To set the alignment of Michelson’s

Interferometer using He-Ne laser to observe

fringes.
Author:
Mitanshu R. Thakore Supervisor:
Department of Applied
(I16PH001) Dr. Dimple V. Shah
Physics
Aditi S.S. Kaushik Dr. Lalit Kumar Saini
S.V.N.I.T
(I16PH004)

15th April, 2019

Outline
➢ Introduction to Interferometry
➢ The Michelson Interferometer
➢ The Experiment
➢ References
Motivation
➢ The beauty of the subject of Optics.
➢ Our personal interest towards Experimental Physics.
➢ Our fascination towards Laser Interferometry Gravitational
waves Observatory (LIGO) experiment.
 Introduction to Interferometry
➢ What is Interferometry?
➢ INTERFERENCE
The phenomenon of interference of light depends on the superposition
of two or more individual light waves, which further leads to the effects
of diminution (destructive interference) or enhancement (constructive
interference) of light waves. When constructive interference and
destructive interference, alternate in a spatial display, the interference
is said to produce a pattern of fringes.
➢ Treatment of light as waves in motion.
 Two - Beam Interference
E1 = E01 cos(ks1 – ωt + φt + φ1)

E2 = E02 cos(ks2 – ωt + φt + φ2)

Ep = E 1 + E 2
Measurement of the waves by their effect on the eye or some other light detector depends on the energy
of the light beam. The radiant power density, or irradiance, I (W/m2), measures the time average of the
square of the wave amplitude.

I = εoc ‹E·E›

The resulting irradiance at P is given by

I = εoc ‹E2P› = εoc ‹EP·Ep›

= εoc ‹(E1 + E2)·(E1 + E2)›

or

I = εoc ‹E1·E1 + E2·E2 + 2E1·E2›

We may then write

I = I1 + I2 + I12

The presence of the third term I12 is indicative of the wave nature of light, which can produce
enhancement or diminution of the irradiance through interference.
Considering the interference term,

I12 = εoc ‹E1·E2›

Now, E1·E2 = E01·E02 cos(ks1 – ωt + φt + φ1) cos(ks2 – ωt + φt + φ2)

Let α = ks1 + φ1 , β = ks2 + φ2 so that,

2E1·E2 = 2E01·E02 cos(α – ωt + φt) cos(β – ωt + φt)

2‹E1·E2› = 2E01·E02 [‹cos(α + β – 2ωt + φt) + cos(β – α)›]

The first time average in this relation is taken over a rapidly oscillating cosine function
and so is zero. Thus,

2‹E1·E2› = E01·E02 ‹cos(β – α)› = )› = E01·E02 ‹ cos(k(s2 – s1) + φ2 – φ1)›

= E01·E02‹cos(δ)›)›
where we have defined the phase difference between E1 and E2 as

δ)› = (k(s2 – s1) + φ2 – φ1)

Thus, we have I12 = εoc E01·E02‹cos(δ)›)›

The time average of the square of a rapidly oscillating sinusoidal function is 1/2. Thus,

I1 = εoc ‹E1·E1› = εoc E201 ‹cos2(α)› = – ωt)t)› = εocE201

I2 = εoc ‹E2·E2› = εoc E202 ‹cos2(β – ωt)t)› = εocE202

When E01||E02 , their dot product is identical with the product of their magnitudes E01
and E02 . These may be expressed in terms of I1 and I2 by the use of

I12 = 2 (I1I2)1/2 ‹cos(δ)›)›

Now, we can finally write

I = I1 + I2 + 2 (I1I2)1/2 ‹cos(δ)›)›
 Interference of Mutually Incoherent Fields
The interference term I12 , in this case, takes the form,
2(I1I2)1/2 ‹cos(k(s2 – s1) + φ2(t) – φ1(t)›

In such a case we say that the sources are mutually incoherent and the
detected irradiance will be
I = I1 + I2 (Mutually incoherent beams)
It is often said, therefore, that light beams from independent sources,
even if both sources are the same kind, do not interfere with each other.
In fact, these fields do interfere but the interference term averages to zero
over the averaging times of most real detectors.
 Interference of Mutually Coherent Fields
In such a case, the electric fields are said to be mutually coherent and the irradiance
of the combined fields will have the form

I = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2 cos(δ)›)

where δ)› is the total phase difference at the point of recombination of the beam.

