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Contents
Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Network Elements .................................................................................. 3
Graph Theory .......................................................................................... 9
Circuit Theorems ................................................................................... 11
ww
Transient Analysis ................................................................................. 15
w.E
Sinusoidal steady state analysis ............................................................ 19
Resonance............................................................................................. 23
asy
Circuits analysis in Laplace domain ....................................................... 25
En
Two Port Network ................................................................................. 26
gin
Magnetically coupled circuits................................................................ 29
ee
Three Phase Circuits.............................................................................. 31
rin
Electrical & magnetic fields ................................................................... 33
g.n
et
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
ww What are K-Notes?
w.E
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
asy
comes handy while traveling long distances.
En
When do I start using K-Notes?
gin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
ee
How do I use K-Notes? rin
g.n
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
et
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Network Elements
Active & Passive Elements
If any elements absorb, dissipate, waste, convert electrical energy it is called as passive element.
Eg. Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor.
If any elements energize, deliver, give out, drive the electrical energy it is called as active element.
Eg. BJT, MOSFET.
Network Technologies
Node : It is a point of interconnection or junction between two or more components.
ww
Branch : It is an elemental connection between two nodes.
Mesh: A mesh is a close path which should not have any further closed path in it.
w.E
Loop : All possible close path.
Ohm’s law
asy
At constant temperature and for uniform cross section of conductor.
J  E
σ= conductivity, En

1

 resistivity . gin
V  IR
R
l
A
ee
Circuit Symbol:
rin
l  lenght of conductor
A = Area of conductor.
g.n
Conductance of circuit elements is
et
1
G
R
Sign Convention
To apply ohm’s law, we must apply following sign convention.

Short circuit & open circuit

Voltage across terminals of a short circuit is always zero, regardless of the value of current which
could be any value. (R = 0)
The current through an open circuit is always zero, regardless of voltage across the terminals
which could be any value. R   
Power of resistor
V2
P  VI   I2R
R
Resistance always absorbs or dissipates power.
ww
Kirchoff’s laws

w.E
Kirchoff’s current law(KCL)
It states that any instant the algebraic sum of current leaving any junction (or node) in a network
is zero.
asy
In other words, current entering a node is equal to current leaving the node.
n in  t   0 En
 ientering   ileaving gin
i1  i3  i5  i2  i4
ee rin
 Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) g.n
et
It states that any instant the algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path (or loop) within
a network is zero. In other words, the sum of voltage drops is equal to sum of voltage rises.
 V t  0
n
n
 Vdrop   Vrise
V1  V2  V3  V4  V5  0

Series resistance or voltage division

Two or more circuit elements are connected in series means that current through all elements in
same. If ‘N’ resistors, with resistance R1 ,R2 ,........Rn are connected in series
R eq  R1  R 2  ...................RN
V R1 
V1 
R1  R 2
V R 2 
V2 
R1  R 2
ww
w.E
Parallel resistance or current division
Two or more circuit elements are connected in parallel means that voltage across all elements is
1

1

1
 ........... 
1 asy
same. If ‘N’ resistors are connected in parallel R1 ,R 2 ,............RN
R eq R1 R 2
I R 2 
RN
En
I1 
R1  R 2 gin
I2 
I R1 
R1  R 2 ee rin
Star Delta Conversion
g.n
Start to Delta
et
R1R 2  R1R 3  R 2R 3
Ra 
R1
R1R 2  R1R 3  R 2R 3
Rb 
R2
R1R 2  R1R 3  R 2R 3
Rc 
R3

Delta to start conversion

RbR c
R1 
R a  Rb  R c
R aR c
R2 
R a  Rb  R c
R aR b
R3 
R a  Rb  R c
ww
Sources
Independent Voltage Source
w.E
An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals. The
voltage is independent of current flowing through it.
Independent current source

asy
An ideal independent current source maintains a specified current to flow through it. The current
En
through this is independent of voltage across it.
Dependent Source
gin
ee
Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) ; V  AVX
Current controlled voltage source (CCVS) ; V  AiX
Voltage controlled current source (VCCS) ; i  AVx rin
Current controlled current source (CCCS) ; i  Aix
g.n
Capacitor
et
A capacitor is a combination of a two conducting plates separated by a non-conducting material.
Capacitance is donated by ‘C’
A
C
d
ϵ= Permittivity of medium
A = Area of Plates
D = distance between the plates.
Charge on Plates, Q = CV
V = Potential difference between the plates.

Voltage Current relationship
dq  t 
i t 
dt
dv  t 
i t  C
dt
Sign Convention
Energy Stored in a capacitor
ww  
1
E  cv 2  t  
Q t
2
1
 Q t v t 
w.E
2 2C
Properties of ideal capacitor

2
 asy
If voltage across capacitor is constant (dc) then current through capacitor is zero & it acts as open
circuit.
En dv  t 

gin
The voltage across capacitor must be continuous, if it as discontinuous, then i  C
so voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

dt
is infinite,

ee
A capacitor never dissipates energy, it only stores energy.
rin
g.n

Capacitor in series & parallel
In ‘n’ capacitors are connected in series C1 ,C2 ,.............Cn

et
1
Ceq 
1 1 1
  .................
C1 C2 Cn
 If ‘n’ capacitors are connected in parallel, C1 ,C2 ,..........................Cn

Ceq  C1  C2  .......................  Cn
In series connection, charge is same whereas in parallel connection voltage is same.

