Ingredient Functionality During Foam-Type Cake

Making: A Review
Thibault Godefroidt , Nand Ooms , Bram Pareyt, Kristof Brijs, and Jan A. Delcour

Abstract: Foam-type cakes are complex food systems. Their main ingredients are wheat flour, hen eggs, sugar, leavening
agent, and, in some cases, oil and/or surfactants. In contrast to the vast amount of research outcomes on the contribution
of ingredients to the quality of batter-type cake systems, information on the functionality and importance of the ingredients
and their constituents in foam-type cake systems is lacking. This review defines foam-type cakes, describes how they are
made, summarizes the current knowledge of factors determining their quality, and identifies the current knowledge gaps.
Keywords: egg white, egg yolk, foam-type cake, leavening agents, sucrose, wheat

Introduction A second distinction is made between high-ratio and low-ratio

Cake recipes typically list wheat flour, sugar, and eggs as ingre-
dients. Depending on the cake type (cfr. infra), lipids (for example,
margarine, oil, shortening, and surfactants) are also part of the
ingredient bill, as are ingredients such as leavening agent and salt
(Cauvain & Young, 2006; Conforti, 2014; Shepherd & Yoell,
1976). While cake is a widely consumed bakery good, ingredient
functionality in cake making is not fully understood. This is in
part due to the large variety of cake systems available. Indeed, the
term “cake” is used for an extensive range of bakery products,
which differ strongly in terms of both their ingredients and ratios
thereof, and in the processing methods used to manufacture them.
Figure 1 lists some of the most common cake types and their
subdivisions, as well as some key references referring to each of
these cake types. The first distinction is between batter-type and
foam-type cakes. Batter-type cakes (for example, cream cake, pound
cake) contain significant levels of fat. Their batters can be regarded
as emulsions (Frye & Setser, 1991; Miller, Dann, Oakley, Anger-
mayer, & Brackebusch, 2017). Foam-type cakes, such as angel food
and sponge cakes, contain only small levels of fat, as their recipes do
not mention margarine, shortening, or oil. Their batters can be de-
scribed as foams. However, the terminology used in the literature
is sometimes ambiguous, as the term sponge cake has been used for
systems containing added fat (Hao et al., 2016; Rodrı́guez-Garcı́a,
Sahi, & Hernando, 2014; Ronda, Gómez, Blanco, & Caballero,
2005; Sahi & Alava, 2003). Additionally, cakes that can be con-
sidered to be a combination of foam-type and batter-type cakes are
sometimes referred to as chiffon cakes. A chiffon cake batter is both
an emulsion and a foam (Kim, Park, & Shin, 2014).
CRF3-2019-0105 Submitted 4/29/2019, Accepted 7/11/2019. Authors Gode-
froidt, Ooms, Brijs, and Delcour are with Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Biochem-
istry and Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), KU Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 20 box 2463, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium. Author Pareyt is with
Puratos NV, Industrialaan 25, B-1702 Groot-Bijgaarden, Belgium. Direct inquiries
to author Godefroidt (E-mail: thibault.godefroidt@kuleuven.be).
cakes. While the recipes of the former contain more sugar than
flour, those of the latter contain maximally as much sugar as flour
(Conforti, 2014; Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). Angel food cake is
an example of a high-ratio cake, while pound cake (or quatre quarts
cake) is an example of a low-ratio cake. The term sponge cake has
been used to describe both low-ratio (Çelik, Yilmaz, Işik, & Üstün,
2006; Choi & Baik, 2014; Pycarelle et al., 2019) and high-ratio
cakes (Shepherd & Yoell, 1976).
The above complexity and lack of clear nomenclature impede
our understanding of ingredient functionality during cake mak-
ing and make it difficult to compare data reported by different
researchers.
In this review, we focus on ingredient functionality in foam-
type cake making. Most published articles have described different
recipes, mentioned trial-and-error approaches, and provided lit-
tle information on ingredient functionality. This has resulted in
a limited understanding of the role of different ingredients and
their constituents in foam-type cake making. Where possible, we
identify current knowledge gaps and speculate on ingredient func-
tionality, based on insights from other bakery products in general
and from batter-type cake products in particular. Therefore, prior
to dealing with foam-type cake making, we first briefly describe
the preparation of batter-type cake batters and their conversion into
cakes.
Batter-Type Cake Production
Batter-type cakes can be prepared according to “multistage” or
“single-stage” mixing methods (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). In
multistage methods, margarine/oil and sugar are first creamed
together to form a light foam with air bubbles incorporated in
the solid fat or oil phase (Hui, Corke, De Leyn, Nip, & Cross,
2014). Afterwards, liquid eggs are added, the water component
of which dissolves the sugar. The batter changes from a water-
in-oil emulsion to an oil-in-water emulsion, while the air is still
contained in the margarine fragments or fat phase. The oil–water
interface is stabilized by the lipoproteins of the egg yolk (Mine,


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1550 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 18, 2019 doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12488
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
Figure 1–Classification of cake types made from batters or foams, with chiffon cakes meeting both classifications; batter-type cakes contain significant
levels of fat. Foam-type cakes contain only small levels thereof. Sometimes the term sponge cake is also used for systems containing added fat.
High-ratio cakes are made from recipes containing more sugar than flour and low-ratio cakes from recipes containing less sugar than flour or maximally
the same quantities of sugar and flour.
1995; Pyler & Gorton, 2009). Finally, wheat flour is mixed in. The
resultant cake batter contains a fat phase with air and water cells
incorporated in it. This fat phase is present in the aqueous phase as
an emulsion. Some proteins and sugar are dissolved in the aqueous
phase, while flour particles are suspended in it (Lambrecht, Deleu,
Rombouts, & Delcour, 2018).
In single-stage mixing methods, all ingredients are mixed at
once, and air bubbles are introduced in the aqueous rather than in
the fat phase. They are mainly stabilized by egg and flour proteins
and egg yolk lipids. The margarine/oil is dispersed in the aqueous
phase (Brooker, 1993).
Thus, depending on the mixing method, air–water, oil–water,
and air–oil interfaces may be present in the batter (Wilderjans,
Luyts, Brijs, & Delcour, 2013). During early baking of batter-type
cakes, batter viscosity decreases to about 10% of its initial read-
ing due to the melting of fat crystals and the inverse relationship
between temperature and viscosity (Shelke, Faubion, & Hoseney,
1990; Wilderjans et al., 2013). As a result, gas cell coalescence,
disproportionation, and rise in these cake systems can occur. Bub-
ble rise—the diffusion of gas cells to the surface of the foam—is
caused by a difference in density (ρ) between the liquid and the
air phase, and by the presence of large gas cells (Langevin, 2000).
These large cells result from coalescence, that is, the merging of
smaller gas cells to form larger ones (Schramm, 2006), and gas
cell disproportionation, that is, the diffusion of gas from smaller to
larger cells, which itself is driven by the larger internal pressure in
small gas cells (Dickinson, 2010). Ideally, batter viscosity remains
high enough during baking to minimize gas cell loss (Handleman,
Conn, & Lyons, 1961). Furthermore, too-low viscosity can lead
to phase separation and starch granule deposits. This leads to the
formation of a gummy layer at the bottom of the baked cake and
results in collapse of the cake structure (Miller, Trimbo, & Sandst-
edt, 1967; Wilderjans, Pareyt, Goesaert, Brijs, & Delcour, 2008).
In the late-baking phase, the structure of the cake is set as a result

