, secondlyin the introductionof new chordforms.
In Westernpopularmusic, chromaticand nonharmonictones areoften used for
creating expressiveness and lyrical or exotic atmospherein basically diatonic
melodies. The frequently used descending diatonic appoggiatura-the most
importantexpressive nonharmonictone of romanticism-produces an ambience
of sentimentalityand nostalgia that has been describedas "marshmallow"and
"sicklysweet"(Jalkanen1989:221-2).
According to Jalkanen (ibid.:219-80 passim), the chromaticismand non-
harmonictones of late romanticismwere adaptedto variouspopularstyles such as
salon music, AustrianSchrammel,GermanSchlager, ragtime, blues and early
jazz. In addition,these often appearedin tangos and Hawaiian-stylesongs that
were popular in the USA and Europe from the mid-1910s. American and
Europeanpopularsongs, tangos and Hawaiian-stylesongs were also recordedin
Greece. Among the most famous composers and singers in these genera were
Attik (Kleon Triandafyllou, 1885-1944), Mihalis Souyioul (1906-58), Sofia
Vembo (1910-78) andDanaiStratigopoulou(b. 1918).Therewere also musicians
who masteredmany styles and experimentedin mixing them. Some Hawaiian-
style studio musicians-Kostas Bezos among them-played on rebetika
recordingsas well (Howard1996). PanayiotisToundasand SpyrosPeristeriswere
composers, arrangers,recordingdirectors,and studio and stage musicians,who
worked in various contexts, as did the singer and bouzouki player Yiorgos
Vidalis. The exceptionalconditionsduringthe war also contributedto the mixing
of styles. According to Gauntlett(1985:117-8, 118 n. 249), during the Axis
Occupation (1941-45), the commercial viability of bouzouki-basedrebetika
caused Greekmusiciansspecialisedin Westernpopularmusic and instrumentsto
join the orchestras of bouzouki-taverns. They had played in cabarets, review-
theatres, operettas and, up to 1930, in cinemas.
In the pre-1950s rebetika, chromaticism was mostly associated with certain
melodic formulae in Rast, Houzam, Segah and the dromos counterparts of
Ottoman makam Ugak, Hiiseyni and Karcigar. The chromatic formulae partly

originatefrombouzoukiplayers'attemptsto imitatenon-temperedmelodicmove-
ments of these makams,and partlyfrom Westernmusic (Pennanen1997:150-3).
The chromaticismof Westernpopularmusic connected with chordal harmony
startedto infiltraterebetikaafterthe war and especially in the 1950s. Chromatic
passing tones in the vocal melodies and instrumentalfills in the style of Manolis
Hiotis aretypicalof the trend;severalexampleshave been shown above.
The instrumentalsection in Fig. 18a by Tsitsaniscontainschromaticlower and
upperneighbournotes and a chromaticallydescendingappoggiatura.Fig. 18b by
Yiorgos Mitsakiscontainsthe same chromaticallydescendingappoggiaturatrans-
posed a thirdhigher.Similarfeaturesarecharacteristic, for example,in the texture
of the internationaltango idiom. Fig. 18c is a Greektangofrom 1948 containing
diatonic and chromatic appoggiature, chromatic passing tones and chromatic
neighbournotes. Exx. 18d and 18e are excerpts from Finnishtangosof the 1930s
Fig. 18: (a) Excerptfrom the introductionof "Tisimera,ti avrio, ti tora" by

Vasilis Tsitsanis.Recordedin 1953 by MarikaNinou(OdeonGA 7765). (b)
Excerptfrom "Topaidi tou dromou"by YiorgosMitsakis.Recordedin 1953 by
Maria Grilli, YiannisTatasopoulosand the composer(HMVAO5104). (c)
Excerptfrom "Aserhosounyia ligo" by MihalisSouyioulandMimisTraiforos.
Recordedin 1948 by Danai (HMVAO2806). (d) Excerptfrom "Valkeasisar" by
M. Maja. Recordedin 1934 by GeorgMalmstenand Dallape-orkesteri(OdeonA
228283). (e) Excerptfrom "Lumihiutaleita" by M. Maja.Recordedin 1936 by
GeorgMalmstenand Dallapd-orkesteri(OdeonA 228352).
am A N N Dm
a•
Totxcxpbio - Xrm(x opou KO

Ix TO( E - vixm(xPtoU
To IBp&bvu irou E{JiXl ao, r6-ao Kc~x

irou jx-
Varx& tx-Xr-0Eutx
"o~5v6 cxuTr6 Tr6- It0X jldvo<"
I f jou X - 'E1
v irr oVvpvTr6 6 6 - rro OiT-ir Kco cPIr6'r'o r6 - vo?.
Luo sai - rai - den kiy si- sar hento val - koi - nen
A AmDm
hil - jal - leen sataamaahanlu- mi val - ke - aan.

containing similar nonharmonictones and the same chromatic appoggiature.

Owing to the hybridrepertoireof kosmikestavernesof the late 1940s and early
1950s, similaritiesbetween songs by rebetikacomposersand tango melodies are
not coincidental.Rebetikacomposersadoptedsome Western-stylemelodic and
chordal formulae from contemporaryforeign and foreign-influenced Greek
popularmusic.
It is not always as easy as above to point out Western influence in Greek
popularmusic. Some traditionalmakamformulaehave structuralcompatibility
with some formulae of Westernpopularmusic, which creates new ways to use
them in new contexts. The formulastock of dromosHouzam0-3 offers particu-
larly good possibilities for use in a Westernway. Fig. 19a is a Houzam 0-3
(makamSeg•h) melody thatmodulatesto Evig by establishinga new tonalcentre
a fifth above thatof Houzam0-3 (cf. Fig. 5, sectionE).
Fig. 19: (a) Evi formula in a Houzam0-3 melody. (b) Excerptfrom "Esyden
eisai anthropos"by ManolosHiotisand HristosKolokotronis.Recordedin 1957
by Panos Gavalasand MairyLinda(OdeonGA7984).
aA 11 D
? I
bALL Em Q 'A 3
J=60.
Ei -voxtilOr6 - pro rq to - i oroc X- ptoc aou pdScbt-nrpwi

AIU G A D
I[I4EV - !i YO I -iyo.
b)Ev 0• -w
; Xi
• - yo ;Xi - yo.
The Evig formularesemblesa formulawith the Afro-Americanblue note, i.e. a

note that is attractedto the scale-degreea thirdbelow (see van der Merwe 1996).
The beginning of the Houzam 0-3 (in D) song in Fig. 19b from 1957 contains
blue notes againstchordIV (G). The melody ascendsin a sequence,thus creating
a phraseon V (A) resemblingthe Evig formula.The melody, however, does not
stay on the potentialnew tonal centrebut startsto ascend.The rest of the excerpt
is in Houzam 0-3 proper.Since the composer,Manolis Hiotis, knew the tonal
languagesof bothrebetikaandAfro-Americanmusic,he has probablydeliberate-
ly utilised the likeness between the Evig formulaand the blue not phrase.24This
kind of freely used chromaticismis a sign of hybridism and a change from
24 The bouzouki player Stelios Vamvakaris uses some Houzam formulae in a blues context in his
recordings with the blues singer and guitaristLouisianaRed (SD 007).

