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Asymmetric Single Point Incremental Forming of Sheet Metal PDF
Asymmetric Single Point Incremental Forming of Sheet Metal PDF
J. Jeswiet1 (1), F. Micari2 (1), G. Hirt3, A. Bramley4 (1), J. Duflou5 (2), J. Allwood6
1
Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
2
University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
3
University of Aachen, Germany
4
University of Bath, United Kingdom
5
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
6
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England
Abstract
The use of computers in manufacturing has enabled the development of several new sheet metal forming
processes, which are based upon older technologies. This paper describes modifications that have been
made to traditional forming methods such as conventional spinning and shear forming, forming processes in
which deformation is localized. Recent advances have enabled this localized deformation to be accurately
controlled and studied. Current developments have been focused on forming asymmetric parts using CNC
technology, without the need for costly dies. Asymmetric Incremental Sheet Forming has the potential to
revolutionize sheet metal forming, making it accessible to all levels of manufacturing. This paper describes
the genesis and current state-of-the-art of Asymmetric Incremental Sheet Forming.
Keywords:
Forming, Rapid Prototyping, Sheet Metal
φ
Figure 3 shows the different configurations that are
ellipsoid included in the group of asymmetric incremental sheet
tf mandrel forming (ASIF) techniques. It can be seen that three of the
ti processes meet the above criteria. The fourth, Figure 3(d),
h uses a full die and does not meet the “dieless” criteria.
ti However, it is related directly to the other processes and it
is being used successfully to make rapid prototype shapes.
Hence it is included in the list of dieless forming
spinnability: techniques.
t −t
%R = i The configurations shown in Figures 3(a) and (b) have a
sine law: t f = t i sin α ti stationary sheet metal blankholder. The configurations
shown in Figures 3(c) and (d) have a sheet blankholder
Figure 2. The spinning sine law [14] and the shear that moves along a vertical axis, as the forming tool
spinnability test designed by Kegg [18]. deforms the sheet, hence the vertical motion arrows
shown. The configuration shown in Figures 3(c) and (d)
3 ASYMMETRIC INCREMENTAL SHEET FORMING are usually associated with machines dedicated to the
Several new metal forming techniques have been incremental forming process, and those in Figures 3(a)
developed in the last few years due to advances in: 1) and (b) are usually found in a CNC mill application.
computer controlled machining; 2) symmetric single point AISF includes two specific types of incremental forming:
forming (spinning); and 3) the development of toolpath SPIF, single point incremental forming and TPIF, two point
postprocessors in CAD software packages. One significant incremental forming.
outcome of this technology is the ability to form
asymmetric shapes at low cost, without expensive dies.
stationary blank holder
The asymmetric sheet metal incremental forming
techniques discussed here can be divided into different sheet
categories. First is a method initially developed by Powell
and Andrew [26], which was subsequently called the
backward bulge method by Matsubara [27]. Bambach et al.
are also active with this application [28]. Both symmetric counter tool
and asymmetric shapes can be created using this process. forming tool faceplate
See Figures 3 (c) and (d). The next class includes work by (b) Incremental Forming
(a) Single Point
Jeswiet [29], Kim [30], Leach [31], and Felici [32], all of with counter tools
Incremental Forming;
whom have studied the application of incremental CNC
SPIF
forming technology to asymmetric shapes. See Figure 3
(a). In this process, the blank remains stationary and partial die blankholder motion
full die
forming occurs during CNC control of the tool in a CNC
mill. The foregoing are discussed in the following sections.
3.1 Definition, making asymmetric shapes from sheet
metal without dies
Asymmetric incremental sheet forming (AISF) can be
interpreted in different ways. Hence, a definition with (c) Two point (d) Two point
Figures is included here, so that the process described incremental forming incremental forming
cannot be confused with other incremental forming (partial die); TPIF (full die); TPIF
processes. Asymmetric Incremental Sheet Forming (AISF)
is a process which: Figure 3: Process principles of AISF. Four variations are
shown [28].
is a sheet metal forming process,
has a solid, small-sized forming tool, 3.2 Common Types of Asymmetric Incremental Sheet
does not have large, dedicated dies, Forming
has a forming tool which is in continuous contact with Asymmetric incremental sheet forming has four basic
sheet metal, elements: 1) a sheet metal blank, 2) a blankholder, 3) a
single point forming tool, 4) CNC motion. These basic
elements are illustrated in Figure 4; F is the metal forming of a series of incremental contours. Each toolpath profile
force, v is the tool feed and ω is the spindle rpm. consists of a contour at a constant depth, and the
The two common types of AISF are Two Point Incremental subsequent contours, in the z-axis direction, are at levels
Forming (TPIF), and Single Point Incremental Forming offset down by a ∆z increment. Sharp edges may be
(SPIF). These are discussed in the chronological order in created in this process, depending upon the forming tool
which they appeared, historically. diameter used, since the tool follows the convex surface of
the part during forming. Contours for a simple cone are
In both cases there is a single forming tool whose motion shown in Figure 6. To form this shape the tool would
is usually described in terms of Cartesian coordinates, with follow the top contour, and then move incrementally
tool motion in the horizontal sheet plane labeled as the x- downward along the z-axis, until finished.
axis and y-axis, and the vertical z-axis being the direction
in which deformation occurs. Shear forming theory can be applied. Experimental work
with cones formed at various wall angles [27] shows
measured thickness matches thickness calculated with the
sine law. Because the flange material remains
undeformed, the wall thickness can be easily calculated by
the sine law, assuming a constant volume.
