30

CHAPTER 3

MODELING OF TWO AREA LFC SYSTEM IN

DEREGULATED ENVIRONMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The load on the power system is always varying, and power

consumption is increasing day by day. These load disturbances are affecting
the power system operation, causing frequency deviations, which in turn lead
to system instability. This problem can be solved by LFC, also known as
AGC (Elgerd 1983, Donde et al. 2001). The primary control loop and
secondary control loop are the two loops of LFC system. The speed governing
mechanism is acting as a primary loop, which makes generation and demand
equal, and is a fast acting loop. The secondary control loop which is a slow
acting loop does the fine adjustment of frequency. Thus secondary controller,
which is the speed changer setting control, makes the frequency error to zero
in minutes.

In designing an LFC system, at first modeling of various

components used in the power system is essential. The selection of the models
for power system components has to be done based on the system study. Also,
consciousness should be exercised in selecting the models to be used, with
reference to accuracy, and, on the difficulty level of the system under study,
thereby making the computational difficulty low. If the selected models of
power system components are not correct, this may lead to erroneous
conclusions. Therefore, for the analysis of a dynamic system is very important
to derive its mathematical model. By developing a linear model, the transfer
 31

function of the interconnected power system can be derived. For modeling an

LFC system, a limited number of components are required. The system
considered for investigation consists of two areas. Each area consists of a
governor, turbine, generator-load and a controller. Also, both areas are
interconnected by using normal ac tie-lines. Each component‟s output
depends on the input it receives from the previous component. The
mathematical models needed for LFC systems like speed governor, turbine,
and generator load are briefly reviewed (Nagrath & Kothari 2005). Then, the
model of single area LFC mechanism and tie-line model are derived. Also, the
mathematical prototype of a two area LFC system in a deregulated
environment is presented.

3.2 MODELING OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The real power in a power system is controlled by controlling the

electrical energy produced by the generator. The output of the generator
depends on the input it receives. By controlling the driving torques of the
individual turbines, the input mechanical energy given to the generator can be
controlled. The input to the turbine depends upon the amount by which the
control valve is varied, and, the control valve can be varied with the help of
speed governing mechanism, which is the primary goal of LFC.

3.2.1 Governor Model

Governor is a mechanical speed sensitive device which is used in

the power system for regulating the turbine speed by adjusting the control
valve. The representative diagram of the speed governing system is presented
in Figure 3.1.When the load on the power system changes, frequency also
changes. The speed is sensed by the speed governor, and, by controlling the
valve, turbine input is controlled, and thereby, the frequency is restored to a
normal value. The key objective of the LFC is the regulation of frequency
 32

when load variation occurs. By comparing the rotor speed  r and reference

speed  0 , the error signal  or ∆f is generated. The error signal is amplified,

and, is integrated to produce a control signal ∆XE, which actuates the main
steam supply valve.

The load reference setpoint can be employed for adjusting the

gate/valve positions, so that, on the occurrence of load variation, by valve
control, the generation can be made equal to demand, and thereby, frequency
deviation becomes zero.

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of speed governing system

The governor transfer function model is given in Equation (3.1)

 1  Kg
X E ( s)  PC ( s)  F ( s)  (3.1)
 R  1  sTg
 33

where ∆XE is the incremental change in valve/gate position

ΔPC is the load reference set point

Kg is the gain of the governor

R is the speed regulation of the governor in Hz/ pu

Tg is the governor time constant

∆f is the change in frequency

3.2.2 Turbine Model

A turbine is a mechanical device which converts energy from steam

or water to mechanical energy. The mechanical energy produced by the
turbine is given as input to the generator to produce electrical energy. In the
LFC model non-reheat turbine is used in both areas. The chief LFC objective
is to automatically control the generated power frequency. When frequency
changes by Δf the power generation also has to change by ΔPG . For changing
the generation by ΔPG, turbine power needs to be changed by ΔPT. Turbine
power can be varied by varying the valve position by ΔXE.

The model of the non-reheat turbine is simple. When the control

valve opens, the steam flow will not reach the turbine cylinder at the same
instant. A time delay Tt occurs between the opening of the valve and
production of turbine torque. The non-reheat turbine‟s transfer function is
given as

PG ( s) Kt
G( s)   (3.2)
X E ( s) 1  sTt

where ∆XE is the incremental change in valve/gate position

 34

∆P T is the incremental change in turbine power

Kt is the gain of the turbine

Tt is the turbine time constant

The typical range of turbine time constant Tt varies from 0.1 to 0.5
seconds (Elgerd 1983).