Pennanen:Chordal harmony in Greek rebetikaand laika 95
melody types ruled by dromos-specificformulaeofrebetika in the directionof

melodiesruledby harmonyof moreWesternizedstyles.
Now let us look at chord forms in rebetikaand laika. Majorand minor triads
are well establishedin the recordedrebetikaof the 1930s, and in the 1940s domi-
nant sevenths and to a lesser extent diminishedsevenths had become common.
Owing to the number of strings, three-coursebouzouki players often use the
diminished triad vii-5 for the dominant function. However, when the guitar
providesthe root, the chordsoundsas V7. Table 6 shows the diminishedtriad,the
basic V triad,the tonic triadand theirrespectivechordshapes.The advantageof
the diminishedtriadchord shape is its closeness to the tonic chord, which saves
the left handfrom an awkwardposition shift up the fingerboardto a full V triad.
Thereare severalexamplesof the diminishedtriadon post mid-1930srecordings.
Forexample,in the 1939 recordingof the PanayiotisToundassong "Tominoretis
tavernes"(ColumbiaDG 6510) Vasilis Tsitsanisplays an introductorybouzouki
taximicontainingthis chord.
Table 6: Bouzoukichordshape boxesfor dominantand tonicfunctionchordsin D

major.
C# -5 A D
In the mid-1950s, at least one new chordformwas introducedinto Greekpopu-

larmusic. In the first 1956 recordingof "Thessalonikimou"(ColumbiaDG 7229)
by Manolis Hiotis and Hristos Kolokotronis,Hiotis demonstratesthe harmonic
capabilitiesof the newly inventedfour-coursebouzoukiby playing a minortriad
with ninth. In some of his melodies Hiotis uses the descendingappoggiaturaof
majorsixth or majorninthas nonharmonictones on the accompanyingtriad.
Tonic minorwith addedninth(i add. 9) or sixth and ninth(i 6/9) are also used
in codas for minormelodies aftera chromaticascent or descent (Fig. 20). These
laika-stylecodas were borrowedfromjazz.
Fig. 20: Ninthchords in laika-stylecodas.
D ad 9 ADI1
- Il -I~
EAF I I

Melodic and chordal cadences

According to Manuel (1989:83), rebetika pieces, in accordance with their
emergenceas a commercialpopulargenre,soon beganto acquirethe characterof
structuredsongs, with verses, refrains, and definitive cadences. The recorded
repertoireof the 1930s-as well as that of the 1920s-does contain structured
songs, but the emergenceof "definitivecadences"needs to be analysedin more
detail. We will see that chordalcadences for closing sections were established
only graduallyover a long periodof time. Chordalcadencespropermarkingthe
end of a section becamewidespreadonly muchlaterthanthe 1930s.
The importanceof harmonicformulaecalled cadences is evident in Western
music. In common practiceharmony,they convey a feeling of completionat the
end of a phraseor a composition.Closes markthe breathingplaces, establishthe
tonality and lend coherence to the formal structure(Piston 1978:184). Viennese
classicism especiallymade extensiveuse of the authenticV-I cadence.
One factor affecting the adaptationof Westernmelodic andharmonicfeatures
in Greekpopularmusic was the varietyof dancerhythms.Accordingto Einarsson
(1987:35), the symmetricstructureof hasapiko(2/4 or 4/4 time) made its metre
easy to fill up with functionalharmony.Einarssonidentifiesinfluences of West
European, mainly Italian, popular style in the 1940s and '50s especially on
hasapiko.25 Analysis of recorded material would support his observations:
functionalharmonyinfiltratedinto kalamatianoand laziko in 7/8, karsilama in
9/8 as well as zeibekiko,kamilierikoandaptalikoin 9/4 much more slowly than
into hasapiko.Because of its Orientalassociations,the belly dancetsiftetelliin 4/4
time tended to resist Westerninfluences.Basically, hasapikohad more rhythmic
and structuralcompatibilitywith Westernpopularmusic, and thus characteristics
from the West were relativelyeasily adaptedto it.
Before the 1950s, chordal cadences were relatively rarely used for closing
sections in recorded rebetika. There are exceptions usually in minor, e.g. the
authenticcadence after each couplet in the vocal section of "Prepeina htiso ena
tzami"(Odeon GA 1887) by MarkosVamvakarisrecordedin 1935. However, a
chordal cadence at the end of a whole piece was fairly common in post-war
recordings.The simplestendingwas an abruptstop of music at the end of a vocal
or an instrumentalsection. This ending was used both in dronedpieces and in
those with properchords.Remakesof these songs recordedin the late 1950s and
the 1960s usually ended with a chordalcoda, which lends supportto the view that
in Greek popularmusic, formal structuresdefined by chordalcadences gained
increasingimportancein the 1950s.26
25 Italian influence on the output of Greek popular music composers started considerably earlier. The
emergence of the late 19th-centurykantada style is described below. I would also claim that the melodic
and harmonic similarity between the Neapolitan song "Mistere 'e Marechiare"by Donaldio and the Izmir
song of the 1910s, "Den se thelo pia" (attributedto Panayiotis Toundas in Kounadis and Papaioannou
1981:21), is not a coincidence.
26 Cf. e.g. "To prof me ti drosoula" by Vasilis Tsitsanis recorded in 1946 (Columbia DG 6598) and the
remake by Grigoris Bithikotsis recordedin 1961 (Columbia SCDG 2839).