Forming tool
blank
Bushing
Support Post
Figure 4. The basic elements needed for asymmetric
Incremental Sheet Forming (AISF). Figure 5. Backward bulge forming apparatus [27].
0.6
0.2 Scattering band for
0.5
mild steel (t=1.5 mm)
0 0.4
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3
Minor strain 0.2
0.1 FLC conventional forming
Figure 19: FLD for to = 1.5 mm DC04; influence of forming εmin
tool size upon forming limits [60]. Graph points x1 to x4 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
correspond to positions on the sheet marked by x.
Figure 20: FLC for 1.21 mm thick AA 1050-0 forming of
pyramids [32]. Both traditional and non-traditional curves.
εmax major strain, εmax
3
3
2 2
1.5 1,5
1 1
0.5 0,5
minor strain, εmin
0
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 -0,5 -0,25 0 0,25 0,5
εmin Copper HSS AA6114
Figure 21: Composite FLD for five parts formed by Brass DDQ AA 1050 - O
asymmetric single point incremental forming of 1.21 mm Figure 22: An FLD of the material parameters shown in
thick AA 3003-0 [62]. Each colour a shape and each point Table 2 [59].
represents a successfully formed shape.
FLDo fixed as the output. The intention of the analysis was
4.4 Formability and material properties to determine how each input variable influenced the output
parameter. The experimental results were analysed by a
Materials all have different formabilities and Table 1 in response surface statistical model where the qualitative
section 4.2 shows how materials have a different influence of the predictors (pure linear terms and
maximum draw angle φmax. In most sheet metal operations, interactions among inputs, i.e. hybrid quadratic terms) on
formability is limited by a local necking instability. Once a FLDo were reported. The results indicate the highest
neck is initiated the high hydrostatic stress that develops influence on material formability for AISF processes is the
within the neck leads to rapid void nucleation, growth and strain hardening coefficient, n. In addition, there is a high
coalescence [60, 72]. However, in certain forming influence of a combined strength coefficient and strain
operations, such as bending and stretch flanging, necking hardening coefficient. Strength coefficient and elongation
is suppressed and formability is controlled by the evolution also have an influence upon the formability. The statistical
of void damage and shear band instability. If the strain is analysis leads to a six dimension hyper-surface:
evenly distributed in the metal, as it is in SPIF, very large
FLDo = 8.64 - 36.2n - 0.00798K + 0.373Rn - 0.104A% +
strains can be achieved due to the foregoing void damage
0.0301K·n + 0.607n ·A% [59]. (4)
and shear band instability.
Jeswiet et al. [66] also found that both strength coefficient
A comprehensive analysis was instigated to understand
and strain hardening coefficient had a major influence and
the correlations between material formability and other
that a more accurate model of the stress-strain condition
material properties [59]. The experimental campaign was
could be obtained with a Voce model [71]. Verification of
developed with a set of different blank materials, typically
this can be found in work by Lievers et al. [72] who
utilized in the automotive and other sheet forming
investigated three different automotive aluminum alloys in
industries. The materials used and their main
developing a model of stress strain characteristics:
characteristics are summarized in the Table 2.
AA5182-0, AA5754-0 and AA6111-T4P. Their model
As before, the formability results were formalized again shows the Hollomon-Ludwig [73] relationship fits the
through the FLDo values, while the testing parameters stress-strain curve at low values of strain, but at higher
were fixed for all the experiments. An FLD of all the strains the plastic section of the curve was more accurate
materials in table 2 is shown in Figure 22. when fit to a Voce curve of the form:
An FLD does not give information on which material
parameters predominate. Therefore a statistical analysis
(
σ M = σ s − σ s −σ y eq ) (5)
800
Figure 28: Details of the Single Point Incremental Forming
450
Fb Fa 0 250 500 750 1000 1250
400
Fr β Time, s
350
300 Figure 32: Force curves for parts formed with tools from a
250
Ft 10 mm to 25 mm diameter [81].
path
tool
200
150 Fr
Process
100 F(N) R2
parameter
50
0 Ft Tool diameter Fp=12.761 Ø +434.5 0.9809
- 50 Ø (in mm) Fs=12.812 Ø +410.8 0.9884
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fp=6.793 Ø +210.4
Percentage Complete Part wall angle 2 0.9826
Fs=-0.2284 Ø +22.753 Ø -
φ (in degrees) 0.9919
Figure 29: Forces measured in forming a pyramid at 47.0
o
φ = 40 in SPIF of 1.21 mm thick AA 3003-0 [80].