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®
of starch swelling and protein network formation, the latter being
due to protein denaturation and coagulation (Guy & Pithawala,
1981). Structure setting can be detected as a steep increase in
batter viscosity during baking (Wilderjans, Luyts, Goesaert, Brijs,
& Delcour, 2010c). For an extensive review on ingredient func-
tionality in batter-type cakes, the interested reader is referred to
Wilderjans et al. (2013) and to Lambrecht et al. (2018), who in
particular focused on (mixed) protein network formation in pound
cake making.
Foam-Type Cake Production
Batter preparation
Foam-type cake recipes mainly contain flour, sugar, and eggs.
However, as shown in Table 1, many recipe variants exist (Çelik
et al., 2006; Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017; Oldham, McComber, & Cox,
2000; Pycarelle et al., 2019; Shepherd & Yoell, 1976). A major
distinction is made between angel food and sponge cakes. Angel food
cake recipes contain only egg white and no egg yolk, while those
of sponge cake contain both fractions (Figure 1). The ingredients
are mixed into a batter by either multistage or single-stage mixing.
Due to the presence of low levels of fat, (part of) the ingredi-
ents can be beaten together into a liquid foam (Schramm, 2006),
that is, a system containing an air phase in a liquid. As liquid
foams are intrinsically unstable, their gas cells need to be stabilized
to avoid bubble coalescence, disproportionation, and rise (Dick-
inson, 2010). This is typically achieved by using surface-active
components, which decrease the interfacial tension between both
phases (Wilde, 2000).
It is important to incorporate as many air bubbles as possible in
the foam during mixing, as no additional air bubbles are formed
later on in the process (Conforti, 2014). The amount and size
distribution of incorporated air cells are important for the volume
and the texture of the cakes (Brooker, 1993; Handleman et al.,
1961). For this purpose, some recipes include an acid to reduce
Vol. 18, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1551
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
Table 1–Different recipes for foam-type cakes; ingredients are listed on relative weight basis.
Angel food cake
Oldham et al. (2000) Jarpa-Parra et al. (2017)
Flour 100 100
Sugar 267 175
Egg white 307 325
Egg yolk 0 0
Leavening agent 0 0
Cream of tartar 7.4 0 0
Water 0 0
Milk 0 0
Maize starch 0 25
Rice starch 0 0
batter pH, which facilitates whipping of the egg white (Delcour
& Hoseney, 2010; Jarpa-Parra et al., 2017). In essence, foam-type
batter can be prepared by multistage mixing or single-stage mixing.
Multistage mixing. In multistage mixing, at first the egg white
and part of the sugar are whipped into a foam, and the egg yolk and
another part of the sugar are whipped to form a second one. The
foams are then combined, and the other ingredients, including
flour and leavening agent, are carefully folded into the foam to
ensure it is not disrupted (Conforti, 2014; Delcour & Hoseney,
2010). Gas cells in the batter are stabilized by the surface-active
components, which are naturally contained in the ingredients (that
is, egg and flour proteins and lipids) and reduce the impact of the
aforementioned destabilization processes (Campbell, Raikos, &
Euston, 2003; Johnson & Zabik, 1981a; Mine, 1995).
Single-stage mixing. From a practical point of view, it is ben-
eficial to mix all ingredients in a single step. It is indeed possible
to add all ingredients at once to form foam-type cake batter, but
this requires that interface-stabilizing surfactants/emulsifiers (that
is, amphiphilic lipids) be used to stabilize the air–water interface
(Richardson, Langton, Fäldt, & Hermansson, 2002).
To avoid confusion with the natively present surface-active
egg and flour proteins and lipids, the term “surfactants” is used
throughout this manuscript only to describe these addition-
ally added surface-active compounds. When surfactants are in-
cluded in the recipe, the natively present surface-active compo-
nents no longer contribute substantially to the stability of the
air–water interface (Campbell et al., 2003; Johnson & Zabik,
1981a; Mine, 1995). This is the case in industrial foam-type cake
making.
Baking
During the early baking phase, as a result of the increase in tem-
perature, gas bubbles grow due to air expansion, water evaporation,
decreased gas solubility in the aqueous phase, and carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) formation by the leavening agent(s) (Delcour & Hoseney,
2010; Willhoft, 1973).
The volume increase during baking as a result of steam pro-
duction and temperature increase is sufficient in fat-free foam-type
cakes. Thus, the volume of fat-free cake systems (for example,
angel food cakes) is mainly determined by gas cell incorporation
during mixing and steam production during baking (Conforti,
2014; Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). Notwithstanding the above,
cream of tartar is often an ingredient of angel food cakes (Table 1).
However, when a source of fat, such as egg yolk, is introduced
during batter making, the foam is less stable and air incorporation
during mixing is somewhat restricted. To ensure sufficient rise
during baking of fat-containing batters, the use of a leavening
agent is recommended. Thus, sponge cake recipes, which contain
1552 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 18, 2019
Foam-type cake
Sponge cake
Pycarelle et al. (2019) Çelik et al. (2006) Shepherd and Yoell (1976)
100 100 100
87 100 108
62 78 49
23 36 26
4.0 1.6 5.0
0 0
32 0 0
0 0 48
0 0 0
11 0 0
egg yolk, generally also contain a leavening agent (Pycarelle et al.,
2019). A sponge cake’s volume is determined partly in the same
way as that in fat-free foam-type cakes, but it is also greatly affected
by gas cell inflation during baking, as influenced by leavening
agents (Conforti, 2014). As mentioned before, cake batter viscosity
decreases during baking for batter-type cakes. Although to the best
of our knowledge, no experimental data have been reported on
the viscosity development in foam-type batters during baking, a
decrease in batter viscosity is logically expected for these systems
as well. However, one can argue that the extent to which the
batter viscosity decreases differs from that in batter-type cakes, due
to the lack of solid fat. Furthermore, the initial viscosity of the
batter for foam-type cakes is higher than that for batter-type cakes
due to the large amount of incorporated gas cells and, if added,
the presence of surfactants (Chesterton, Meza, Moggridge, Sadd,
& Wilson, 2011). Gas cell loss and formation of starch deposits,
when batter viscosity is too low, can nevertheless be expected.
However, no concrete data regarding these cake defects have been
reported for foam-type cakes.
During the later baking phase, the cake matrix solidifies as a re-
sult of two gel-forming processes. The high temperatures reached
during baking lead to starch gelatinization and protein denat-
uration (Donovan & Mapes, 1976; Donovan, Mapes, Davis, &
Garibaldi, 1975; Guy & Pithawala, 1981). Proteins (partly) un-
fold and thereby expose previously buried hydrophobic amino
acid regions and sulfhydryl (SH) groups, which leads to protein
aggregation through both noncovalent and covalent bond forma-
tion. The temperature at which these processes occur depends on
both the water and sugar content of the batter (Donovan, 1977).
Adding sugar increases the temperatures at which starch gelatinizes
(Beleia, Miller, & Hoseney, 1996; Kim & Walker, 1992a, 1992b;
Perry & Donald, 2002; Slade & Levine, 1988; Spies & Hoseney,
1982) and protein denatures (Kaushik & Bhat, 1998). In model
systems containing sugar levels comparable to those in cake sys-
tems, both starch gelatinization and protein denaturation occur at
80 to 95 °C (Deleu et al., 2019; Donovan, 1977). The simul-
taneous occurrence of both phenomena (Mizukoshi, Maeda, &
Amano, 1980) results in a large increase in batter viscosity and
transforms the liquid batter into a solid cake structure (Shepherd
& Yoell, 1976). Since during baking, the bottom of the cake
reaches higher temperatures earlier than the middle and top of the
cake, structure setting first occurs at the bottom (Wilderjans et al.,
2010a). Structure setting of foam-type cakes may occur faster than
that of batter-type cakes. Indeed, some in-house experiments (data
not shown) indicate that foam-type cake batter heats up at a faster
rate than batter-type cake batter when baking similar batter vol-
umes under the same conditions. This may be due to differences
in the thermal diffusivity (α) of the cake batters. α is the thermal