The melodic closing formula of fifth and root of the tonic chord could be
played aftereach section or at the end of the piece. This formulacan be regarded
as the predecessor of the authentic cadence in some dromoi. In a restricted
Houzam0-3 or Segah composition,the closing of fifth androot of chordI might
be preceded by the chromatic closing formula (Fig. 21a). (See Pennanen
1997:149-50.) In the 1960s, remakesandnew compositionsin restrictedHouzam
0-3 usually close with the conventionalV-I cadence(Fig. 21b).
Fig. 21: Closingsfor restrictedHouzam0-3 songs. (a) Theclosing offifth and

root of the tonic chordprecededby the chromaticclosingformula. (b) Thenewer
chordalclose.
I I A
DD b
-u- Im W,
n I
Thereare very few pre-warexamplesof the authenticcadenceclosing a restric-

ted Houzam0-3 rebetikarecording.Theremay be only one Segah0-3 recording
of this kind. The verse of the song "Hiramoderna"(or "Modernahira")by Pana-
yiotis Toundasis in restrictedHouzam0-3 while the refrainis in dromosSegah.
In the 1931 recordingby Ismini Diatsende(Odeon GA 1622), the last refrainis
followed by the V-I cadencethatends the piece. By contrast,the 1932 recording
by Roza Eskenazy(ColumbiaDG 298) has the conventionalabruptending.
The section end cadence V-I was used mainly in rebetika recordings of
serenade-liketwo-partharmonysongs in hasapikorhythm.The cadencewas first
used in the late 1930s for songs in major,minorand dromosRast.The cadencein
the context of restrictedHouzam0-3 seems to have been used for the first time in
a rebetika record in 1940. In the serenade-likeduet in restrictedHouzam "To
tragouditis agapis",the cadence is played aftereach vocal section while instru-
mental sections end with a brokenI chord (Fig. 22). The song was composed in
imitation of the Italian-stylekantadesand late 19th centuryAthenianWestern-
influenced popular songs that were sung by multi-part vocal groups and
accompaniedby mandolinsand guitars(Mylonas 1993a:40).One reason for the
relatively high numberof serenade-likecompositionsby rebetikamusiciansafter
1935 was the culturalnationalizationand Westernizationcampaign during the
dictatorshipof GeneralIoannisMetaxas(1936-40). (Forthe culturalpolicy of the
regime, see Hering1996.)
Probablyowing to the relativenewnessof chordalharmonyin rebetika,chordal
end cadences were adoptedquite slowly into the serenade-likerebetikasongs by
bouzouki musicians. By contrast,other kinds of Greek popularmusic utilised
them much earlier. For example, the popularrestrictedHouzam 0-3 song "O
barbaYiannis"(HMV AO 2050) in the Atheniankantadastyle thatwas recorded
in 1932 by PetrosEpitropakiscontainsV-I cadencesaftereach section.

Fig. 22: Closingcadences of(a) vocal sectionsand (b) instrumentalsectionsfrom

"Totragouditis agapis" by DimitrisGogos and DespoinaArbatzouglou.
Recordedin 1940 by ManolisHiotisand the composer(HMVAO2658).
aA A I __ __ __ ___ __ __
1 1 a
- J I A L
t) -
i i i i
0)!, lh
The developmentof the closing formulaein zeibekikorhythmdiffersfromthat

of hasapiko.Shown in Fig. 23, the melodicroot-and-fifthclosing was executedas
a distinctive rhythmic formula,possibly followed by a chordal cadence in the
coda. Chordalcadencesin recordingswere uncommonuntilthe 1950s.
Fig. 23: Rhythmicclosingformulaefor zeibekiko.

At B D
~ironJ-4U
Three recordedversions of "Synnefiasmenikyriaki"shed light on the process

of changein zeibekikoclosing formulae.In the 1948 originalrecording(Fig. 24a),
thereis a rhythmiccadence aftereach section;no separatecoda is used at the end
of the recording.The 1954 recording27has a rhythmiccadence after each vocal
section; the two-voiced descendingchromaticHouzamformulais played at the
end of the instrumentalsection andbeforethe repeatof the refrain(Fig. 24b). (For
the formula, see Pennanen 1997:149-50.) In spite of this, the whole piece is in
dromosRast, or Westernmajor,dependingon the analyst'sviewpoint(cf. Kostas
Roukounasin Petropoulos1983:264).The use of the chromaticHouzamformula
as a melodic closing in Rast or majoris rareon recordings.At the end, the tempo
slows and the recordingcloses with a coda of the chordalcadenceV-I.
The 1958 recording(Fig. 24c) containsnew featuresthatare typicalof the laika
style: there are several bouzoukisin tight parallelharmony,and they utilise the
tremolo technique. The zeibekiko rhythm is played in the syncopated kofto
("short","abrupt")formulainsteadof the older syriano ("of Syros")formulaof
the two earlier recordings. The recording has no rhythmic or chordal end
cadences,but it containsa scalarpassageat the end of each section. The absence
of chordal cadence in a late 1950s recording is unusual. A standardsection
closing of the era would be a scale passageanda chordalcadence.
27 The dating of the recording is problematic, since it was never issued in the 78 rpm format. The first
release seems to be the EP Philips 7751 of 1961. According to Dragoumanos(1997), MarikaNinou (1918-
57) made the recordingin 1954 at the Parnassostheatre.

Fig. 24: Excerptsfrom threeversionsof "Synnefiasmeni kyriaki":(a) recordedin

1948 by ProdromosTsaousakisand SotiriaBellou (HMVAO2834), (b) recorded
in 1954 by MarikaNinou,AthanasiosEfyenikosand VasilisTsitsanis(Philips
7751), and (c) recordedin 1958 by SteliosKazantzidis,Iota Lydiaand Marinella
(HMVAO 5546).
a rod
7X7
lMimaI
I I P o -a
vt
9 I Im
SRIP i I I i
?u =68D
A7 D
-' rr--al 1
Ait.DA7-
qO 'J
Recordingsof zeibekiko pieces made duringthe latter 1950s often containan

instrumentalascendingor descendingscale passage signallinga close. Western-
type scale runsat the end of sectionswere used in kantadarecordingsin the 1920s