3.2.3 Generator Load Model

Generally, a generator or synchronous machine, in the power

system, facilitates the conversion of mechanical energy received from the
turbine into electrical energy. But in LFC, importance is given to the
frequency of the electric power (that is the rotor speed output of the
generator). Since it is difficult to store electrical power in a large amount,
always a balance should be maintained among demand and generation.

While modeling the generator load, the following assumptions are

made

1. The frequency is f0 when generation and demand are equal.

2. When load increases by ΔPD, generation also increases by ΔP G

to satisfy the demand,

ΔPG=ΔPD (3.3)

where ΔPG =ΔPT , incremental turbine power output (neglecting

generator incremental losses)

ΔPD = load increment

3. When generation and demand are equal, the stored kinetic

energy is
 35

WK .E  H  Pr kW - s
0
(3.4)

Where P r = kW rating of the turbo-generator

H = inertia constant

As the kinetic energy is directly proportional to the square of

the speed
2
 f 0  f 
WK . E  WK . E
0
 0
 (3.5)
 f 

 2f 
WK . E  H  Pr 1  0  (3.6)
 f 

Where WK.E0 = Kinetic Energy when generation and demand

are equal

WK.E = Kinetic Energy when mismatch occurs between

demand and generation

f =frequency when a mismatch occurs between

generation and demand

∆f = change in frequency

Rate of change of kinetic energy is therefore

d
WK .E   2HP0 r d f  (3.7)
dt f dt

4. As the frequency varies, the motor load changes, being

sensitive to speed, the rate of change of load with respect to
frequency can be considered as constant.

 PD 
 f  Df (3.8)
 f 
 36

Where D = Damping coefficient in pu/Hz

Writing the power balance equation (Nagrath & Kothari 2005),

2 HPr d
PG  PD  f   Df (3.9)
f o dt

Dividing throughout by Pr and rearranging,

PG ( pu)  PD ( pu) 

2H d
f   D( pu)f (3.10)
f 0 dt

Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3.10) and rearranging,

PG s   PD s 
F s   (3.11)
2H
D  0 ( s)
f

 Kp 
F s   PG s   PD s    (3.12)
 1  sT 
 p 

2H
where Tp  = Power system time constant
Df 0

1
Kp  = Power system gain
D

3.2.4 Model of Single area LFC system

The complete model of a single area LFC system is obtained by

combining the governor model, turbine model, and generator load model. The
transfer function model of single area LFC system is shown in Figure 3.2
(Kundur 2008).
 37

Figure 3.2Transfer function model of single area LFC system

3.2.5 Tie-Line Model

The Large power system is separated into a number of LFC areas,

interconnected by means of tie lines. Tie-lines are responsible for the electric
current to flow between the areas. When load varies in one area, power can be
exchanged from the other area through tie-line. Therefore, the control of tie-
line power error should also be performed by LFC. A two-area interconnected
by tie-line LFC system is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Two area interconnected by tie-line

The main objective of the interconnected power system is

controlling the frequency of every area, and at the same time regulates the tie-
line power as per contract (Kundur 1994).

Power flowing out of area 1 is given by

 38

V1 V2
Ptie,1  sin( 10   20 ) (3.13)
X 12

where

𝛿1𝑜 , 𝛿2𝑜 =power angles of equivalent machines of the two area.

V1, V2 = terminal voltage of the generators of the two area

For small deviations in the angle, the tie-line power changes to

∆𝑃𝑡𝑖𝑒 ,1(𝑝 .𝑢) = 𝑇12 (∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2 ) (3.14)

where

V1 V2 cos( 10   20 )
T12  = Synchronizing power coefficient
Pr1 X 12

P r1 = rated capacity of area 1

Since the change in frequency Δf is related to the phase angle of

deviation

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (3.15)

 1 d
f   (3.16)
2 2 dt

f 
1 d
  (3.17)
2 dt

  2  fdt (3.18)
 39

Substituting the Equation (3.18) in Equation (3.14)


Ptie,1  2T12  f1dt   f 2 dt  (3.19)

Where Δf1 and Δf2 are incremental changes in frequency of area 1 and 2
respectively

Similarly,


Ptie, 2  2T12  f 2 dt   f1dt  (3.20)