Vertical step size Fp=151.58 ∆z +466.9 0.9655
∆z (in mm) Fs=148.13 ∆z +447.17 0.9725
Table 4. Experiment determined relation with total peak
forming tool
Forces measured in
force Fp and average force Fs [81].
TPIF of AA 3003-0
static tool post
Force
F45o F60 o
The initial sheet thickness was found to be 1.2069 mm +/-
D
0.80
0.25 mm bending of the flange. Unlike shear forming with a pressed
0.60 0.37 mm pre-form of constant thickness, the pre-form of the first
sine law, 70o pass will vary in thickness from the thick bent flange area,
0.40 to the remainder of the part that experiences normal
thinning in the process; see Figures 33 and 35. Hence
0.20 two-pass forming serves to alleviate the thinning band
observed at high draw angles. The wall thickness of a
0.00 multistage formed pyramid [61] shows thinning at the initial
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
bend has been moved away from the initial bend; see
Distance Along Surface, mm Figure 35. This technique was put to good use in the SPIF
Figure 33: Single pass wall thickness profile for 30 and 70 of a rapid prototype for a car headlight reflector [29]. Four
degree cones. AA 3003-0, to = 1.21 mm [83]. steps were needed to create the reflector surface; see
Figure 36.
4.8 Toolpath Generation
forming Once all the material characteristics are known a toolpath
tool can be planned. There are several choices available for
offset the forming toolpath shown in the following.
1.21 mm
Contour milling toolpath is a finishing pass, typically
bending defined by fixed ∆z increments between consecutive
discrete contours. This is also the most common technique
applied force used. The disadvantage is it leaves marks at the transition
0.65 mm point between layers and creates force peaks. Surface
quality depends on tool radius, step size [29, 31, 32], and
slope angle as well as lubrication system and spindle
Figure 34: Detail of bending observed during first pass of a speed.
two-pass asymmetric incremental forming process [83].
A spiraling toolpath is continuous with incremental descent
of the tool distributed over the complete contour of the part
4.7 Multiple pass asymmetric single point [32, 68]. The advantage is that no marks occur at step
incremental forming down.
To remedy thinning shown in the discrete zone in Figure Multiple toolpath strategies include creating intermediate
33, and to avoid failures, material available elsewhere in forms that are defined within the cavity of the final surface
the part can be used to stop both thinning and failure. In and are typically characterized by limited slope angles and
their work on SPIF Kim and Yang [85] used a pre-form, or curvature. This is comparable to a roughing step in milling,
two-pass forming as a means of equalizing the strain followed by a finishing pass that can be a conventional
distribution across the surface of a part. Jeswiet and contour milling or spiral toolpath or a strategically chosen
Hagan [29], and Hirt et al [61] also used the same toolpath aiming at stretching out the cavity bottom and
technique. This involves the creation of high strains in a increasing part slope angles without causing excessive
pre-form at areas where low strains are present in the final strains in the steeply sloped areas [83]. Both Figures 35
geometry, and low strains at areas where high strains are and 36 are examples.
present on the final geometry [83]. Pre-forms can then be
designed to include a combination of wall angles and Contour toolpath generation
artificially large offsets from the backing plate. Because it is the most common method used, this method
The hypothesis behind the steep wall angles and large is discussed in detail. First, the flat plane of the sheet is
offsets is that this encourages the undeformed sheet in the defined as the x-y plane before being deformed; see
flange area to bend downwards over the backing plate and Figure 37. This is an artificial horizontal plane that acts as
into the part. This presents a thick surface that is already the original sheet reference when forming along the z-axis;
inclined at a portion of the final angle desired in the the z-axis is equal to zero at this point. All portions of the
finished geometry. When shear forming theory for pre- required geometry must be at or below this plane. In the
formed blanks is consulted, a two-pass sine law is case of SPIF the forming tool moves from the outside
employed [83, 84] as follows: edge, point a, toward the centre. In the case of TPIF this is
reversed and the tool moves from the centre out.
Sin (φ f )
tf = tp (7) To make SPIF possible in one pass, a part should be first
Sin (φ p ) oriented so that steep walls (which means a draw angle φ
equal to 65 degrees or greater) are reduced by rotating the
where: tf is the final wall thickness, tp is the wall thickness part around the x and y axes. Then the steep walls will
of the pre-form, φf is the final wall angle, φp is the wall have a shallower angle relative to the z-axis, where
angle of the pre-form. possible. This initial manipulation greatly increases the
ease with which the part can be formed successfully.