As we have noted, if the beams originate from the same source, this phase difference
accumulates as a result of a difference in path lengths traveled by the respective
beams. In many cases of interest, other factors can lead to a phase difference between
the beams as well. Important mechanisms of this sort include differing phase shifts due
to reflection from beam splitters and differing indices of refraction in the separate
paths taken by the two beams.
Depending on whether cos δ)› > 0 or cos δ)› < 0, the interference term either augments or diminishes
the sum of the individual irradiances I1 and I2 , leading to constructive or destructive interference,
respectively. Since the relative distances traveled by the two beams will, in general, differ for
different observation points in the region of overlap, the phase difference δ)› will also differ for
different observation points. Typically, cos δ)› will take on alternating maximum and minimum
values, and interference fringes, spatially separated, will occur in the observation plane.

To be more specific, when cos δ)› = + 1, constructive interference yields the maximum irradiance

Imax = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2)1/2
This condition occurs whenever the phase difference δ)› = 2mπ, where m is any integer or zero.

On the other hand, when cos δ)› = – 1, destructive interference yields the minimum, or background,
irradiance

I = I + I - 2(I I )
min 1 2 1 2 1/2 ,

a condition that occurs whenever δ)› = (2m + 1)π.

A plot of irradiance I versus phase δ)›, exhibits periodic fringes. Destructive interference is
complete, that is, cancellation is complete, when I 1 = I2 = I0.

Then Imax = 4I0 and Imin = 0

The irradiance for two equal interfering beams is then, I = 4I0 cos2(δ)›/2)
 Michelson Interferometer
➢ Instrument designed to exploit the interference of light and the fringe patterns
that result from optical-path differences, in any of a variety of ways, is called an
optical Interferometer.
Interferometer

Amplitude division Wave-front division

Interferometer Interferometer

Llyod’s Fresnel’s
Michelson Young’s Double
Mirrors Biprism
Slit
Interferometer
 Construction:

Albert Michelson

Michelson Interferometer was used:

● to establish experimental evidence for the validity of the special theory of
relativity,
● to detect and measure hyperfine structure in line spectra,

● to measure the tidal effect of the moon on the earth,

● to provide a substitute standard for the meter in terms of wave lengths of light.
Working:
Types of fringes:

Circular Fringes:
Curved Fringes:
Curved fringes (fringes of equal thickness): When M1 and virtual image M2' are inclined to each other, the
film enclosed is wedge shaped. Then curved fringes can be observed. These are also known as fringes of equal
thickness.
Straight line fringe:
Straight line fringes: When M1 and virtual image M2' intersect, straight line fringes are obtained around the
point of intersection. The path difference along the line of intersection is zero and therefore, is same for all the
wavelengths. When a source of white light is used we get central achromatic bright fringe. On either side of
central fringe, few coloured straight fringes are observed.
 The Experiment
Aim: Alignment of Michelson’s Interferometer using He-Ne laser to observe concentric
circular fringes.
Set up:
Observations and Interpretation:
From the above observations, the we can infer the following:

1) We obtain a set of observations consisting of alternate dark and bright

fringes, which is consistent with the theoretical predictions.

2) The fringe pattern observed is actually a straight fringe pattern. The

fringe pattern obtained is consistent with the theoretical predictions, as
discussed in the earlier section.

3) We get similar fringe pattern for Na Lamp as well, but we could not
capture it, as we get a virtual image in this case.

4) The orientation of the fringe pattern continously changes as we change

the alignment of the mirror.
Conclusion:
Thus, from the above experiment we can conclude that Physics Works!

The results obtained through the above experiments are consistent with the
theoretical predictions. Thus, we were almost successful in getting the
circular fringe pattern.
Applications of Interferometry: LIGO
 References:

1) Introduction to Optics by Frank L Pedrotti, Leno M Pedrotti,

Leno S Pedrotti, Third Edition, (2006, Addison-Wesley)

2) Optics by Ajoy Ghatak, 5th Edition, (2012, Mcgraw Hill)

 Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our supervisors, Dr. Dimple V. Shah and

Dr. Lalit Kumar Saini, for their motivation, kindness and
guidance during this project. We would like to give many thanks
to the Mr. Shailesh Pincha, Mr. Vijay Dabhi, Mr. Gaurav Surati
and Dr. Ankit Srivastava of physics lab at Applied Physics
Department, S.V.N.I.T. for their help and constant support.

We would also like to thank our fellow classmates for their efforts
they put into making this year an eventful and enjoyable
experience.
Thank you!