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Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .

conductivity (k) divided by ρ and specific heat capacity at constant fractions (for example, gluten, amorphous starch) (Willhoft, 1973)
pressure (Sumnu & Sahin, 2008): and incorporated into the formed crystals. However, according to
Luyts et al. (2013), for batter-type cakes, moisture loss and starch
k retrogradation alone cannot account for the observed loss of cake
α =
ρ ∗ Cp softness during storage. They concluded that other phenomena
must also be in play. An explanation may be that due to the loss of
The k of batter can be estimated from the relative quantities of water, the protein network(s) present is no longer fully plasticized
constituents present in the system (Sumnu & Sahin, 2008). Singh and thus contributes to the loss of softness. In the case of bread
and Heldman (2013) presented an empirical model for predicting storage, Goesaert, Slade, Levine, and Delcour (2009) and Bosmans,
the k of food materials: Lagrain, Ooms, Fierens, and Delcour (2013) reported that both
moisture migration and inclusion of water in AP crystals reduce
k = 0.25Xcarbohydrate + 0.155 Xprotein + 0.16 Xfat
the moisture content of the biopolymer networks in the crumb
+ 0.135 Xash + 0.58 Xwater below the critical value necessary for full plasticization. The resul-
tant increase in stiffness of the gluten network was hypothesized
Xi is the mass fraction of component “i” in the system. It is to contribute to crumb firmness, especially during longer storage
clear from this formula that foam-type cake batters would typically of bread. Whether and to what extent the phenomena described
have a higher k than batter-type cake batters. Indeed, when low above contribute to foam-type cake firming are currently unclear
levels of fat are used in the recipe, the relative mass fraction of and deserve to be further investigated.
all other components increases. As especially the mass fraction of
water contributes largely to the k, low levels of fat result in a high Ingredient Functionality
k and α. Furthermore, the ρ of foam-type cake batter is lower than In the next part of this review, the functionality of the different
that of batter-type cake batter, which also leads to a higher α of ingredients during foam-type cake making is thoroughly discussed.
foam-type cake batter compared to that of batter-type cake batter. Due to the importance of batter preparation resulting in a stable
Due to the release of CO2 (when a leavening agent is used) and foam, and the role that it plays therein, the (proposed) working
water vapor during baking, the pressure inside the gas cells of the mechanism(s) of surface-active components is described first.
cake batter increases. They rapidly expand, and their extensible
cell walls support the expansion (Bell, Berger, Russo, White, & Surface-active components
Weathers, 1975). However, at a certain point, the gas cell walls Surface-active components can be divided into two classes—
rupture, gas is released, and the pressure in the open cells drops. surface-active lipids (for example, detergents, emulsifiers) and
When this happens before the structure has been set, cake collapse polymers (for example, proteins). Surface-active components are
occurs (Gough, Whitehouse, Greenwood, & Miller, 1978). amphiphilic (Wilde, 2000). Their hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions orient themselves towards a polar and nonpolar phase, re-
Cooling and storage spectively. In foam-type cake systems, these components stabilize
The structure of freshly baked cake (which now can be con- the air–water interface by reducing the interfacial tension (Hasen-
sidered as a solid foam [Kiosseoglou & Paraskevopoulou, 2014]) heuttl & Hartel, 2008). Previous studies have shown that both
determines whether or not it collapses during cooling (Guy & surface-active lipids and proteins stabilize foams, albeit by differ-
Pithawala, 1981). High-ratio cakes are more prone to collapse than ent mechanisms.
low-ratio cakes (Gough et al., 1978). In the former, starch gela- When surface-active proteins unfold and adsorb at the interface,
tinization occurs at higher temperatures than in the latter. This they lower the interfacial tension. Once protein starts to unfold, its
potentially results in starch granules that are not sufficiently swollen hydrophobic regions orient themselves towards the air phase (that
and not fully connected (Bean, Yamazaki, & Donelson, 1978) or is, the nonpolar phase) while the remaining (mainly hydrophilic)
too far apart from each other to make contact (Wilderjans et al., regions align themselves towards the aqueous phase (that is, the
2013). polar phase) (Mackie & Wilde, 2005). As the majority of the hy-
The protein network formed during baking also contributes to drophobic regions are initially buried within the folded protein,
the strength of the cake structure (Wilderjans et al., 2010c). The proteins that are partly adsorbed at the interface unfold further.
presence of a more extensive protein network has been linked to The unfolded hydrophobic regions then further decrease the inter-
a higher resistance to collapse. Indeed, Wilderjans et al. (2008) facial tension and interact with neighboring protein molecules, re-
found that an increased level of gluten protein in wheat flour sulting in strong viscoelastic films, which surround gas cells (Chen
improves cake volume and reduces the extent to which batter-type & Dickinson, 1998; Murray, 2007). Globular proteins impede co-
cakes collapse. alescence very efficiently since they easily form viscoelastic films
When cakes are stored, they firm over time. This is mainly surrounding the gas cells (Mitchel, 1986). This is also the case in
caused by moisture migration and amylopectin (AP) retrogradation foam-type cake making, as the main surface-active proteins present
(cfr. the section titled “Wheat flour”) (Gélinas, Roy, & Guillet, in the recipe are globular. However, the stabilization process occurs
1987; Hesso et al., 2015b). at a slow rate. Indeed, while flexible proteins unfold at a fast rate
There are significant moisture gradients in fresh cakes as a re- and decrease the interfacial tension quickly, globular proteins do
sult of the temperature gradients during baking. The crust has a so more slowly because of a larger contribution of intramolecular
much lower water content than the crumb . During storage, water bonds stabilizing the structures of the latter (Mitchel, 1986).
migrates from the crumb to the crust, and from the crust to the The presence of sucrose in the recipe has been suggested to
environment (Guy, 1983; Luyts et al., 2013). AP retrogradation impact the foaming properties of cake batter. On the positive
also contributes to cake firming. During storage, the previously side, it increases batter viscosity and thus foam stability (Zhu &
gelatinized AP transforms from an amorphous state to a (partially) Damodaran, 1994). On the negative side, it increases the confor-
crystalline state. In the process, water is withdrawn from different mational stability of proteins in the batter, which leads to a delay in


