Biodiversity: Definition Q

 Biological diversity or biodiversity - is a term we use to describe

the variety of life on Earth. It refers to the wide variety of
ecosystems and living organisms: plants, animals, their
habitats and their genes.

Importance:
Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species,
no matter how small, all have an important role to play.

At least 40 per cent of the world’s economy and 80 per cent of

the needs of the poor are derived from biological resources. In
addition, the richer the diversity of life, the greater the opportunity for
medical discoveries, economic development, and adaptive
responses to such new challenges as climate change.
 Biological Evolution Q
 Biological evolution refers to the change in inherited (genetic) characteristics
of a population from generation to generation. It is one of the features that
distinguishes life from everything else in the universe.
 According to the theory of biological evolution, new species arise as a
result of competition for resources and the difference among
individuals in their adaptations to environmental conditions.
 It is a one-way process— when a new species evolves, it cannot evolve
backward into its parents.
 Populations can no longer reproduce with members of the original species.
 Biological evolution is the key to the diversity of different species that exist
today.
Four processes that lead to evolution:
 Mutation
 Natural Selection
 Migration
 Genetic Drift
 Speciation: How do new species evolve

• Speciation is the evolutionary process by which

populations evolve to become distinct species.
Most common mechanism of speciation takes place in
two phases:
• Geographic Isolation
• Reproductive Isolation
• Geographic isolation is a term that refers to a
population of animals, plants, or other organisms that
are separated from exchanging genetic material with
other organisms of the same species.
This can be due to migration, or physical barriers:
e.g.,Uplifting mountains, rerouting of rivers, formation of
desert
 How do new species evolve? : Reproductive
Isolation..…
The mechanisms
of reproductive
isolation are a collection
of evolutionary
mechanisms, behaviors
and physiological
processes critical for
speciation.
They prevent members of
different species from
producing offspring, or
ensure that any offspring
are sterile.
• This process as a whole is
called Divergence, or
Divergent Evolution.
These same evolutionary
(Reproductive and Divergent)
changes can also result in the
populations evolving into
separate species. ... Other
predictions are that traits
involved in divergent
adaptation will also cause
reproductive isolation.
• Ostrich, rhea, and emu have a
common ancestor, examples
of divergent evolution.
 Speciation
Geographic
isolation can
lead to
reproductive
isolation,
divergence
and
speciation.
 Extinction

• Ultimate fate of all species  Causes of extinction

• It occurs when the last
individual of a species dies • Population risk
• Extinction is an irreversible
process
• Environmental risk

• Local extinction occurs when a

• Natural catastrophe
species disappears from a part
of its range but persists
elsewhere • Genetic risk
Global extinction means that a
species becomes • Human actions
extinct everywhere
 Extinction

 Population Risk  Environmental Risk

 Species in low abundance  Variation in the physical
become extinct or biological
environment, including
variations in predator,
 Risk especially to species that prey, symbiotic, or
consist of only a single population competitor species
in one habitat, can occur without
any change in the environment  In some cases, species
are sufficiently rare and
 For example, if in one year most isolated that such
whales were unsuccessful in normal variations can
finding a mate, then birth could be lead to their extinction
dangerously low
 Extinction

 Natural Catastrophe  Genetic Risk

• Land  Detrimental change in
 Fires, major storms, genetic characteristics is
earthquakes, and called genetic risk
floods
 In a small population,
• Water reduced genetic variation
 Changes in currents, will be found
upwellings, and
tsunami  The species is
vulnerable to extinction
because it lacks variety
 Extinction

 Human Actions:
• If large areas are modified, entire species may be displaced
• Intentional hunting or harvesting
• Disruption or elimination of habitat
• Introduction of new parasites, predators, or competitors of
a species
• Pollution of the environment
• Humans have become a major force in the premature
extinction of species
The IUCN estimates that 75% of the extinction of birds and mammals
since 1600 were caused by human beings
Hunting caused 42% & 33% of the extinctions of birds and mammals
respectively
During this century human expansion may cause the premature
extinction of up to a quarter of the Earth’s current species
 Species : Types

• Endemic— Native to a particular area and not native elsewhere

(Monterey pine endemic in California coast, exotic in New Zealand)
• Cosmopolitan—Occurring all over the world wherever the
environment is appropriate (house mouse)
• Ubiquitous—Humans are, as are some bacteria (Escherichia coli).
• An indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or
abundance reflects a specific environmental condition. When an
ecosystem or community starts to collapse, ecologists look at
indicator species for the first warning signs.
• Exotic species are those that have been intentionally or
unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem in which
they did not evolve.
There are other terms for an "exotic" species including introduced
species, non-native, non-indigenous and alien species.
 Keystone Species / Community Effect
• A keystone species is a species that has
a disproportionately large effect on its
environment relative to its abundance.
E.g., Sea otters: Sea otters are
a keystone species in the kelp forests.
One of the preferred food of sea otters is
sea urchins.
 Sea urchins feed on kelps, brown algae,
that form undersea forests—important
habitat for many species.
 With more kelp, there is a larger habitat for
Sea Otters sea urchins
many species
 Where sea otters lack, sea urchins are
abundant and there is little kelp.
 Where sea otters are abundant, kelp beds
are abundant and there are few urchins
 Otters affect the abundance of kelp
indirectly. So indirectly sea otters increase
diversity
 Thus sea otters have a community Kelp
effect and is the keystone species.
 Community Interaction

1. When organisms live together in ecological

communities, they interact constantly.

2. Community interactions, such as competition,

predation, and various forms of symbiosis,
can affect an ecosystem.
 Competition
 Competition occurs when organisms of the same or different species
attempt to use an ecological resource in the same place at the same
time.
• The more fit will win out & persist and the less fit will lose or become
extinct— known as the competitive exclusion principle.
 Competitive Exclusion Principle states that two species that have
exactly the same requirements (niches) cannot coexist in exactly the
same habitat.
 Competition
However,
species that
require the
same
resources can
coexist by
utilizing those
resources
under different
environmental
conditions

They are said

to have
different
ecological
niches.
Predation occurs when
Predation
one organism, known
as a predator, kills and
eats another, known as
the prey.

Predation can increase

diversity of prey
species by reducing
the abundance of the
dominant prey.

It can contribute to species

evenness by keeping
the dominant species
from overwhelming
others.
 Symbiosis
• Symbiosis is a close, long-lasting, physical relationship between
two different species.

 Two species can benefit one

another and enhance each other’s
chance of persisting.

 Symbiosis affects biodiversity.

 Symbiotic relationships include:

– mutualism
– commensalism
 Symbiosis

Mutualism: Both species benefit from the relationship. ( a bee

pollinated a flower);

• Commensalism: One member of the association benefits and the

other is neither helped nor harmed. (a bird
living in a tree);
 Major threats To Biodiversity QQ
• Biodiversity is under serious threat as a result of human
activities.
• The main dangers worldwide are population growth and
resource consumption,
• Climate change and global warming,
• Habitat conversion (destruction, fragmentation,
modification),
• Urbanisation,
• Invasive alien species,
• Intentional hunting,
• Over-exploitation of natural resources,
• Environmental degradation.