For example, if a pre-form could be designed to bend the
flange inwards to a 55 degree angle while maintaining a Once the workplane is set, a modification to the required
sheet thickness which is the same as the undeformed geometry is the addition of false surfaces to create an
Top surface
Top radius RTop
Flange
Preform area
φα
Blank
Bottom radius RB
1.6
1.4
sheet thickness t, mm
1.2
1.0
0.8
sine law; o
0.6 Sine lawf = 45
1100-0
Material: Al99.5 sine law; f = 81 o
0.4 Thickness: to=1.5mm
s0=1.5mm
0.2 Tool: RR=15mm
TφT=15mm Figure 38: Positioning of an irregular surface with support
Angle: α=81 =° 81o
0.0 walls [29].
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Rtop Flange Rblank Blank
Top surface Preform area unbroken perimeter from the edges of the part up to the
x- coordinate [mm] workplane. These surfaces support the part while it is
being formed, and help to ensure that the desired
Figure 35: Thickness measurement for a multistage
o geometry is obtained. The reflective lens shown in Figure
formed pyramid; up to φ = 81 [61]. 38 is an irregular shape that requires support surfaces. As
these new surfaces will be removed once the part has
been formed, their positioning and geometry is not critical,
though the maximum draw angles of the process still
apply. The support surfaces are shown as straight lines in
Figure 38. In some cases this is called ‘lofting’. Wall
angles of 40 to 55 degrees are recommended in the
support surfaces where possible. This eliminates the
chance of tears occurring in these sections during forming.
1 The completed perimeter of the workplane is the outline
2 that should be cut in the steel backing plate for the forming
backplate. An offset of 1 mm is helpful to account for any
minor misalignment of the forming rig during set-up on the
milling machine traverse table.
Once the CAD file has been modified, and ‘embedded’ in
the sheet surface, the CNC toolpaths must be created for
the milling machine to follow. Any available CAM software
4 package can be used with equal success. Due to the
3 range of packages available and the rate at which new
software develops, only commands for a specific case will
Figure 36: An example of using four stages to form a rapid be discussed here.
prototype of a reflector surface for an automobile [29]. There are several choices for CNC control of the forming
direction of forming tool, from tool as shown in Figure 39. Commands vary with software
outside edge to the centre package. Using of off-the-shelf CAM modules can be
problematic because usually they are optimized for milling
a processes [34]. However the following strategies will show
forming tool how this can be overcome.
z [mm]
the explicit FEA offers a reasonable accuracy with -10
computation times that allow for a computer-based
toolpath optimization. See table 6 for results. -15
compressive stresses. 0
This can be seen in Figure 46 where a plot of the -1
equivalent plastic strain (blue curve) and the triaxiality -2
ratio η (red curve) are given. Triaxiality is the ratio of the -3
hydrostatic to the deviatoric stress. Figure 46 also shows 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
that negative peaks in the course of the triaxiality coincide normalised process time
with and increase in plastic strain. Thus, compressive Figure 46: Equivalent plastic strain and triaxiality ratio [68].
stresses are superimposed whenever the tool deforms the
reference elements.
These compressive stresses are thought to be the reason
for the high forming limits observed experimentally. This
Thinning [%]
assumption has been studied further [69, 72] using the
60 Gurson-Tveergaard-Needleman (GTN) model to analyze
50 the damage evolution during forming. Because of the
40
stretching of the sheet, the damage evolution must be
assumed to be anisotropic. Consequently, the isotropic
30
GTN model cannot be used to quantitatively predict the
20 damage evolution of the sheet. Despite these restrictions,
10
the GTN model gives a good qualitative conformance to
experimental results in that it predicts the amount of
damage that occurs is increased when the size of the tools
Figure 43: Sheet thinning for a symmetric cup [93]. are increased.
For some part designs, a multi-stage SPIF procedure must be In contrast to conventional press work, the non-flatness of
used for steep flanges [61, 83]. Starting with a shallow preform, the blanks can be an important source of non-process-
the wall angle is increased in several stages to yield a final wall related inaccuracy, since part coordinates are typically
angle of 80-90°; see Figure 35. Multi-pass forming creates determined with the unprocessed blank surface as a
compressive stresses between the stages, and the sheet can datum plane.
wrinkle or fold under the action of the tool, e.g. when the
increase in angle is too large between the stages. An initial
investigation of the prediction of wrinkling has been
successfully conducted [93], where an explicit code has been
used to compare two variants of the multistage forming of an
(almost) square box. The FEA is found to be in good qualitative
conformance to experimental results, indicating that the
material folds for one of the strategy variants, which can also be
observed in the corresponding experiments. Furthermore, He
et al [107] have used FEA to predict the forces acting on the
tool during forming of an AA 3003 truncated cone. The
simulated values overestimate the experimental ones by 30%.