and probablyeven earlier.28More rarelythey appearon recordingsof hasapiko

and zeibekikosongs in the 1930s.29
Instrumentalscale passages may be associatedwith the change of the dromos
concept from melodic formulae towards the Western idea of scales. Another
explanationis horrorvacui, the tendencyto fill up instrumentallyall the rests in
the vocal melody, which arefrequentin the slow zeibekikorhythm.The adventof
end passages coincided with the rise of extremevirtuositybroughtaboutby the
new four-coursebouzoukitype and new aestheticideals of the 1950s. The slow
tempo of the last example may be connected with the virtuosity of laika
instrumentalists:it allowed utmostmelodic pyrotechnicsof fast melodic figures
(cf. Fig. 28c below).
A theoryfor dromosharmonization
As just noted, it became common, especially in the 1950s, to signal the end of
sections and of a whole piece with a chordalformula.This is an adaptationof the
Western chordal cadence into the dromos system. For example, dromos Hitzas
pieces often close with the cadence Manuel(1989:78, 82) writes that IIb
functions as a dominantand iv serves as an
IH--I.30importantsubdominant,parallelling
the importance of that pitch in makam Hicaz itself. Nevertheless, it could be
questionedwhetherthe Westernconceptof chordalfunctionscan be appliedin all
cases to fusion musics such as rebetika.Instead,one mightconstructan alternat-
ive theory that makes a distinctionbetween the chord degree that supportsthe
giiqlii-the tone where two generameet-and the chorddegree that is used in a
chordalcadence.
The giiqlii tone is situatedon eitherthe third,fourthor fifth of a dromosscale.
Depending on the dromos, the gii9lti chord usually also rests on one of these
degrees. The chordis playedwhen the melodyrests on the gii~liior moves around
it. There are also several types of cadence chords in rebetika(Fig. 25). One of
them, chord V, is the dominantof tonal music. Accordingto Westerntheory, it
contains the two degrees closest to the tonic and therefore resolves more
conclusively to tonic chordthanany othertriad.This view is relevantfor rebetika
melodies in major, minor, Rast, Houzam M-1 and the dromos equivalents of
Nihavendand Nikriz,i.e. Westernscales anddromoiwithraisedseventhandfinal
on the root of I. The final of dromosHouzam0-3 and Segah is on the thirdof I,
but the root of I drawsthe thirdand fifth of V towardsitself similarlyas in major
andRast.
28 See the kantada "Bournovalia"by PanayiotisToundasrecordedin 1926 (HMV AO 195).

29 See "Tis to vgalane" by Vangelis Papazoglou recorded in 1935 by Roza Eskenazy (HMV AO 2247),
and "Zevgolatiotissa" by Panayiotis Toundas recorded in 1934 by Yiorgos Papasideris (Columbia DG
2104).
30 Nettl (1985:39) relates that Iranian pianists who play Persian classical music frequently use the
Neapolitan sixth, moving from the second degree, a three-quartertone above the final, to the tonic of some
Persian modes. Sometimes the V-I cadence appearsas well.

Fig. 25: Chordalcadencesfor variousdromoi.
V I V i viib I I viib i
Ilb VIIb i
Chordviii is the cadence chord for many dromoiwith flat or unstablesecond

and naturalseventh. The resolving power of this chord is mostly owing to the
thirdthat is situateda minor second above the final. In the majordromoi Hitzas
and Hitzaskiar,the chordis often followed or substitutedby its tertianrelativeIt.
In minor dromoisuch as the equivalentsof makamU?gakand Hiiseyni,chordIIt
as a substituteof vii6 has been used since the 1960s (cf. Jouste 1994:82-4). From
the Westernpoint of view, IIbcould be seen as akin to the Neapolitansixth (cf.
ibid.:82). Finally, the minor dromos Sabahhas VII~as the cadence chord. The
resolving power is comparativelyweak since root and thirdare situateda major
second from the tonic. The dromosequivalentsof makamKarcigarhave excep-
tionallymany alternativecadencechordswhich will be discussedbelow.
Because the characteristics of melody provide the ground of harmonic
selection, giigltichordsand cadencechordsvary considerablyin accordancewith
the qualities of each dromos.Table 7 shows the tonic, giiqliiand cadence chords
in a selection of dromoiwhich are groupedaccordingto the most importantchord
degrees. In the case of normalHitzas, the fourth scale degree is the gii9lii, and
thereforechord iv shouldbe regardedas the gti~liichordwhile chordsviiL(older
style) and IIH(newer style) are cadence chords which lead to tonic.31In some
dromoi these two degree types are one and the same: the gtiili of Rast, the two
forms of Houzam,and Segahis on the fifth of I, andthe scale structureallows the
use of V both as giiGltichord and cadencechord.Because of the dual role of V,
this groupof dromoihas experiencedfewer changesfrom the 1930s to the 1960s
than some other dromoi. The authenticcadence has made it easy to use Rast,
Houzamand Segahwith chordalharmony.The Westernmajor-likescale structure
andharmonizationalso explainwhy especiallyRastandthe two formsof Houzam
were favouredin the touristikastyle of the 1960s.
31 There are several types of dromoi related to makam Hicaz in rebetika. The scale-level differences of
these dromoi are the sixth degree, the position of the giiqlii and the position of the final. There are dromos
Hitzas melodies with giiplii either on the fourth or fifth degree. In terms of the final, there are Hitzas 0-1
and Hitzas M-3.

102 vol.6 (1997)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
Table 7: Importantchorddegrees in somedromoi.
dromos tonic giiulii chord cadence chord

Rast (major) I V V
Houzam0-3 I V V
HouzamM-1 I V V
I V V
Segah
Nihavend(minor) i V V
Nikriz i V V
Hitzas I iv viib/IIb
Hitzaskiar I I/V viib/IIb
Pireotikos I I IIb
Ugak i iv viib
Kiirdi i iv viib
Sabah i III VIlb
Karcigar(old) i IV viib/vlIb
Karclgar(new) i iii viib/vilb/v7
Dromoi with gii9lii on the fourth or third scale degree are harmonizedvery
differently.Fig. 26 is a Greekcover version of the CentralAnatolianttirkii"Gel
Alim" in a modifiedform of makamUg?ak.The giiglii of the makamis the fourth
degree, so the harmonizationfavours chord iv instead of V. The pitch of the
second degree of the U??ak scale varies: it is one Holderian comma flat in
ascending phrasesbut some 2.5 commas flat in descents. In equal temperament
this inflection is imitatedby performingthe second degree naturalin ascending
passages and flat in the descendingones. (A chromaticdescent is also possible.)
The unstable second degree affects the harmonizationof the rebetika form of
makamU?gak:the cadence chord for melodies is viib, but VII may appearin
ascendingpassageswith suddendescentsto final (Fig. 26, bar3).
A peculiarityof dromosharmonyis the role of I. In some cases, it can function
as both tonic andgiiqliichord.Hitzaskiaris such a case: degreesused in the 1930s
recordingsare I, iv, V and viib.I commonlysupportsformulaearoundthe giiqlii.
The accompanimentin Fig. 27a is of the old chordaldrone style. It is typical of
aptaliko(5+4) that the accompanimentstartson the fourthbeat of the first bar.
The guitar plays solely chord I, and the melodic cadence is in parallel octaves
insteadof a cadencechord.
In the harmonicallymoredevelopedpiece of Fig. 27b, the stop on the giigliiis
also harmonizedwith I. Owing to the flat second degree of the scale, V is not
suitableas the cadencechordfor Hitzaskiar.As with Hitzas,Hitzaskiarrecordings
of the 1930s mostly have viik-I as the closing chordalformula.Theoreticalharmo-
nizations ignore vii6 because the seventh scale degree is supposed to be sharp.