V2 V1 cos( 20   10 ) Pr1
where T21   (3.21)
Pr 2 X 12 Pr1

Pr2 = rated capacity of area 2

P 
T21   r1 T12  a12T12 (3.22)
 Pr 2 

T21  a12T12 (3.23)

p 
a12   r1 
 Pr 2 

The incremental power balance equation for area 1is given by,

2H1 d
PG1  PD1  (f1 )  B1 f1  Ptie,1 (3.24)
f 0 dt

Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3.24) and rearranging,

F1 ( s)  PG1 ( s)  PD1 ( s)  P tie,1 ( s)

K p1
(3.25)
1  sTp1
 40

1
Where K p1   Power system gain for area 1
D1

2H1
T p1  = Power system time constant for area 1
f 0 D1

H1 = Inertia constant of area 1

Taking Laplace transform of Equation (3.18)

2T12
Ptie,1 ( s)  F1 (s)  F2 (s) (3.26)
s

Similarly for area 2,

2T21
Ptie, 2 ( s)  F2 (s)  F1 (s)   2a12T12 F1 (s)  F2 (s) (3.27)
s s

The block diagram representation of tie-line is depicted in Figure

3.4

Figure 3.4 Block diagram representation of tie-line

 41

3.3 AREA CONTROL ERROR

In power systems which are interconnected, apart from controlling

the frequency of each area, it is necessary to control the net interchange of
power at scheduled values, between the neighboring areas. This is achieved
through the addition of frequency deviation, with a tie-line power deviation in
the supplementary control loop (Kothari et al. 1989).

In general, the linear combination of tie-line power and frequency

deviation for the area is known as ACE (Tan & Zhou 2012). The main LFC
system objective is the minimization of the ACE, thereby stabilizing the
frequency for a sudden load change. Thus, the LFC objective function in an
interconnected power system is given by,

ACEi  Ptie,i  Bi Fi (3.28)

Where i = number of areas

∆F = frequency change, Hz

ΔPtie, i= Tie-line power change, pu

Bi = frequency bias factor

3.4 DEREGULATED POWER SYSTEM

3.4.1 Conventional and Deregulated Power System

Conventional power system follows a “Vertically Integrated

Utility”, (VIU) structure. That is, in a conventional power system, generation,
transmission and distribution are held by a single entity. In deregulated or
restructured case, generation, transmission, and distribution are held by three
 42

different entities and VIU structure is not there. Instead of a single utility, it is
replaced by GENCOs, TRANSCOs, and DISCOs. A number of GENCOs and
DISCOs are there in a deregulated power system. Therefore, for the
transaction of power, a DISCO can enter into a mutual contact with any
GENCO. “Unilateral transactions” or “poolco transactions” refers to those
transactions, in which, a DISCO demands power from GENCOs of its own
area. “Bilateral transactions” are those in which a DISCO can enter into a
contract with GENCO in another area, for power transaction (Kumar et al.
1997). An impartial entity named ISO enables the transactions. In addition to
controlling the transaction of power, many “ancillary services” need to be
controlled by ISO. AGC is one of the ancillary services done by ISO.

3.4.2 DISCO Participation Matrix

The power system can be partitioned into numerous control areas,

areas are interlinked by tie-lines. Each area contains GENCOs and DISCOs.
As per the contract at competitive prices applicable to the deregulated
environment, GENCOs sell power to various DISCOs. The DISCOs have the
freedom to purchase power from any GENCO. In the competitive electricity
market, DISCOs prefer GENCOs, which are supplying good quality power at
the lowest cost. Therefore, a DISCO and GENCO in the same area may or
may not have a contract with each other. That is, DISCOs can have a contract
with any GENCO in the market. Thus, many GENCO-DISCO contract
combinations are possible.

To know about the participation of a DISCO in contract with a

GENCO and to carry out different transactions, a DISCO participation matrix
(DPM) is used for better visualization. In a DPM, the number of GENCOs is
obtained from the number of rows, and, columns equal the number of
 43

DISCOs. Each element in the DPM is called contract participation factor

(cpf). Each matrix element can be considered as a fraction of a total load,
contracted by a DISCO from a GENCO. For example, the element cpfij in the
matrix represents the fraction of the total demand of DISCOj from GENCOi .
The sum total of all elements in a particular column of DPM is equal to 1 and
is given by  cpf ij =1. Since the DISCO participation, in contract with a
i

GENCO, can be found from DPM, it is termed as DISCO participation matrix. In

the DPM, diagonal elements represent the demand of a DISCO, from the
GENCO, in the same area. The off-diagonal elements represent the demand of a
DISCO from GENCO in other areas (Debbarma et al. 2013).