Figure 47: Section view of the solar oven part, created
This may be due to the assumption of isotropic hardening.
without backing plate (above, shown in red) and with a
4.10 Process Accuracy backing plate (below, shown in blue). The CAD model is
The importance of dimensional accuracy for sheet metal given in black and the preshape used in a double pass
oriented rapid prototyping in general, and incremental toolpath strategy that is explained later is in green [81].
forming processes specifically, is clearly illustrated by
Allwood et al. in [99]. In the market study presented in this
(mm) Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
paper the process window for important process features
is matched with the requirements for a significant number Average Absolute 1.327 1.317 0.955 0.379
of potential part categories in demand by the market. The Deviation
major shortcoming today for the asymmetric incremental Avg. Pos. Dev. 1.113 1.513 1.067 0.305
forming methods can be situated at the achievable
accuracy level: while most applications would impose a Avg. Neg. Dev. -1.55 -0.58 -0.79 -0.47
dimensional accuracy of less than 1 mm, and a significant Minimum -4.47 -1.78 -2.75 -2.06
number of part categories would require ±0.5mm as Maximum 4.137 5.398 4.223 0.980
tolerance level, the accuracy levels reported by
researchers typically exceed these limits. Sigma (σ) 1.727 1.221 1.169 0.508
Bramley reports an accuracy of ±1.5 mm for symmetrical Table 7: Accuracy for different toolpath strategies [105].
and ±2 mm for asymmetrical parts produced by SPIF
using a toolpath from a milling oriented CAM module [103].
Along the outer edge of the workpiece, the deviations from
the preset part geometry can be limited by the use of a
support plate (see Figures 2 and 43). Otherwise this zone
typically shows even larger deviations between the CAD
geometry and the achieved part dimensions [91, 103].
The use of a support plate cannot eliminate similar
problems due to strong, localized slope gradients at other
locations in the workpiece. Reprocessing after reversal of
the workpiece is suggested as a means to correct
significant, unwanted deformation along the edge of the Figure 48: Determination of virtual target part geometry
part in case no support plate is used [103, 105]. based on measurement feedback [68].
For TPIF of mild steel parts Hirt et al. [68] report deviations The influence of different process parameters and toolpath
of order of magnitude ±2 to 3mm, depending on the part strategies on part accuracy has been reported. Ambrogio
geometry, when using a straight forward toolpath as et al. [91] demonstrate the positive influence of smaller
generated by standard CAM contouring algorithms. tool diameters and pitch size on the geometric discrepancy
Besides the obvious machine tool inaccuracies, causes of between the workpiece and the target geometry.
deviation from the theoretical workpiece shape, that Duflou [105] compared different SPIF toolpath strategies
correspond to the programmed toolpath are: springback in for a given geometry. They concluded that double pass
the material, geometric distortion due to stress processing with an upward contour finishing pass provided
propagation (see Figure 47, point marked with A) and the best overall accuracy (see Table 7). All test parts were
over-spinning effects that result in unwanted bulging [105]. AA 3003 with a tool with a diameter of 12.7 mm. The
When determining the process accuracy, the following spindle speed was set so the tool rolls over the material
typical features of asymmetric incremental forming need to and the feedrate was set to 2000 mm/min.
be taken into account. The systematic thinning that Some corrective measures based on different feedback
characterizes the process can influence accuracy, since strategies have been proposed to improve part accuracy.
the dimensional errors induced by thinning are typically of Hirt et al. [68] proposed an iterative method in which the
the same order of magnitude as the imposed tolerances. completed part is measured as a reverse engineering
This implies that accuracy should be determined for either exercise, providing data for an adjusted toolpath
the convex or concave face of the workpiece. Depending generation. The proposed method is based on comparison
on the selected face, a toolpath should compensate for the of the actually formed part geometry with the target model,
anticipated thinning. mirroring the measured points around the target geometry
with a scale factor, and using these
points to generate new, virtual target geometry. This virtual
part geometry forms the basis for the determination of an
improved toolpath. Using a scale factor of 0.7 was found
to provide optimal results for part made of DC04, 1.5 mm.
Ambrogio et al. [106] use an in-process measurement V shaped
system that allows the determination of deviation between Cross Hexagon tub Cone
the anticipated intermediate part geometry and the actually
realized intermediate shape. Per layer (incremental
toolpath contour) the observed deviations are measured to
correct the toolpath geometry for the next contour.
The proposed system has been tested with a discrete point
contact measurement system, used interactively, thus Dome Hyperbola
simulating the availability of real in-process measurement 5 lobe Faceted
equipment. The toolpath optimization algorithm has been shape cone
tested with pyramid part geometry. The author claims
significant accuracy improvements. No quantitative output
is however available to evaluate the achievable
dimensional accuracy.