Pennanen: Chordalharmonyin Greek rebetikaand laika 103
Fig. 26: Excerptfrom "Exodertiakai kaimoi".Recordedin 1962 by Stelios

Kazantzidis(HMV7PG 3034).
1h38=1mQ
Ern m cDmi
IEf
'E- to v•prtoc KOic KO(1icLOi. e o 7c- Ap6-

pE
?e- vx Ot- to.
A
R
I
i,!4
IT 1 qJ
11 lo
11
JI
A- - X! 'E- X(c', •Xx!
A m Gm Gm Gm
'E- Xoc rrl yXv- K6c 'yKoXl6cIIou,

A
101 CDM Gm cm Dm
I~ I r- I I
I IL W
t(- yU'- pl-oE KOV-r&'IOU, vay vay vay!

yip-voc rn- Xt roc •t- Xt6cou,
Chordviii fits Hitzaskiarmelodies thatdo not descendbelow the final in cadence.

The newercadencechordfor Hitzaskiaris It, the tertialrelativeof (Fig. 27c).
vii,
Due to the flat second degree, i.e. fifth of V, theoreticalharmonizationscom-
pletely exclude V in Hitzaskiar.In performancepractice,this is not the case. The
OttomanmakamHicazkarstartsfrom the octave,andthis is very often also truein
rebetika. In the upper region, the use of V is possible because the flat second
degree above the final remains absent. Besides, the Hitzaskiarscale does not
repeatidenticallyin octaves. The seconddegreeof the upperoctavemay be either
flat as its basic octave equivalent,or natural(Fig. 27b, c). ChordV is not present
in all Hitzaskiarmelodies because there are stylistic features in rebetika that
occasionally prevent the use of it. As with some of the most popularOttoman
makams,thereare alternativeseyirs for dromoiin rebetika.Sometimesa rebetika
Hitzaskiarmelody startsfrom the root of I andremainsin the lower register;this
kind of melody is harmonizedwithoutV.
In summary,we can say thatthe selectionof chordsdependson the scale struc-
ture of the dromos and the region in which the melody moves. Period and style
also have an effect on harmony.Now we shall have a closer look at two dromoi,
which illustratethe historicaldevelopmentandpluralityof dromosharmony.
The development of Sabah harmonization

The developmentof Sabahharmonizationdiffersconsiderablyfromwhatwe have
considered above. Sabah is a minor-keydromos, the glighi of which is a third
above the final (Fig. 2a, b). This structurelends itself to the use of the relative
major chord in harmonization.With exceptions to the rule, a Sabah melody is
supposed to start either on the first or the thirddegree. The initial chord may

Fig. 27: Hitzaskiarmelodiesand theirharmonization.(a) Introduction

from
"Maroko"by I. Diamantopoulosand Y.Petropouleas).Recordedin 1940 by
MarkosVamvakaris(OdeonGA 7286). (b) Introduction from "Igata" by
StellakisPerpiniadisandNikosMathesis.Recordedin 1936 by Stellakis
Perpiniadis(HMVAO 2401). (c) Introductionfrom "Leionomystika"by Markos
Vamvakaris.Recordedin 1938 by the composer(OdeonGA 7174).
"Vo'-=-ii
M 2 F
jw
U r r I~~~
bA9 4158fGm L AGmi oo D
c~g
LJ132Eh 3AfEh1
wIr-alIFI I I
correspondinglybe eitheri or III. ManySabahmelodiescan be harmonizedsolely

with i and III, and directprogressionsfromgtiqliichordto tonic were commonin
the 1930s. Probablyowing to influence of commonpracticeharmonywith clear
cadences,the cadentialprogressionused afterthe warwas III-VIIMi.
Fig. 28 shows two Sabah melodies from the 1930s and one from the early
1960s. Fig. 28a is a straightforwardi-III-i harmonizationof the old stratum.
ChordIII supportsthe stop on the giqltiiat the end of the bar.Fig. 28b is a III-vi?-
III-i progressionfor a melody startingfromthe thirddegree.The traditionalguitar
partfor the descendingformulais in paralleloctaves. In laika style, the descend-
ing bass run is replacedby chordprogressionswith the flat fourthchorddegree:
IV6 -III-i and IVI -III-VII-i. Fig. 26c is a virtuoso laika-style introduction
harmonizedwith the modemprogressionIII-viV-III-IVKIII-IV-III-i-VII-i.

Fig. 28: (a) Introductionfrom "0 synahis"by MarkosVamvakaris.Recordedin

1934 by the composer(HMVAO2185). Thesecond bouzoukisectionhas been
transcribedbecause the guitarplayer mostprobablyforgot to play the relative
majorchord in thefirst one. (b) Excerptfrom "Mortissahasiklou"by Markos
Vamvakaris.Recordedin 1933 by the composer(ColumbiaDG 473). (c)
Introductionfrom "Aspethanona glytoso"by Panos GavalasandN. Dalezios.
Recordedin 1961 by Panos Gavalas(ParlophoneGDSP2603).
aA J=8 k 7 sot
J=122
6p>naa•o,Tlouy~vi- Or-KbS CL~ao

CIES
SrouSrE•- 8E?
A j it
FOE N.
e1%1 i~iw . wp
- ow.Aft---I .. .
The developmentof Sabahharmonizationcan be sketchedas follows. Afterthe

droneera, chordsi andIII beganto be used. This was enoughfor melodieswith a
narrowrangeand little emphasison the flat sixthdegree.For the harmonizationof
melodies with emphasis on thatdegree, chordvi, was added. After the war, the
cadence chord VIIbappeared.In the laika style of the late 1950s, chordIV6 was
finally added. Table 8 shows an interpretationof the new harmonization.The
startingpoint is that because the second genre of the dromos Sabah scale is the
Hicaz pentachord,the harmonizationis influenced by that of dromos Hitzas.
Therefore,III of Sabahfunctionsas I of Hitzasandvibof Sabahis the gtiqltichord