3.4.3 LFC System Model under Deregulated Environment

For analysis, a two area LFC system under deregulated environment is

considered. This system consists of two GENCOs and two DISCOs in each area.
Let GENCO1 , GENCO2 , DISCO1, and DISCO2 be in area1 while GENCO3 ,
GENCO4, DISCO3, and DISCO4 be in area 2. The detailed block diagram
representation of two area LFC system in a deregulated environment is depicted
in Figure 3.9. The DPM of the system under study is given as

(3.29)

The actual tie-line power flowing through a two area interconnected

power system ac tie-line during steady state condition is given as (Shree &
Kamaraj 2016).
 44

2T12
Ptie12,act  F1  F2  (3.30)
s

The scheduled steady state power flow on the tie-line is given in

Equation (3.31)

Ptie12,sch  (Demand of DISCOs in area-2 from GENCOs in area-1) –

(Demand of DISCOs in area-1 from GENCOs in area-2) (3.31)

Mathematically Equation (3.31) (Abraham et al. 2011) can be

defined as

2 4 4 2
Ptie12,sch   cpf ij PLj   cpf ij PLj (3.32)
11 j 3 i 3 j 1

Where PLj  total demand of j th DISCO

cpfij =fraction of the total load power contracted by

DISCO j from GENCO i

The tie-line power flow error is given as

Ptie12,err  Ptie12,act  Ptie12,sch (3.33)

The tie-line power error becomes zero in the steady-state condition

when scheduled tie-line power and actual tie-line power becomes equal.

The Area Control Error (ACE) signals can be generated using tie-
line error signals.

ACE1  B1F1  Ptie12,err (3.34)

ACE2  B2F2  Ptie12,err (3.35)

 45

Where B1 and B2 are frequency bias constant of area 1 and area 2

respectively. All the GENCOs in each area will share the ACE signals in
proportion to their AGC contributions. This sharing of ACE signal by various
GENCOs is represented by coefficients called ACE participation factors
(apfs). The apf_matrix is given as

apf1 0 0 0
0 apf2 0 0
apf_matrix= (3.36)
0 0 apf3 0
0 0 0 apf4

The sum of apfs in an area is equal to unity.

Under steady state condition, the desired GENCO power generation

is given by

PGi   cpf ij PLj (3.37)

j

The transfer function model of a two area thermal power system

under deregulated environment is revealed in Figure 3.5. The total local load
in area 1 is given by the disturbance signal ΔP L1, LOC = ΔPL1 + ΔP L2 while the
total local load in area 2 is given by ΔPL2, LOC = ΔPL3 + ΔPL4. The disturbance
signals ΔPL1, ΔPL2, ΔPL3 and ΔPL4 denote the power demanded by DISCO1 ,
DISCO2, DISCO3 and DISCO4 respectively. The uncontracted power demand
by the DISCOs in area 1 and area 2 is represented by the disturbance signals
ΔPUC1 and ΔPUC2 .
 46

Figure 3.5 Transfer function model of a two area deregulated thermal

power system

The uncontracted power demanded by the DISCOs is supplied by

the GENCOs in the same area as the DISCO. If the DISCOs demand as per
contract then the market signals ΔPUC1 and ΔPUC2 will be equal to zero
(Pappachen & Fathima 2016).
 47

The desired power generation of a GENCO, when a DISCO violates its

contract, can be calculated as given in Equation (3.38).

PGi   cpf ij PLj  apfi  PUCj (3.38)

j

Where ∆PGi = Desired power generation of ith GENCO

∆PLj = Total demand of j th DISCO

∆𝑃𝑈𝐶𝑗 = Uncontracted demand of area j.

However, in power market, some of the GENCOS may not have

enough reserve to supply the uncontracted demand. In such case, the
GENCOS in other areas can supply the load if the extra lane is available on
tie- line (Balamurugan & Lekshmi 2016).

3.5 PROBLEM FORMULATION

To solve a complex problem, a well-structured problem

formulation, i.e. a “representation” is needed. The problem selected in this
research work is to minimize the frequency oscillations of a two area LFC
system, in the deregulated environment, and, to make the steady state error to
zero, in minimum time, with the help of optimized intelligent controllers.