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Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
protein unfolding. The reduced protein unfolding then results in
a delayed stabilization of the air–water interface in the cake batter
(Kulmyrzaev, Bryant, & McClements, 2000; Semenova, Antipova,
& Belyakova, 2002).
Surface-active lipids are more mobile than surface-active pro-
teins. They rapidly move to the air–water interface, resulting in a
fluid-like film, which stabilizes gas cells (Murray, 2007). Although
lipid films are formed more rapidly than protein films, the resulting
foams are less stable (Mackie & Wilde, 2005).
When both surface-active proteins and lipids are present, they
compete at the air–water interface, resulting in a foam with lower
stability than when it contains only protein or lipid (Wilde, 2000).
When a recipe contains both surface-active proteins and lipids,
a stable foam can be prepared by using multistage mixing meth-
ods (cfr. the section titled “Multistage mixing”). However, when
surfactants are used, a stable foam can be prepared in a single
step (Hasenheuttl & Hartel, 2008; Richardson et al., 2002). These
surfactants are generally low molecular weight amphiphilic lipids
(Mackie & Wilde, 2005). When surfactants are added in concen-
trations typically used in industrial cake making, the effect of both
the surface-active proteins and lipids from the other ingredients
(that is, flour, eggs) on foam stability is presumably negligible since
the interface is predominantly occupied by the added surfactants
(Hasenheuttl & Hartel, 2008; Sahi & Alava, 2003). Added surfac-
tants do not only increase foam stability, they also affect gas cell
size and distribution (Brooker, 1993).
Wheat flour
The dominant wheat species is common wheat (Triticum aes-
tivum L). In North American terminology, T. aestivum is divided
into hard and soft wheat cultivars. Said terminology is based on the
force required to crush the wheat kernels during milling. Gen-
erally, hard wheat flour is used to make bread and pastry prod-
ucts, while soft wheat flour is used to produce cake, pancakes, and
cookies (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). Foam-type cakes are also made
from soft wheat flour. It consists of starch (about 70% to 75%),
water (about 14%), proteins (about 8% to 11%), lipids (about 2%
to 3%), and nonstarch polysaccharides (about 2% to 3%) (Goe-
saert et al., 2005; Wilderjans et al., 2013). To determine whether
a certain kind of wheat flour is suited for high-quality foam-type
cake production, its solvent retention capacity is often tested to
assess flour quality (Kweon, Slade, & Levine, 2011). Regarding
cake systems, wheat flour with a low water retention capacity is
preferred (Moiraghi, de la Hera, Pérez, & Gómez, 2013).
Wheat starch consists of the glucose polymers amylose (AM,
about 25% to 28%) and AP (about 72% to 75%) (Tester, Karkalas,
& Qi, 2004). AM is a small, essentially linear polymer consisting
of mainly α-(1,4)-linked D-glucopyranosyl units and a small level
of α-(1,6)-linked glucopyranosyl units. It contains 500 to 6,000
glucose residues. AP is a large, highly branched polymer that con-
sists of α-(1,4)- and α-(1,6)-linked glucopyranosyl units. It has a
degree of polymerization of 3 × 105 to 3 × 106 glucose units. In
wheat flour, starch is present in the form of native granules with a
diameter of about 5 to 40 μm (Goesaert et al., 2005). At ambient
temperatures and in an excess of water, intact starch granules can
absorb up to about 30% of their dry weight in water, resulting
in some granule swelling (Goesaert et al., 2005). During wheat
milling, some starch granules are damaged. The resulting dam-
aged starch granules can absorb about 100% of their dry weight in
water, leading to a pronounced effect on flour water absorption
and batter viscosity (Manley, Pareyt, & Delcour, 2011; Yamazaki
& Kissel, 1978).
1554 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 18, 2019
In cake systems, (damaged) starch granules can be assumed to
compete with sucrose and proteins for water. This presumably
limits the portion of water available for starch hydration (Miller &
Trimbo, 1965) and impacts batter viscosity (Howard, Hughes, &
Strobel, 1968).
Starch granules potentially contribute to the stability of the
air–water interface of sponge cake batter (Lam, Velikov, & Velev,
2014; Saari, Heravifar, Rayner, Wahlgren, & Sjöö, 2016). Said
stabilization of interfaces by particles is referred to as Pickering
stabilization (Li, Li, Sun, & Yang, 2013; Ramsden & Gotch, 1903).
The particles function as a physical barrier between gas cells and
thereby increase gas cell stability (Tcholakova, Denkov, & Lips,
2008). Whether and to what extent starch granules contribute to
foam-type cake batter stability is currently unclear.
During baking, starch granules absorb larger amounts of water
than at ambient temperatures. In excess water, the granules swell,
AP crystals melt, AM can leach out of the granules, and the gran-
ules’ molecular order is irreversibly lost. The latter phenomenon
is on the basis of the definition of starch gelatinization (Delcour &
Hoseney, 2010). The temperature at which these transitions take
place is called the gelatinization temperature, Tm . In excess water,
wheat starch gelatinization occurs between 50 and 57 °C (Del-
cour & Hoseney, 2010). However, starch gelatinization in cake
systems occurs at higher temperatures (about 80 to 95 °C) since it
is heavily influenced by the presence of sucrose in the batter (cfr.
the section titled “Sucrose”) (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010; Perry &
Donald, 2002; Slade & Levine, 1988; Spies & Hoseney, 1982).
Once starch gelatinization has started during cake making, the
granules swiftly swell and thus increase in diameter more than in
the production of bakery products containing less/no sucrose (for
example, bread) (Bean & Yamazaki, 1978; Beleia et al., 1996).
According to Howard et al. (1968) and Gough et al. (1978), dur-
ing baking, starch needs to swell to a degree that ensures contact
between granules. At that point, structure setting occurs. How-
ever, these authors do not elaborate on the exact mechanisms by
which starch and its transitions during baking determine crumb
setting. During storage of fully baked cakes, AP retrogradation
occurs. Previously gelatinized AP transforms from an amorphous
state to a crystalline state. The formation of these crystals, along
with the associated redistribution of water, contributes to the in-
creased crumb hardness during cake storage (cfr. the section titled
“Cooling and storage”) (Willhoft, 1973).
Wheat proteins consist of about 15% to 20% nongluten pro-
teins (albumin and globulin) and about 80% to 85% gluten pro-
teins (gliadin and glutenin), which can be separated by sequential
extraction with different solvents (Osborne, 1907; Veraverbeke &
Delcour, 2002). Wheat gliadin can further be divided into α-,
β-, and ω-gliadin. The latter contains no SH groups or disul-
fide (SS) bonds, whereas α- and β-gliadins contain SS bonds.
Glutenins are large, high molecular weight proteins composed
of different subunits that are linked by SS bonds. In addition to
SS bonds, glutenins also contain free SH groups (Delcour & Ho-
seney, 2010). Wheat gluten protein can hold up to 200% of its own
weight in water (Manley et al., 2011). In an excess of water and
upon input of sufficient mechanical energy, it can form a network
that is responsible for the viscoelastic properties of bread dough.
However, in batter-type cake batter, both sugar and fat are present
at high levels. This limits gluten hydration during batter mixing
(Hesso et al., 2015a; Hesso et al., 2015c). Thus, the large propor-
tion of sucrose and fat and the small proportion of gluten limit
gluten network formation (Hesso et al., 2015d). The presence of
high and low levels of sucrose and fat (from egg yolk and wheat),