in Hitzas.After the establishmentof IIt as the cadencechordfor Hitzas,musicians

also startedusing it for the Hitzas inside Sabah. The returnto i of Sabah was
executedeitherdirectly(HI-i) or throughthe cadencechordof Sabah(III-VII,-i).
Table8: Hitzas harmonizationinsideSabah.
Hitzas: I IIb iv
Sabah: i III Ib vib vIIb
Karcigar harmonization
Because of its scale structureand the positionof the gtilti, makamKarcigarhas
offered exceptionally many possibilities for harmonization.In the caf6 style,
Karcigarmelodies tended to observe the rules of the Ottomantradition,though
therewas variationin melodicprogression.In the bouzoukitradition,Karcigarhas
experienced structuralchanges. Both forms tend to resist functionalharmoniza-
tion.
According to the theory of genera, the basic Karcigarscale consists of the
U~gak tetrachordon A (diig?h) and Hicaz pentachordon d (neva). As with
makamsSaba and U??ak,the pitch of the second degreeof the U??aknote group
is notatedas BE(segah) but it varies in practice,being 1 commaflat in ascending
phrases but 2.5 commas flat in descents. The 4-commas-flat fifth degree is
frequentlyraised in melodic progressionand especially in cadences (Fig. 29a).
Besides U??akand Hicaz note groups,there are some other componentsin this
makam,but there is no need for a detailedanalysishere. In point of fact, due to
the melodic peculiaritiesof Karcigar,the theory of genera does not explain the
characteristicsof the makamparticularlywell. Karcigarmelodies in the classical
seyir startfrom the giilhi which in this case is the fourthdegree. Fig. 30a is an
Fig. 29: (a) The basic OttomanmakamKarcigarscale, and (b) the basic
Karcigarscale of the bouzoukitraditionwiththe traditionalharmonization.
a25] -
I b i iii IV V viib
VIIb i iii IV V viib

Fig. 30: (a) Excerptfrom "Zourlopainemenis

yenna"by VangelisPapazoglou.
Recordedin 1934 by RitaAbatzi(HMVAO2191). (b) Excerptfrom
"Kondrabatzides" by KostasRoukounas.Recordedin 1936 by the composer
(OdeonGA 1919).
4) gitar9
Zovpko-lrnxive- Vi4 yi- wVO, r Xcx 'v oc- 6r,-jl pjou.
vlin
im - I
Kron 6-riJo'- K410-fl VI LKC E- TC XX-(X X iv
40 rr9
,at W.-. t
A I A in I 1co m Kl 1 1Io 1 Il
Ki 6rt oov 'XcO

KxcJxo- l - VO
v•x X- V- TcO( X(X-X(Xc- X1cov.
-•--/i--- dr--- -
Ko-crpouc
r x- prei-- e icoc -&r- -----dI
i c- v - T - cx,
v .
-IO(T('
Kov- cUXU& 7]J
al l 6q.j
- l.J:
i-C7TKi. :II ( I:
excerptfrom a 1935 song in equal-temperedmakamKarcigar.The melody begins

from giiglii, with the fifth degreeraised.In the first threebars,thereare stops on
the octave of the final; from then on, however, the fourthdegree dominatesthe
rest of the piece until the final cadence, and the fifth degree becomes flat. The
high octave transpositionof the last bar is a featureof the late Ottomancaf6 and
night-clubstyle (cf. Greve 1995:170-3;Beken 1996).

With minorexceptions, the equal-temperedbasic scale of the newer modified

Karcigarof the bouzoukitraditionis similarto the classicalmakam(Fig. 29b). In
terms of theoreticalharmonization,the flat fifth degree is a potentialproblem
since it seems to preventthe use of the minor i chord. In performancepractice,
this issue seems to presentfew difficulties,since the possibilityof raisingthe fifth
degree resolves most harmonizationproblems. In the bouzouki tradition,the
Karcigartonal hierarchyalso tends be differentfrom the classical Ottomanone.
The most remarkablestructuralchange is the positionof the giiqltitone. Because
of chordalharmony,the thirddegreesurpassesthe fourthin tonalhierarchy.Thus,
the generaof the dromosare U??aktrichordandNikrizpentachordon c (9argdh),
but again the note groupsdo not explainthe melodicmovementssufficiently.The
gtiqliichord is iii, which allows the use of the flat fifth degree. Since the second
degree of the upper octave is usually flat, chord vii6 is used when the melody
moves aroundthe seventh scale degree. When the melody approachesthe final,
chord VIIbis normallyused. ChordIV appearswhen the melody occasionally
stops on the fourth degree. This happens especially when the composition is
influencedby the OttomanKarcigarof the caf6 style.
In Fig. 30b, the melody begins from the final, moves aroundthe thirddegree
and finally settles on it. The giigltichordis suggestedby the root and fifth alter-
nation from the guitar. The melodic movement of the vocal line is somewhat
similarto thatof makamSaba.
Karcigarmelodies of the bouzouki traditionare based on the alternationof
U??akand Nikriz on i and iii respectively.Oscillationbetween i and iii creates a
restless feeling that is suitablefor heavy zeibekikosongs with depressinglyrics.
This static progressioncan end a section on recordingsin the Piraeusstyle of the
1930s.
In rebetikaperformancepractice, as we have seen, there are three cadence
chordsfor Karcigar,i.e. viib,VIIH,and V(7).The first two chordsare alternatives,
the use of which is enabledby the chromaticallydescendingseconddegreeof the
basic octave and the flat second degreeof the upperoctave. Sometimesthe alter-
native cadences are used within the same song in different sections. Karcigar
melodic closing formulaetend to emphasisethe fourthdegree, which fits all the
three chords. From a purely theoreticalpoint of view, V(7) is not an expected
cadence chordsince its thirdis not a scale degreeof Karcigar.However,the chord
is used in cadences with no leading tone that would clash with it. As Karcigar
melodic closing formulaetend to avoid the areabelow the final, V(7)can be used
fairly often. On the basis of recorded repertoire,it seems that the authentic
cadence closes a Karcigarsection of a piece where the other sections are in a
dromosutilising the same close. Thus, the use of V(7)as the cadencechordhelps
to adjusta Karcigarsection to the compositionalwhole thatutilises the Western
standardcadence.
Fig. 31a illustrates the use of chord viil in Karcigarharmonization.It first
appearsat the point where the flat second degree of the upper octave is intro-
duced. After the progressioniii-i, the instrumentalcoda containsthe flat second
in the basic octave, which calls for the cadencechordviib.Fig. 31b is an excerpt