3.5.1 Objective Function

The main objective is to design an LFC system to minimize the

frequency oscillations in a two area t hermal-thermal power system, under
deregulated environment, after a load disturbance. Though FLC performs well
in reducing the frequency oscillations of the proposed system, time
consumption in tuning the scaling factors of the controller is high. The scaling
factors are defined for the input and output of the FLC. The gains are
 48

distributed between the maximum and minimum limits and the ideal values of
scaling parameters are determined, which limits or reduces the total error
function, in the specified time period. The objective function is initially
defined, focusing on the desired constraints and specifications, in the process
of designing a modern heuristic optimization technique based controller. The
integral square error (ISE) criterion is made use of as an objective function for
optimizing the proposed controller performance. The objective function can
be stated as (Hota & Mohanty 2016)

 
t
F  ISE   f1  f 2  Ptie dt
2 2 2
(3.39)
0

Where ∆f1 = frequency deviation in area 1

∆f2 = frequency deviation in area 2

∆Ptie = incremental change in tie-line power

t = time range of simulation

Therefore, the optimization problem can be defined as

Minimize F

Subject to

SFi min ≤ SFi ≤ SFi max (3.40)

Where F is the objective function, SFi min and SFi max are the minimum and
maximum value of the control parameters (Karthikeyan 2013).
 49

3.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

From the literature survey, it was found that plenty of research has
been performed in the LFC of the conventional interconnected power system
and a few works were done in the LFC of a deregulated power system. The
LFC in a deregulated power system is a difficult process due to its complexity.
Most of the earlier works on LFC of deregulated power system were done using
conventional controllers. The performance of a conventional controller depends
upon the value of its gain. The conventional controllers are suited for linear
systems but power system is nonlinear, and, when operating point changes, the
value of gain will not change. Therefore, to overcome this problem, many
researches were focused on various optimization techniques, to find the optimal
gains of conventional controllers. This is due to the fact that conventional
controllers are simple and reliable but they are not suited for nonlinear systems.

Fuzzy logic based controllers are effective in solving the LFC

control problem on the deregulated power system. Therefore, this research
work is focused on investigating the scaling factors of FLC by using
appropriate optimization techniques, so that settling time, peak overshoot and
undershoot can be minimized, thereby improvi ng the system performance.
The main aim of this research is finding the optimum FLC scaling factors, by
optimization technique, and then, by using the optimized controller, the
frequency oscillations in a two area deregulated power system is stabilized.

In this work, in order to find the optimum scaling factors of FLC,

Meta-Heuristic Techniques like Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
algorithm, Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Hyper Spherical Search (HSS)
algorithm are implemented. Initially, a conventional PI controller was
designed for frequency control in deregulated power system. Then, a non-
tuned FLC was designed for controlling the frequency oscillations in a
deregulated power system. After that, various optimization technique was
 50

used to find the optimum scaling factors of the FLC. Thus, the key objectives
of the research work are concluded as follows:

 To design a conventional PI controller for LFC in a two area

deregulated power system, for minimizing frequency
oscillations, where tuning of the controller gains is based upon
Zeigler-Nichols (ZN) method.

 To design a fuzzy controller in a two area deregulated field to

reduce the frequency variations.

 To compare optimized FLC with non-tuned FLC and a

conventional PI controller for various market scenarios, like,
unilateral and bilateral transaction, and, disregarding of
agreement cases, by considering the performance indices like
peak over/undershoot and settling time.

 To implement various optimization techniques like PSO and

GA for tuning the controller scaling factors.

 To implement HSS for optimization of the controller scaling

factors.

 To check the effectiveness of HSS optimized FLC over other

controllers like PSO and GA optimized FLC in terms of
settling time and peak undershoot/overshoot parameters.
 51

3.7 SUMMARY

The problem of controlling the generated output power of an

interconnected power system, in a deregulated environment, is considered to
make the system frequency error under steady state condition to zero. The
LFC mechanism is used for maintaining the frequency of a two area
deregulated power system, inside the defined limit.

To understand the LFC problem, the components of LFC system

like the governor, turbine, generator load and tie-line are designed. The
concept of the deregulated power system and DPM are described. The
complete two area deregulated thermal power system model is also presented
in this chapter.

The problem formulation, objective function, and objectives of the

thesis are described in this chapter.