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
respectively, in foam-type cake batter likely has a similar effect. Even
if, at best, only limited gluten network formation occurs at the
batter stage, gluten development is considered to be important for
the final (batter-type) cake structure (Donelson & Wilson, 1960).
Work on pound cakes has indicated that higher levels of gluten
limit postbaking cake collapse and thus result in cakes that have
larger volumes (Wilderjans et al., 2008). Also, wheat flour gliadin
can form cross-links with certain egg proteins that are abundantly
present in cake batter (Deleu, Wilderjans, Van Haesendonck, Brijs,
& Delcour, 2016). Thus, pound cake contains a mixed protein net-
work consisting of wheat and egg proteins (Lambrecht et al., 2018).
The most important egg protein in these reactions is ovalbumin
(OVA). Since gliadin contains no free SH groups, OVA and gliadin
react through SH/SS exchange during the baking phase, partic-
ularly at high temperatures. Logically, only α- and β-gliadins are
incorporated into the protein network this way, as ω-gliadins con-
tain neither SH groups nor SS bonds (Deleu et al., 2016). Glutenin
is also believed to take part (Wilderjans et al., 2008; Wilderjans
et al., 2010c).
Similar experiments on reactions of protein in foam-type cake
systems are currently lacking. Presumably, gluten functionality in
foam-type cakes differs to some degree from that in batter-type cake
systems. When the multistage mixing method is used, egg white
proteins form a foam during the first whipping step, before any
flour (and thus gluten) is added. Whether this reduces the degree
to which gluten and egg white proteins interact or react during
baking is unclear at present. Also, the use of surfactants in single-
stage mixing leads to interactions between the added surfactant
and the different protein fractions. These differences show that
there is room for additional research on gluten functionality in
foam-type cake systems.
Wheat lipids consist of internal starch lipids (about 40%) and free
and bound nonstarch lipids (about 60%). Starch lipids are predom-
inantly polar and mainly consist of phospholipids (Pareyt, Finnie,
Putseys, & Delcour, 2011). Nonstarch lipids are mainly nonpolar
lipids (for example, triacylglycerols, free fatty acids), glycolipids,
and phospholipids (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). During mixing of
bread dough, free wheat lipids bind to gluten in a process often
referred to as lipid binding (Gerits, Pareyt, & Delcour, 2013). Ac-
cording to McCann, Small, Batey, Wrigley, and Day (2009), the
free wheat lipids are retained by the gluten network due to hy-
drophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds. The binding of wheat
lipids with gliadins potentially increases the complexes’ ability to
orient themselves at the air–water interface (Pareyt et al., 2011).
Polar wheat lipids are surface active (Sroan & MacRitchie,
2009). As mentioned above (cfr. the section titled “Surface-active
components”), in foam-type cake batter containing no added sur-
factants, wheat flour lipids compete at the air–water interface with
surface-active proteins. This potentially negatively affects foam sta-
bility. In this context, Pycarelle et al. (2019) have recently shown
that free flour lipids, in particular, negatively impact cake volume
and texture.
During cooling, some wheat lipids interact with AM to
form AM-lipid crystalline complexes (Goderis, Putseys, Gommes,
Bosmans, & Delcour, 2014; Putseys, Lamberts, & Delcour, 2010).
Such complexes result in soft bread crumb as they impact the
extent to which AM self-crystallizes (Krog, 1971; Pareyt et al.,
2011). Additionally, some authors claim that AP-lipid complexes
may be formed as well and that these would decrease the extent of
crumb firming during storage (Huang & White, 1993; Nakazawa
& Wang, 2004). However, the effect of AP-lipid complex forma-
tion on bread crumb firming is disputed by others (Gerits, Pareyt,

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®
Decamps, & Delcour, 2014; Purhagen, Sjöö, & Eliasson, 2011).
As all previous research has been on bread systems, the question
remains whether and, if so, how AM-lipid complexes affect cake
crumb during storage.
Eggs
Hen eggs consist of multiple fractions, that is, egg white
(about 65%) and egg yolk (about 35%), and a shell. The whole
egg contains about 75% water, 13% protein, 11% lipid, and 1%
carbohydrate (Deleu et al., 2015).
Egg white mainly consists of water (about 88%), protein (about
11%), and a minimal level of carbohydrates (Bennion & Bamford,
1997). The protein component comprises many different proteins,
including OVA (54%), ovotransferrin (12%), ovomucoid (11%),
ovoglobulin (8%), ovomucin (3.5%), and lysozyme (3.4%) (Mine,
1995).
Egg yolk contains water (about 50%), lipids (about 34%), and
proteins (about 16%). The lipids are mainly triacylglycerols (66%),
phospholipids (28%), and cholesterol (5%). The major egg yolk
proteins are livetin (30%), phosvitin (11%), and lipoproteins, which
are low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (23%) and high-density lipopro-
tein (35%) (Anton, 2007).
Egg proteins and lipids in cake batter making. As thoroughly
discussed above (cfr. the section titled “Surface-active compo-
nents”), in cake recipes containing added surfactants (for example,
those for single-stage sponge cakes), the interface is mainly stabi-
lized by said surfactants (Figure 2B[b]).
When no additional surfactants are used during foam-type bat-
ter making, the surface-active components from both egg white
and egg yolk greatly contribute to the stability of the air–water
interface by forming a strong viscoelastic (in the case of proteins)
or a fluid-like (in the case of lipids) film around the gas cells
(Damodaran, 2006; Wilde, 2000).
In cake recipes containing no egg yolk (for example, those for
angel food cakes), egg white proteins in general (Hui et al., 2014),
and egg white globulins and OVA in particular, are excellent foam-
ing agents (Abu-Ghoush, Herald, & Aramouni, 2010; Johnson &
Zabik, 1981a).
Moreover, the foaming capacity of egg white is generally at-
tributed to interactions between its different proteins (for exam-
ple, lysozyme–OVA) (Johnson & Zabik, 1981b; Poole, West, &
Walters, 1984), and, more in particular, to electrostatic and hy-
drophobic interactions (Mine, 1995). Also, when OVA adsorbs
at the interface, it rearranges itself and thereby exposes its pre-
viously buried free SH groups. The freed SH groups can then
form intermolecular SS bonds, which strengthen the foam (Doi
& Kitabatake, 2012; Kitabatake & Doi, 1987). A schematic rep-
resentation of gas cell stabilization by egg white proteins in angel
food cake batter is given in Figure 2B(a). To improve the foaming
capacity of egg white proteins, cream of tartar is often part of angel
food cake recipes (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010). It brings the batter
pH closer to the isoelectric point of the egg white proteins. Due to
the reduced electrostatic repulsions near the isoelectric point, the
proteins can then pack closer together at the interface, resulting in
more stable foams (Oldham et al., 2000).
In cake recipes containing both egg white and egg yolk (for
example, those for sponge cakes prepared by multistage mix-
ing), proteins from both fractions stabilize the air–water interface
(Kiosseoglou, 2004; Kiosseoglou & Paraskevopoulou, 2014). In
general, egg yolk proteins have both gel-forming and emulsifying
properties (Bennion & Bamford, 1997; Kamat, Lawrence, Hart, &
Vol. 18, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1555
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .

Figure 2–(A) Schematic representation of the major surface-active components in foam-type cake systems; the protein can originate from different
sources (that is, egg white, egg yolk, or wheat flour). The only pictured surface-active lipid is low-density lipoprotein (LDL), due to its importance
regarding surface stability. Added surfactants mainly consist of amphiphilic lipids, and by way of example are pictured here as micelles. (B) Schematic
representation of the stabilization mechanisms of the air–water interface in different foam-type cake systems; Pickering stabilization, that is, the
stabilization of interfaces by particles, has not been taken into account. Angel food cake (a), sponge cake with surfactants (b), and sponge cake
without surfactants (c) are portrayed.

1556 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 18, 2019 
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Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
Yoell, 1973). Egg yolk lipids contribute to the stabilization of the
interface as well (Dauphas, Beaumal, Riaublanc, & Anton, 2006).
In the multistage mixing method, first, a stable egg white foam
is created by mixing the egg white with part of the sucrose.
No source of lipids is present in this step, and the air–water
interface is stabilized by only surface-active egg white proteins
(Figure 2B[c1]). Likewise, egg yolk and part of the sucrose are
beaten together into a second foam. The latter is mainly stabilized
by surface-active lipids. The egg yolk LDLs represent the most
flexible surface-active lipids in this fraction and easily adsorb at
the interface (Dauphas et al., 2006; Kamat et al., 1973). This is
illustrated in Figure 2B(c2). In the next step, both foam fractions
and the other ingredients are gently folded into each other to
ensure minimal air loss (Conforti, 2014). One can argue that the
gas cells retained at this stage are already stabilized by the surface-
active components present in the foam fractions from which they
originate, which would result in a foam in which both protein-
and lipid-stabilized gas cells co-exist (Figure 2B[c4]). However,
redistribution of surface-active components over the air–water in-
terface likely occurs at least to some extent. As some air bubbles are
typically lost when other ingredients are folded into the foam, part
of the surface-active components may again become available for
association at the air–water interface. This would result in com-
petition between the surface-active lipids and proteins and lead to
mixed interfaces (Figure 2B[c3]) (Mackie & Wilde, 2005; Murray,
2007). The different components contributing to foam stability in
different foam-type cake systems are shown in Figure 2A, while an
overview of the (presumed) mechanisms by which foam stability
is increased in foam-type cake systems is given in Figure 2B.
Egg proteins in cake baking. During baking, egg proteins fur-
ther denature and coagulate to form a protein network (Guy &
Pithawala, 1981) at roughly the same time at which starch gela-
tinizes. Both phenomena together determine the cake structure
(Campbell et al., 2003; Pyler & Gorton, 2009). Cake has been
described as having a “brick and mortar” structure, in which the
starch granules are the bricks and the protein network is the mortar
that holds said bricks together (Wilderjans et al., 2013). The pro-
tein network is formed as a result of hydrophobic and electrostatic
interactions and covalent SS bonds between different proteins (Ma
& Holme, 1982). A predominant contribution to network forma-
tion occurs when OVA, the only egg white protein with free SH
groups, denatures at about 84 °C (Donovan et al., 1975). Deleu
et al. (2017) have suggested that egg white and egg yolk pro-
teins coagulate through SH/SS exchange reactions. Additionally,
gluten proteins also take part in protein network formation (cfr.
the section titled “Wheat flour”) (Lambrecht et al., 2018). All
egg white proteins are thought to be incorporated in the final
mixed protein network, as are most egg yolk and wheat gluten
proteins. Phosvitin (from egg yolk) and ω-gliadin are not incor-
porated in said network through covalent SS bonds, due to these
proteins containing neither free SH groups nor SS bonds (Deleu,
Wilderjans, Van Haesendonck, Brijs, & Delcour, 2017). If they
do contribute to the protein network, it most likely is through
hydrophobic or electrostatic interactions.
Sucrose
Sucrose is the most commonly used sugar in bakery products
(Bennion & Bamford, 1997). It is a nonreducing disaccharide
consisting of fructose and glucose linked by an α-(1,2) glycosidic
bond. Sucrose is used for sweetness, to increase shelf-life, and for
some of its many important technological functions.

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 18, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1557
Impact of sucrose on batter preparation. According to Zhu and
Damodaran (1994), during foam-type batter preparation, sucrose
does not increase foamability, but it does increase foam stability.
The latter is due to it increasing batter viscosity, which is important
for air bubble stabilization during mixing (Shelke et al., 1990).
Sucrose also improves the conformational stability of the protein
in the batter (Kulmyrzaev et al., 2000). This results in slower
adsorption of the more stable proteins at the interface, which
negatively affects foamability (Clarkson, Cui, & Darton, 2000).
Additionally, sucrose interacts with water, which in turn results in
lower availability of water for the other components. This leads to
limited gluten network formation (cfr. the section titled “Wheat
flour”) (Baxter & Hester, 1958; Meiske, Jones, & Jones, 1960).
Impact of sucrose on baking. When present in aqueous media,
sucrose increases both the starch gelatinization and protein denat-
uration temperatures (Beleia et al., 1996; Kim & Walker, 1992a,
1992b; Pareyt, Brijs, & Delcour, 2009; Perry & Donald, 2002;
Slade & Levine, 1988; Spies & Hoseney, 1982). Although multiple
hypotheses have been proposed, the exact mechanism behind the
effect of sucrose on gelatinization of starch is uncertain (Pareyt &
Delcour, 2008). It has been suggested that sucrose competes with
starch for water and thus lowers water activity, resulting in higher
starch Tm s (Spies & Hoseney, 1982). However, studies by Chiotelli,
Rolée, and Le Meste (2000) have shown that sugar limiting water
availability is not the only reason why sugar increases the starch
Tm . When they replaced sugar by salt (which also interacts with
water) to obtain the same water activity, they noted that the starch
Tm increased, but to a smaller extent than when sugar was used.
Also, differential scanning calorimetry showed differences in Tm s
when starch was heated, either under limited water conditions or
in the presence of sugar solution, leading to the view that not only
sucrose–water, but also sucrose–starch interactions are responsible
for the increase in the starch Tm (Chiotelli et al., 2000). Accord-
ing to Gonera and Cornillon (2002), sucrose enters the starch
granules and interacts with AM in the amorphous regions. By
limiting AM’s flexibility, gelatinization is delayed. Similarly, Perry
and Donald (2002) (based on the work of Slade & Levine, 1988)
explained the increased starch Tm (in the presence of sucrose) as re-
sulting from the sucrose–water solvent characteristics. This solvent
is less plasticizing than pure water, resulting in a greater amount
of thermal energy being needed to initiate starch granule swelling
(Perry & Donald, 2002; Slade & Levine, 1988). Whatever is the
case, the presence of sucrose does delay the swelling of granules
in water, but once the swelling is initiated, it occurs at a faster
rate than the swelling of granules in water. The swollen gran-
ules also have larger diameters in the presence of sucrose (Bean
& Yamazaki, 1978). The presence of high levels of sucrose can
increase starch Tm significantly, even to temperatures exceeding
100 °C. This results in cakes with a weak structure that collapses
easily (Bean et al., 1978). An example is that of high-ratio batter-
type cakes. When no chlorinated flour is used for their production,
they are prone to collapse. The exact mechanisms by which flour
chlorination results in improved cake systems are outside the scope
of this article, but were recently (re-)evaluated by Bosmans, Peene,
Van Haesendonck, Brijs, and Delcour (2019). Similar results can
be expected for foam-type cake systems.
Multiple hypotheses explaining the effect of sucrose on protein
polymerization have been put forward. Protein denaturation tem-
peratures increase when water activity decreases (Donovan, 1977;
Donovan et al., 1975). Sucrose increases the thermal stability of
proteins. The hydration of proteins is different when the solvent
contains sucrose, due to the hydroxyl groups of sucrose forming
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .

Table 2–Commercially available leavening acids; NV = neutralizing value (Russel, 2018).

Chemical name Abbreviation Chemical formula NV Reaction rate

Inorganic acids
Monocalcium phosphate (monohydrate) MCP.M Ca(H2 PO4 )2 . H2 O 80 Very fast
Monocalcium phosphate (anhydrous) MCP.A Ca(H2 PO4 )2 83 Fast
Sodium acid pyrophosphate SAPP Na2 H2 P2 O7 72 Variable
Sodium aluminum phosphate (anhydrous) SALP.A Na3 H15 Al2 (PO4 )8 100 Slow
Sodium aluminum phosphate (hydrate) SALP.H NaH14 Al3 (PO4 )8 . 4H2 O 100 Slow
Sodium aluminum sulfate SAS Al2 (SO4 )3 . Na2 SO4 104 Moderate
Organic acids
Fumaric acid C4 H 4 O 4 145 Moderate
Glucono-delta-lactone GDL C6 H10 O6 45 Continuous
Cream of tartar C4 H5 KO6 45 Very fast
Tartaric acid C 4 H 6 O6 116 Very fast

hydrogen bonds with water. This results in the proteins being
less inclined to expose their hydrophobic groups in a sucrose–
water solution than in water, thus increasing their thermal stability
(Kaushik & Bhat, 1998; Uedaira & Uedaira, 1980).
Starch gelatinization and protein denaturation during baking re-
sult in the structure setting of sponge cakes. The moment at which
it occurs is critical, since it determines cake volume, texture, and
structure (Bennion & Bamford, 1997). In pound cake making,
when starch gelatinization and protein denaturation are delayed,
the oven rise continues for a longer period of time, resulting in
cakes of higher volume (Wilderjans et al., 2010a; Wilderjans et al.,
2010c; Wilderjans, Lagrain, Brijs, & Delcour, 2010b). A similar
effect is expected in foam-type cake systems. To obtain angel food
cakes of optimal volume, starch gelatinization and protein denatu-
ration should occur simultaneously. However, in cake systems, the
effect of sucrose on starch gelatinization is more pronounced than
that on protein denaturation (Donovan, 1977).
Leavening agents
During baking, the volume of the batter increases due to the
high temperature, the release of steam (H2 O vapor), and the
production of CO2 due to the presence of chemical leavening
agents (Willhoft, 1973). Foam-type cake recipes, which contain
small amounts of fat (that in wheat flour, such as in angel food
cakes), only need leavening by water vapor and not necessarily a
leavening agent to result in high-volume cakes (Conforti, 2014)
(cfr. the section titled “Baking”). However, foam-type cakes con-
taining fat from egg yolk (for example, sponge cakes) generally
contain leavening agents (Pycarelle et al., 2019).
Commercial leavening agents consist of an inert component, a
salt, and an acid (Heidolph, 1996). The salt and acid react with
each other in the liquid phase of the batter once they come into
contact with each other. They are kept separated by the inert
component (for example, dried starch) to prevent pre-emptive re-
action. Depending on the type of leavening agent, the salt and acid
used react during batter preparation (that is, early-acting leaven-
ing agent) or during the early-baking phase (that is, late-acting
leavening agent) (Cepeda, Waniska, Rooney, & Bejosano, 2000;
Russel, 2018). The most commonly used salt in cake making is
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 ) due to its high solubility in aque-
ous media, its price, and its reactivity (LaJoie & Thomas, 1994).
Multiple acids (HX) have been identified as being of interest, based
on the fact that their reaction with NaHCO3 can be controlled.
The main factor in the decision of which acid is to be used is
the desired moment of CO2 release. Essentially, this depends on
when the baking acid dissolves in the aqueous phase of the batter
(Adams & Waniska, 2002). Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acids
according to the following reaction, in which a neutral salt (NaX),
water (H2 O), and CO2 are formed (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010;
Lampila, 2013):
NaHCO3 + HX → NaX + H2 O + CO2
The acids commonly used are characterized by their neutralizing
value (NV), that is, the amount of base (NaHCO3 ) needed to
neutralize 100 parts of acid by weight (Holmes & Hoseney, 1987;
Russel, 2018). Some HXs and their characteristics, including NV,
can be found in Table 2. For example, fumaric acid (C4 H4 O4,
116 g/mole) has an NV of 145. Therefore, 145 g of NaHCO3 (84
g/mole) has to be used to neutralize 100 g of fumaric acid. The
NV can be calculated as follows:
MNaHCO3 · 100
NV =
MHX
The NV of HX dictates how much acid needs to be used to
ensure that all the NaHCO3 present is neutralized. Otherwise,
a change in pH would be detected (LaJoie & Thomas, 1991),
which can result in detrimental effects on cake taste or crumb
color (Delcour & Hoseney, 2010; Holmes & Hoseney, 1987). As
mentioned before, different HXs dissolve at different times during
cake making.
When CO2 is released prior to baking, the inflated gas cells
diffuse through the batter and are lost at the surface. Significant
gas cell coalescence can occur as well. Since CO2 can only expand
existing gas cells and not create new ones, the above can then
result in cakes of low volume and/or coarse crumb (Carlin, 1944).
In contrast, when HX acts too late, CO2 is only released at the
end of baking and thus at a moment when the gas cells are no
longer able to expand, because the cake matrix has already set at
that point in time. In said case, the late CO2 release can induce
cracks in the crumb or even cake collapse (Heidolph, 1996).
The HXs used are either inorganic or organic compounds.
Inorganic HXs are preferred since they allow for better control
of CO2 release, while organic acids generally result in (too) early
CO2 release (Book & Brill, 2015).
Leavening agents can be divided into two categories;
single-acting leavening agents contain one HX (for example,
sodium acid pyrophosphate [SAPP], Na2 H2 P2 O7 ) and release
CO2 either earlier or later during the cake-making process.
Double-acting leavening agents contain two HXs, typically an
early-acting and a late-acting one, for example, monocalcium
phosphate (Ca[H2 PO4 ]2 ) and sodium aluminum phosphate
(SALP, NaH14 Al3 [PO4 ]8 · 4H2 O), respectively (Lampila, 2013;