Pennanen:Chordal harmonyin Greek rebetika and laika 109
Fig. 31: (a) The end of "Drapetis tou Yendi Koule" by Yiorgos Mitsakis.
Recorded in 1961 by Nikos Youlakis (Columbia SCDG 6851). (b) Excerptfrom
"Periplanomeni zoi" by Vasilis Tsitsanis and Kostas Virvos. Recorded in 1954 by
Sotiria Bellou (Odeon GA 7789). (c) Excerptfrom "Peismatara" by Markos
Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1937 by the composer (Parlophon B 21955). (d)
Excerpt from "Mes' tin polli skotoura mou" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in
1938 by Stratos Payioumtzis (HMVAO 2540). (e) Excerptfrom "Htes to vrady
stin taverna" by Andonis Repanis and Panayiotis Kablieris. Recorded in 1968 by
Stratos Dionysiou (Columbia 3798).
=
- X6im
'58ct- 1oKcO ato-8U JIE?oT) OEoocKe-%o-v
- Kir.
liE-puncvc- PSI0
mia vr m
T0- 1- f!
uE vo
H~purhocvwj- icop-I~C
Hlo- joc - r6c - pX, ji'E8xo'

pt- • 8(-ruoc oou. E-
yd 0cxoE Xoc-r-
pE- 6t0 - ytx To EIoaJICvoou.
KH•cxito
ioci Po- n
suo- (-(j) ywco•-vc-vE:
yIcx-ir
ovvc c- ycx
-ni- op ;
CA
T=100 yv
(roTc
MeG oPC ar
pvc ,ppcx Itpiuico- xi ywca(- vxO .
fivw,lcx q UKl4,q ~I~oae cT& vex .rpiyup- v
from a typicalheavy zeibekikoin Karcigar.The harmonystays in iii for the whole

first bar, and there is a clear Nikriz feeling in the melodic line. The second bar
begins with i, followed directlyby iii. The piece's restless and unstablemood is
underlinedby this chord progressionand the correspondingchange of the fifth
degree from flat to naturaland back again. During the cadence chord VIIV,a

chromaticdecsent to the final occurs.The bar ends with a Karcigarinstrumental

closing formula.Fig. 31c startson iii, andthe narrow-range melody moves around
the root of the chord. In the seventh bar the fifth degree is not raised, and it
functionsas a descendingappoggiaturafor the fourthdegree (hence not clashing
with the cadentialV chord).The cadencechordsareV and I, as in the succeeding
instrumentalsection in the dromosformof Nikriz(not transcribed).
Fig. 31d from the 1930s startsin the majorkey of the precedingsection (not
transcribed),but the descending melody modulates to the Nikriz part of the
bouzouki Karcigar,i.e. to the parallelminor.After iii, the harmonicprogression
passes throughthe i-V-i cadence.This time the fifth scale degreeis raisedin the
cadence, which makes it a neighbourof the fourthdegree. Fig. 31e, a Karcigar
section from a 1968 song, shares some characteristicswith the previous two
examples. The melody startsin the majorbut modulatesto Karcigarin the fourth
bar. The chordalcadence consists of the progression+II7-V7-i. The fifth scale
degree remains flat in the vocal Karcigarline, but is raised in the instrumental
closing formula.The sectioncloses with the V7-i.
The alternativecadence chordsoffer an interestingproblemof interpretation.
Accordingto the conventionalWesternview, the cadencesVIIb-i and viib-i are
signs of modalharmonywhile the dominanteffect cadenceV-i is often thoughtof
as automaticallysignalling functional harmony. Still, Karcigar melodies and
harmonizationscan hardlybe labelledas either"tonal"or "functional".
Conclusion
The Westernizationof Greekpopularmusic afterthe Second WorldWarwas not
a steadily advancing process. Modernizationhelped to preserve the old non-
Westernmusical characteristics,while Orientalizationwas an opposingprocess
that tendedto supportthe Easternfeaturesof urbanGreekmusic and even create
new ones. Remakesof old rebetikasongs revitalisedthe use of traditionalmelodic
formulaein variousmakamsanddromoi.The formulaewere utilisedin new com-
positions and taximi improvizationsas well. InfluencesfromTurkish,Arabicand
Indiansongs had similareffects, thoughthey also introducednew characteristics
into Greekpopularmusic.
Because of these processes,the victoryof functionalharmonyover traditional
dromosharmonizationwas not evidentnordid majorandminorscales surpassthe
makam-relateddromos systems duringthe period studied here. The traditional
pre-warmakam-derivedcompositionalsystemslived on in somewhatfragmented,
simplified and modified forms. Chordalharmonyhad influence on the tonal
structuresof some dromoi. The place of the final and sometimes of the gtiqlti
changedowing to harmonization.DromosHouzamis a typicalexample.
The idiomatic harmonizationsin rebetikaand laika performancepracticeare
often very different from the deductive theoreticalharmonizationsof printed
sources that are based on the Western scale concept. Some features of the
harmonization-such as the alternationof relativemajorand minortriads-were
developed from bouzouki playing techniquesin the Piraeus style of the 1930s.

Certain harmonization formulae are applications of Western practices. The

Westerncadenceprinciplewas appliedto dromosmelodiesin an idiomaticway in
the 1930s, and in the 1940s cadences became structuralframes that markedthe
end of a section. It is also noteworthythat faster harmonicrhythmbegan to be
used in the 1950s, a tendencypresentin new compositionsand in remakesof old
rebetikasongs. Contraryto whatis sometimesthought,chordprogressionsdid not
makedromosmelodies automaticallytonalor Western.
In rebetika and laika, there are three basic ways to use chordal harmony.
Firstly,there are dromosmelodies thatareharmonizedin an idiomaticway, such
that the harmonic selection is based on the melodic qualities of each dromos.
Giiqliiandcadencechordsaremost oftennot the chordV of the commonpractice.
Secondly,melodies may be in Westernmajoror minorandthustheirchordsarein
accordancewith the rules of common practice harmony.The third possibility
containscharacteristicsfromboththeseforegoingpractices.Some melodies are in
dromoi that differ greatly from the Western major or minor scales, but their
harmonizationis based on functionalharmonywith dominant-toniccadences.
The rebetika form of makam Karcigarwith its alternativecadence chords (i.e.
VII, viibor V(7))is an examplepar excellence of the complicatedacculturation
processesin Greekpopularmusic.
We can try to analyse the three different tendencies in rebetika and laika
recordings in the 1950s and especially the 1960s in their cultural context.
Expressive singing style and ratherdismal and suicidal lyrics combined with
minor-key dromoi and non-functional harmony tended to create a heavily
depressing atmosphere in the songs. No wonder that in the mid-1960s the
chairmanof the first PanhellenicPsychiatryConferencedeclaredthatmelancholic
bouzouki songs were responsiblefor an increase in mental disordersin Greece
(Gauntlett1991:11). Psychiatristsas Western-orientedupper-classpeople most
likely felt that zeibekiko melodies in e.g. Sabah or Karcigarwere tonally un-
balanced and chaotic. The statementof the chairmancould also be politically
motivated.Sabah and Karcigarmelodies soundedclearly Oriental,and thus they
were certainto be consideredsubversivein the official nationalistdiscourse.
On the otherhand, a partof the rebetikaand laikarepertoiretendedto empha-
sise the Western features of Greek popularmusic. In some cases only instru-
mentation,singing style and languagewould indicatethe Greeknessof a piece of
recorded music. This kind of Westernized music was at least theoretically
acceptable with regard to its Westernness for the West-oriented upper-class
Greeksof the 1960s.
The most common reactionto Westerninfluencesin Greekpopularmusic lies
betweenthe two extremes.FunctionalharmonizationandV-I cadencesarefactors
that have helped to mask the non-Westernmusical features of Greek popular
music under an appearanceof being Western.Owing to this, many musicians,
researchersand listenershave interpretedespecially Greektouristmusic as more
Westernizedthan it actuallyis. This situationcan be seen as the musical symbol
of the modern Greek culturalambiguitybetween East and West: Orientaldeep
structuresarehiddenunderthe Westernsurface.