5 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS
The major advantage of asymmetric incremental forming is
it can be used to make asymmetric parts, quickly and
Multi-shaped surface Truncated pyramid
economically, without using expensive dies. Shapes used
to demonstrate the abilities of the process are shown in Table 8: Shapes used to demonstrate the viability of the
Table 8. Some of the shapes illustrated have been used to process and for experiments.
conduct springback experiments, and in determining the
maximum draw angle φ, others are just for demonstration oven cavity for use in developing country applications. The
of process abilities. last two are for the same manufacturer of custom
The asymmetric single and two point incremental forming motorbikes; the first part is for a motorbike seat and the
processes are still in their infancy. Much research work second is part of a gas tank.
remains to be done and to do this appropriate shapes are 5.2 Custom manufacture of a solar oven
needed to develop: FLD’s, springback models and models
to test accuracy. Standard shapes are used to determine The SPIF process has made it possible to manufacture an
what the draw angles should be for different materials and aluminum solar oven cavity, economically without dies.
thickness. Standard shapes are needed to compare The ability to make a sheet metal cavity, inexpensively,
experimental results and for testing the process for has allowed designers of the solar oven to redesign other
maximum speeds of deformation. parts of a product, thereby reducing the cost and labour in
making a solar oven. A solar oven has been designed for
When testing materials for the maximum draw angle φ a export to developing countries. Originally the oven cavity
truncated cone as shown in Figure 15 was agreed upon was made from fibreglass, and painted black. The major
[59]. This shape has also been used by others [31, 32, 33, drawback, was the fibreglass wall was 7 mm thick, heavy,
59, 64, 66]. A pyramid shape has also been used on many time consuming to build, and labour intensive. The
occasions to demonstrate the asymmetric abilities of the possibility of using dies to form sheet metal into solar
new process plus it has become useful in determining the cooking cavities was investigated and found to be very
springback that occurs for different material thickness’ and expensive. This lead to considering SPIF of sheet metal as
for conducting pre and post process material tests [59, 64, a method of manufacture. Figure 49 shows how the
65, 67, 77]. Jadhav [100] has also used the pyramid to assembled solar oven works. The red shape is the part
conduct studies of twisting in a shape once forming is which is formed by SPIF. A three dimensional model was
completed. made in a Unigraphics environment and Figure 50 shows
There is not agreement on which shape or shapes should the model and increment details. The total depth of the
be used to develop FLD’s for the new processes. Filice model is 74 mm. The downward step for each pass was
[32] and Hirt [78] have used a pyramid. Young is a set up differently for the two sections shown; ∆z = 0.4 mm
proponent of using several shapes each of which has from A to B, and ∆z =0.3 mm from B to C.
elements contained in most part shapes [62].
The method of programming included a z-level profile
5.1 Rapid Prototype Examples following part contour, which is available in Unigraphics,
Making Rapid Prototypes, with sheet metal as the base was used.
material, giving a part that can be used directly in the Details of the process set-up in Unigraphics are:
function for which it is intended, is one of the major Maximum drawing angle: set to 65o, everywhere.
advantages of using this Incremental Forming process. Forming tool: 25.4 mm diameter, highly polished.
The parts shown in table 9 are for designs that were made Forming speed (feedrate): 1125 mm/min.
as Rapid Prototypes for the automotive industry. They are Additional note: the forming tool rotates freely, and
for the reflective surface of prototype headlights, for the is not matched to the machine feedrate.
first two cases. The third case is for a heat/noise shield, 1.3 mm thick AA 8008-0 Aluminum.
which is used over exhaust manifolds. The final, successful result is shown in table 10. Although
Table 10 shows examples of rapid prototypes made for the customer was unconcerned by springback, the cross-
non-automotive applications. The first example is of a solar section was measured to find out how much springback
actually occurred; see Figures 47 and 51.
z
z y A
IGES file
∆z = 0.4 mm
x y B
74 mm
C ∆z = 0.3 mm
Automotive
2002 vehicle 2002 vehicle heat/noise Figure 50. Illustration of the CAD and toolpath setup [ 36].
headlight headlight shield
Finished part
inside
inside outside Figure 51: The x-z profile of CAD file and formed product.
The outside of the solar oven is shown as an inset. The
springback can be observed [36].
Production
Request for an
Ankle Support shape embedding
CAD/CAM
interface
`````
Figure 52: The manufacture of an ankle support, from request, to scanning of a live subject (reverse engineering), to setting up
a solid model and CAD drawing, to embedding the shape for toolpath planning, to creating a toolpath for manufacture, to
checking for accuracy [59].
Strength Hardening
Anisotropy
Tensile Elongation The most significant benefit from AISF arises in low
coefficient exponent Strength % volume production where existing processes require
K = 545 σR = 290 specialized tooling. The cost and lead time of tooling
n = 0.27 ρν = 2.01 A% = 50
MPa MPa manufacture leads to very high component costs for small
runs of new designs, and all developers of AISF have
Table 11: Properties of deep drawing quality steel [59]. identified the attraction of AISF for prototyping or low
volume manufacture. In order to provide more precise
guidance on identification of candidate applications, two
The ankle support was shaped starting from a surface
economic models have been developed to explore the
slightly greater than the scanner recording, in order: a) to
trade off between fixed costs (particularly those associated
obtain a clearance between the instep and collar; b) to
with tooling) and direct costs. Hirt and Ames [97] consider
create space for an inside coating.
the direct costs as comprising materials, labour and a
At the end of this step a real curve grate, shape, is machine overhead rate, with tooling as the fixed cost.