1558 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 18, 2019 
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Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
Russel, 2018). However, CO2 can also be formed due to thermal during baking, results in white fine-grained angel food cake, and
degradation of NaHCO3 in the following reaction: prevents collapse during storage (Conforti, 2014; Scheule & Ben-
nion, 2014).
2 NaHCO3 → Na2 CO3 + H2 O + CO2
Thermal degradation of dry NaHCO3 occurs at 110 °C and
at lower temperatures in the presence of water. As a result, when
not all NaHCO3 has reacted with HX by the end of baking
(that is, in the case of very-late-acting or insufficient HX), the
remaining NaHCO3 undergoes said reaction. CO2 is then released
after cake structure setting. However, only half of the potential
CO2 is released due to thermal degradation. As mentioned above,
the late release of CO2 can lead to cracks in the crumb and
cake collapse. An additional result is an inappropriate pH, which
potentially affects the sensory aspects of the final cake (Pop, 2007).
SALP has been one of the most commonly used inorganic bak-
ing HXs due to it being heat activated. It results in the release of
CO2 mainly during baking and thus in high-volume cakes. While
it is still a preferred HX in the United States, the use of aluminum
in leavening agents has been prohibited elsewhere (including Eu-
rope), resulting in the ban of both SALP and sodium aluminum
sulfate (NaAl[SO4 ]2 · 12H2 O). As a result, SAPP (Na2 H2 P2 O7 )
has become one of the most-used HXs in Europe. Its produc-
tion can be steered to obtain SAPPs, which, in combination with
NAHCO3 , result in different timings of gas release (Russel, 2018).
Both early-acting and late-acting SAPP HXs are distinguished and
denoted with a numbering system in which a number represents
the percentage of CO2 released under standard conditions in the
batter during 8 min of mixing at 27 °C (Heidolph, 1996). For
instance, SAPP15 releases 15% CO2 under said conditions.
The release of CO2 can be controlled by using cations, such as
those of calcium (Ca2+ ) or magnesium (Mg2+ ), which decrease
the solubility of SAPP, resulting in slower CO2 release (Book &
Brill, 2015; Russel, 2018). Additionally, cations in certain HXs
can contribute to the structure of the cake. It has been suggested
that they interact with the protein network and thereby increase
gas cell stability (Conn, 1981; Conn & Kichline, 1960). HXs also
impact cake pH and can affect cake color, with a lower pH being
associated with whiter cakes (Conn, 1981).
Generally, organic HXs dissolve rapidly in aqueous media.
Therefore, their use in leavening agents is limited (Heidolph,
1996). However, some organic HXs find use in cake leaven-
ing. Fast-acting organic HXs are used in double-acting leaven-
ing agents, in combination with a slow-acting baking acid (for
example, SAPP15 ).
Fumaric acid reacts either quickly or relatively slowly, depending
on its particle size. When a fine-powdered form is used, it dissolves
rapidly, resulting in fast CO2 release. However, granular fumaric
acid dissolves at a slower rate, and thus releases CO2 later in the
cake-making process. When it does not dissolve entirely during
baking, the remaining granular fumaric acid in the final cake results
in acidic hotspots (Heidolph, 1996), which have an undesirable
effect on cake color and taste.
Glucono-delta-lactone (C6 H10 O6 ) needs to be hydrolyzed to
gluconic acid before it reacts with NaHCO3 , thus causing it to re-
lease CO2 at a slower rate than most other organic acids (Heidolph,
1996). Cream of tartar is an HX used in angel food cake making
(Delcour & Hoseney, 2010), rather for its capacity to lower bat-
ter pH and thus alter protein conformation, which improves egg
white whipping characteristics (cfr. the section titled “Eggs”), than
for reacting with NaHCO3 to release CO2 . Additionally, due to
the effect of cream of tartar on batter pH, it decreases collapse

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 18, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1559
Conclusions
Foam-type cake ingredients have many and complex function-
alities. During batter preparation, it is imperative to create a sta-
ble foam and to incorporate a sufficient amount of gas cells in
the batter during mixing. Surfactants (when added) and surface-
active proteins and lipids contribute to foam stability by positioning
themselves at the air–water interface during mixing, and thereby
reduce surface tension. Sucrose ensures foam stability by increasing
batter viscosity.
During baking, cake volume rises due to the increase in pres-
sure in the gas cells beaten into the batter during mixing. This
increase is caused by the thermally driven expansion of gas, steam
formation, and CO2 release from the leavening agent (when used).
The cake structure sets during baking due to starch gelatinization
and protein denaturation. Sucrose delays both processes, but the
exact mechanism behind its effect on starch still remains unclear
and subject to debate. After baking, the cake structure can col-
lapse. Whether or not this happens depends on the ingredients,
the ratios in which they are used, and their reactions and/or inter-
actions during the production process. During storage, foam-type
cake softness decreases due to processes including water migration
and AP retrogradation.
Although parallels can be drawn between the functionality of
ingredients in batter-type cakes, foam-type cakes, and other bakery
products, this review clearly shows that there are still important
knowledge gaps concerning ingredient functionality in foam-type
cakes. The importance of Pickering stabilization by starch gran-
ules during batter preparation is unknown. Additionally, the im-
portance of gluten for cake quality has been discussed much more
for batter-type than for foam-type cakes. Also, while the effect of
sucrose on both starch gelatinization and protein denaturation has
been discussed thoroughly, no agreement has been reached regard-
ing the exact mechanism behind both processes. Finally, staling of
foam-type cakes is not fully understood.
Acknowledgments
This study is part of the Methusalem programme “Food for
the Future” at KU Leuven. Puratos (Groot-Bijgaarden, Belgium)
is thanked for financial support of KU Leuven’s cake research.
Dr. Lomme Deleu, Ir. Sarah Pycarelle, and Dr. Geertrui Bosmans
are thanked for helpful discussions. Dr. Brijs acknowledges the
Industrial Research Fund (KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium) for his
position as the industrial research manager. Prof. Delcour is W. K.
Kellogg Chair in Cereal Science and Nutrition at KU Leuven.
Author Contributions
The manuscript was drafted by Thibault Godefroidt in close
collaboration with Nand Ooms. They located and interpreted the
literature sources. Critical input and corrections were made by
Bram Pareyt, Kristof Brijs, and Jan A. Delcour. Thibault Gode-
froidt, Nand Ooms, and Jan A. Delcour were responsible for the
final editing of the manuscript.
List of Abbreviations
α Thermal diffusivity
AM Amylose
AP Amylopectin
Ingredient functionality in foam cake . . .
Cp Specific heat capacity
GDL Glucono-delta-lactone
k Thermal conductivity
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
MCP Monocalcium phosphate
NV Neutralizing value
OVA Ovalbumin
ρ Density
SALP Sodium aluminum phosphate
SAPP Sodium acid pyrophosphate
SAS Sodium aluminum sulfate
SH Sulfhydryl group
SS Disulfide bond
Tm Gelatinization temperature
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