vol.6 (1997)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Prof. Stathis Gauntlett (Australia); Dr. Pekka Gronow, Eero Heimolinna, Kimmo
Hyyppai, Docent Pekka Jalkanen, Docent Vesa Kurkela, Prof. Heikki Laitinen, Dipl.
Composer Sakari Vainikka (Finland); Leonidas Drizis (FRG); Moisis Aser, Marios
Drizis, Pavlos Erevnidis, Panayiotis Kounadis, Sotiris Lykopoulos, Yiorgos Symeonidis,
Prof. Demetre Yannou (Greece); Mats Einarsson (Sweden); Dr. John Baily, Dr. David
W. Hughes, Diane Mueller (UK); Helen Abatzi, Joe Carson, Prof. J6zef Pacholczyk
(USA).
The research was supported by grants from The Emil Aaltonen Foundation and The
Alfred Kordelin Foundation.
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LPS AND CDS CITED

AAA 019 Mohamed Abdelwahab Integrale Vol. VIII (1935). Film Doumou' El Hob (Larmes
d'amour).
HMV GCLP7 Mikis Theodorakis,I yeitonia ton angelon.
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APPENDIX
Standardaccidentalsused in modem Turkishnotation:
raises lowers
1 comma t
4 commas #
5 commas +
Risto Pekka Pennanen works as a researcherin the Departmentof Folk Traditionat the
University of Tampere, Finland. He has published widely on music cultures in the
Balkans and the history of ideas in ethnomusicology.He is currentlyfinishing his PhD
thesis on Westernizationand modernizationin Greekpopularmusic. Address:Dept. of
Folk Tradition,University of Tampere,PL 607, FIN-33101 Tampere,Finland;e-mail
<kpripe@uta.fi>;Web site of the Department:http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/kpl/.


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The developmentof chordal harmony

Risto Pekka Pennanen

This article addresses the effects of chordalharmonyon makam- or dromos-basedGreek

INTRODUCTIONOF CHORDALHARMONYis a typical sign of Western

1 Rebetikatragoudia(pl.) once designatedsongs which were originallyperformed,listenedto and/or

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The analysisis primarilybasedon a corpusof some 1500 commercialrebetika

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music and anti-musicwhich have effectively turnedacademicresearchersaway

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Accordingto BrunoNettl (1978:171;1985:20),modernizationcan be described

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1968, afterwhich theirpopularitywaned.At least 105 Greekcover versionsof the

Fig. 1: Excerptfrom "M'ehounyelasei dyo mavramatia"by VasilisTsitsanis.

3pi- KE, •Cep - i6c Aou! - n -icr rW-

Westernization,Orientalizationand modernizationwere often present in a

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Tsitsanis1952 love 4/4 hasapiko dromosHouzamO- malevoc, fern& bouz,ac

"Mambozeibekano"I Th.Derveniotis Greekadaptation9/4 zeibekiko minor fernvoc bouz,g,

"LaoskaiKolonaki" Hiotis1958 poor/rich,love 4/4 swing minor fernvoc bouz,ac

"IKalliopiap' ti PanosPetsas socialsatire 9/4 zeibekiko minor malevoc bouz,g,

Tsitsanis1962 longingfor 4/4 "bai6n" rebetikaformof femalevoc bouz,v,

"Taxenaheria" Tsitsanis1962 suffering 4/4 hasapiko12/8 minor femalevoc bouz,ac

Zambetas1962 love 3/4 dadratila (waltz) rAgaMira Pill femalevoc 2 bouz,

klaiei" Tsitsanis1964 longingfor spokenintro minor malevoc, fern& 2 bouz,

Table1: Greekpopularsongsfrom the 1950s to 1960s withsomemaininfluencesof the era.

andlyricscontainborrowingsfromthe internationalhit of 1954"MamboItaliano"by Bob Mervil.Similarlocalizationof an internationalhit was u

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elements are from Italian popularmusic, WesternizedLatin Americanmusic,

"Modal harmony" in rebetika and laika

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This is also the case in researchon rebetika.Occasionally chordalaccompani-

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Fig. 2: (a) Thescale of OttomanmakamSabadwithdistancesbetweentones in Holderian

S ii -- III IVb+ v VIb VIIb

thatbelongedto the caf6-stylerepertoireof Ottomanpopularmusic (see Lambelet

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Owing to these, the compositionalsystemsof songs and taximiimprovisationsin

13 For the Holderian comma, see Dussant 1957.

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to the nearest equal-temperedone.16In Ottoman,modern Turkish and Greek

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Fig. 3: Thebasic scales of dromosRast, a

Varying Houzam 0-3 melodies are characterizedby a wide range, chromatic

Fig. 4: Excerptfrom "Otanpineis stin taverna"by VasilisTsitsanis.Recordedin

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in character.On the otherhand,Westerntheoryis not capableof explainingthe

17 "Memory-based" is my translation of the Finnish term "muistinvarainen"that is more accurate in

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Table2: Some Ottomanmakamsand theirclassificationin the bouzoukidromos

dromoi: HouzamSegah Kiourdi Oussak

ficational category of melodies and scales with predominantlya flat second

Since the mid-1980s, rebetikamelodies have been classified accordingto the

Dromoi and chordalharmonyin touristmusic

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Fig. 5 containsexcerptsfrom "Sikohorepsesyrtaki",one of the most popular

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Fig. 5: Excerptsfrom "Sikohorepsesyrtaki"by YiorgosZambetas.Recordedin

an elxis, which is not acceptable.Accordingto modem churchmusic theory,an

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