obtained. This is imported into a CAD/CAM system to Micari [59] uses more detail, with direct costs comprising
develop the CAM step. The toolpath is compiled and materials, labour, power, two overhead rates and some
generated in order to carry out the SPIF operation on a batch setup costs, and fixed costs comprising tooling, NC
CNC milling machine. The ankle support is divided into two programming and machine setup. Both authors find that
symmetrical parts, splitting the solid model and creating AISF is likely to be attractive for production where new
two separate part programs. The position of the model in tooling would be required and total batch sizes are less
the space is determined, with the specific aim of avoiding than around 600.
surface inclinations that go beyond the incremental forming
Such analysis gives a means to support decisions on
limits in terms of the maximum drawing angle, φmax. Once
investment in AISF. However, calculations of utility based
the right positioning is found, the part program, is
on this form of cost model have some limits:
generated.
the precise cost data required to apply the economic
A CNC, three-axis milling machine is used for the forming evaluation is often unavailable, except in very large
process. The work volume is 560X410X510. The program companies. Even when it exists, it is unlikely to
is loaded into the machine memory and the part is formed reflect true cost: labour costs may be higher or lower
incrementally, making two matching, half ankle supports. than a set rate depending on the capacity and
The sheet material is DDQ (Deep Drawing Quality) steel, 1 utilisation rate at the factory; machine overhead rates
mm thick. Its properties are shown in Table 11. The tool are always estimates, as they can only be calculated
feed and rotating speed are 1000 mm/min, and 500 accurately in arrears, once utilisation rates are known.
rev/min. The depth step, ∆z, is 0.5 mm, while the tool
the value of the ISF process is unlikely to be solely as
diameter is 11 mm. The forming time is half an hour.
a direct replacement for an existing process. Existing
Figure 52, shows a completed DDQ steel half ankle. product designs and their associated process choices
Process accuracy has been checked, by repeating the have been selected based on available production
foregoing procedure, with a part formed by Incremental technology. The value of a novel technology such as
Forming. A laser scan of the part gives a new set of cloud ISF is likely to be achieved when product designs
points that can compared with the original surface part change to reflect the benefits and capability of the
program. The results obtained show a maximum deviation process.
error of 0.5 mm.
cost is not the only determinant of process selection.
Constraints on tolerance, surface finish, sheet
6 THE BUSINESS CASE FOR AISF thickness and residual stress levels are equally
As a relatively new process, AISF is not currently in regular important in determining process choice.
commercial use, but all developers of the process have These concerns are well known in more general analysis
suggested potential application areas, and in some cases of investment in advanced manufacturing technology. They
have made test products to demonstrate feasibility [31, 32, are discussed at more length by Ordoobadi and Mulvaney
33, 60]. Table 12 lists the range of applications that have [98] who claim that purely economic assessments are
been considered by developers which spans small to large generally pessimistic as they fail to capture the system
products, and products with more or less complexity. wide benefits of the new technology. In an attempt to
provide a broader assessment of the value of AISF, useful tool for producing rapid prototypes which can be
Allwood, King and Duflou [98] have proposed an analysis used in situ. One challenge is the issue of springback
of AISF based on product segmentation. They gathered a which keeps accuracy at 1.5 mm.
broad data set from 15 UK companies manufacturing
products from sheet metal, considering a total of 28
products. The data was largely related to the product (or Application areas:
component or application) rather than the existing
Automotive body panels (prototype, low-volume eg
processes used to make it, and included Figures for direct
motorsport, and after-sales)
costs and lead times, tooling costs and lead times, product
design and quality specifications. The data set was plotted Other automotive sheet metal parts – structural, or
on a series of ‘segmentation charts’ which could also be non-aesthetic
used to display a process window for the capability of
AISF. Analysis of the charts suggests that AISF is Architectural – bespoke formwork, decorative
generally applicable for high value low volume products, panels
and that the volume for which AISF is attractive increases Customized white goods
with tooling costs. Generally, for batch sizes where AISF
was economically attractive, it also showed a lead time Reflectors and casings for lighting
advantage over conventional production. The product
segmentation approach also allows validation of process Dental – bespoke dental crowns
capability. Of the products examined in the study, only Housings and fairings for aerospace
one – a one-off cowling panel for a historic aeroplane –
could be made by existing AISF techniques. However, if Ship hull plates
the AISF process window could be expanded by improving
tolerance to around 0.3 mm, with feature definitions to 1 Table 12: Potential applications areas for AISF [99].
mm radius and allowing material thickness up to 3 mm, the
process would be attractive for more than half of the Models that will allow a designer to achieve greater
applications considered. accuracy are needed. Another need is the development of
Forming Limit Diagrams for different combinations of
As AISF technology matures, and receives wider materials and sheet thickness. Both the Design Engineer
exposure, it can be considered by designers seeking the and Manufacturing Engineer need these to determine if the
advantage of its unique features, and this will generate process is applicable for a design. The challenge is to
new applications. Furthermore, the avoidance of any develop Forming Limit Diagrams, which can be used for
significant tooling costs in AISF, and the relatively low many combinations, including: type of material, sheet
asset value of the equipment suggests that AISF would be thickness, forming tools and forming speeds. In addition,
attractive for distributed manufacturing. This opens a research work shows there is a relationship between
further set of novel applications where supply chains that maximum draw angle, φmax, and the major strain, εmax.
currently depend on stock-holding and mass distribution Another challenge is to develop a comprehensive system,
(such as the car body repairs and after-sales market) could which gives an overview including shape prediction, FLD’s
be reorganised via a network of low cost AISF processes and φmax and compensates for springback.
with distribution of data rather than material. This has
obvious benefits both in reducing the economic and Traditional stamping processes will still be used for mass
environmental burdens of distribution, and in offering produced parts, for economic reasons. A challenge is to
increased customisation without additional cost. make asymmetric incremental forming more viable for
mass production. With higher speeds and improvements in
Clearly table 12 relates to actual applications – however accuracy this new process can be an alternative to
the intention of table 12 is to include as the range of stamping especially with its flexibility. Modelling and on line
applications being considered is wider than the set of control are challenges along with the development of
applications that have actually been tested. algorithms which will compensate for springback.
There are many areas of manufacturing in which
7 RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES asymmetric incremental sheet forming can be applied. One
Many potential applications have been listed in the example is the Biomedical area for which an example has
foregoing section. Nowadays, aspects such as aesthetics been given. For Biomedical applications it will be a
and ergonomic quality have on increasing importance. This challenge to find ways of manufacturing the part while
gives rise to new products, which have always originated meeting the clean room requirements of legal jurisdictions,
in a designer’s mind but have not always been economical as discussed by McAllister and Jeswiet [102]. In the end,
to implement. Now, with AISF a design concept for a all challenges are limited only to the imagination of the
shape can be implemented, immediately and economically Design Engineer and the Manufacturing Engineer.
to give either a rapid prototype or a production part.
Potential applications in markets that include insurance 8 SUMMARY
claims can be explored. For instance, sheet metal parts Asymmetric incremental sheet forming, with a single point
can be stored electronically and then made as required for doing the forming, is a viable process for making
automotive replacements, or parts can be reverse complicated shapes from sheet metal. It makes the
engineered and then made on a three-axis CNC mill. forming of sheet metal a flexible operation and is an easy
The architectural industry also has great promise for this operation for all facilities having access to a three axis
application. Custom made sheet metal parts can be made CNC mill. There are two variations to the process, one
with individualized patterns. with a single point doing the forming and the other with two
Although AISF is now viable, many challenges remain. A points where one point is either a partial or full die. The
set of useful guidelines now exist for the engineering process has tremendous potential and there are many
designer when using this new process. However, these future possibilities where it can be used.
need to be expanded. The process is now established as a
Guidelines have been established for designers and In addition, strategies need to be developed to increase
manufacturers who wish to form prototype sheet metal accuracy. This work is ongoing by members of CIRP and
parts or run a low volume production runs. will be reported in the future.
The parameters for which guidelines have been In summary, the flexible forming system with short lead
established are: thickness of the sheet metal relative to times envisioned by Schmoeckel [1] and the single point
the maximum wall angle in a part (draw angle, φ), the size forming system patented by Leszak [2] are now a reality
of the incremental step down, ∆z, the speed of deformation with the new ASIF processes that are now available.
and size of the forming tool. Guidelines now exist for the manufacturing designer and
Design and manufacturing guidelines the new processes can be done by virtually any facility
having access to a three-axis CNC mill.
Formability:
Formability increases with higher sheet-to-workpiece
relative velocities, with a trade-off of higher surface 9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
roughness. The authors are grateful to the UK EPSRC and the
Formability decreases with thinner sheet. University of Bath Innovative Manufacturing Research
Centre for the provision of funds to enable a workshop
Smaller tool size gives increased formability. meeting to be held at the University of Cambridge in
Anisotropy has an influence upon formability, with October 2004.
greater formability being achieved with smaller diameter The authors have also been supported by research grants
tools in the transverse direction. in their individual countries and we wish to acknowledge
Sheet formability decreases with increasing increment their support: the Institute for the Promotion of Innovation
step size, ∆z. by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT); the Natural
The effect of increment step size, ∆z: Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
The information contained in this paper would not have
Large increment steps, ∆z, give a higher roughness.
been possible without our graduate students: G. Ambrogio,
The increment step size, ∆z, can influence not only the J. Ames, M. Bambach, E. Hagan, M. Ham, S. Jadhav, G.
surface roughness but also cause an orange peel effect. Owen, A. Szekeres, and D. Young.
The size of the orange peel effect can be influenced by
the incremental step size, ∆x and ∆y, and the draw There are many others who have participated in seminars
angle. that have been held in preparation for this paper, many
thanks to them.
The effect of the draw angle φ:
There is a limitation on the maximum draw angle φ that
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