Inductor
It is a two terminals element consisting of winding of ‘N’ turns.
  N2 A
L 0 r
l
 0 = Permeability of free space
r  relative Permeability
N = number of turns
A = area of cross section of coil
l = length of inductor
ww
Current voltage relationship
di  t 
w.E
v t  L
dt
L is constant, called as inductance
Energy Stored asy

1
 
E  L i t
2
2
En
gin
Like, Capacitor, inductor also stores energy but in electro-magnetic terms.
Series & parallel Connection ee

If ‘n’ inductors L1 ,L2 ,...............,Ln are connected in series then rin
Leq  L1  L2  .............  Ln
g.n
In ‘n’ inductors are connected in parallel L1 ,L2 ,.............Ln
1

1

1
 ............. 
1
et
L eq L1 L 2 Ln
In series connection current in same, through all elements & in parallel connection voltage is same
across all elements.
Duality
Two circuits N1 & N2 are called dual circuit if the branches KCL, KVL & branch v - i relationship
becomes respectively KVL, KCL.

Dual Elements
Resistance R Conductance GR
Capacitance CF Inductance L=CH

Inductance LH Capacitance C=LF
Open Circuit Short Circuit
Short Circuit Open Circuit
Voltage Source VS Current Source I  VS
Current Source IS Voltage Source V  IS
ww Series Connection
Parallel Connection
Parallel Connection
Series Connection
w.E Eg.
asy
En
gin
Graph Theory
Network Graph:
ee rin
If all elements of a circuits are replaced a line segment between 2 end points called as nodes.
g.n
et
Directed Graphs:
If the branches of a graph has directions then it is called as a directed graph.

Sub graph
It consists of less or equal number of verticals (nodes) & edges, as in its complete graph.
True & Co-tree
ww
A connected sub-graph of a network which has its nodes same as original graph but does not
contain any closed path is called tree of network.
w.E
A tree always has (n - 1) branches.
Eg. The following trees can be made from graph shown before.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
The set of branches of a network which are remove to form a tree is called co-tree of graph.
Twigs & Links

The branches of a tree are called as its twigs & branches of a co-tree are called as chords or links.
10

Incidence Matrix
The dimension of incidence matrix is (nxb)
N = no. of nodes
B = no. of branches
It is represented by A
aij = + 1 , If jth branch is oriented away from ith node
aij = -1 , If jth branch is oriented into ith node.
aij = 0 , If jth branch is not connected to ith node
 a b c d e f
ww 
1 1 0 1
A  2  1 1
0 0 1
0 1 0 0

w.E
3 0
4  0
1 0 0 1 1 

0 1 1 1 0 
asy
If one of nodes is considered as ground & that particulars row is neglected while writing the
incidence matrix, then it is reduced incidence matrix. Order  n  1   b
 En
Number of trees of any graph  det  Ar  Ar  
T

Ar = reduced incidence matrix
gin
Circuit Theorems
Linearity
ee rin
A system is linear if it satisfies the following two properties.
g.n
1. Homogeneity Property
et
It requires that if input is multiplied by constant hen output is multiplied by same constant.
eg. V = IR
is I becomes KI
V’ = KIR = KV
So, resistance is a linear element & so are inductor & capacitor.
2. Additivity Property
It requires that response to sum of inputs is sum of response to each input applied separately.
V1  I1R
V2  I2R
If we apply I1
 I2 
We get V3   I1  I2  R  V1  V2
11

Superposition
It states that, in any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the total current
through or voltage across an element can be determined by algebraically adding the voltage or
current due to each independent source acting alone with all other independent source set to
zero.
Source Transformation
It states that as independent voltage source VS in series with a resistance R is equivalent to
independent current source IS  Vs / R in parallel with a resistance R.
ww Or
An independent current source IS in parallel with a resistance R is equivalent to a dependent
source VS  ISR in series with a resistance R.
w.E
asy
En
Thevenin’s Theorem
gin
It states that any network composed of ideal voltage and current source, and of linear resistor,
with an equivalent resistance R TH .

ee
may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source VTH in series
rin
Methods to calculate thevein equivalent
g.n
The therein voltage  VTH  is equal to open circuit voltage across load terminals.
et
Therein resistance is input or equivalent resistance at open circuit terminals (load terminals) when
all independent source are set to zero (voltage sources replaced by short circuit & current source
by OC)
Case – 1 : Circuit with independent sources only
12

To calculate VTH , open circuit of RL
ww
Using sources transformation
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
VTH 
2
22
 24  12V
g.n
To calculate Rth
Short I & V sources & open 6mA source
et
R th  1  2 1  1  2k
13

Case – 1 : Circuit with both dependent & independent sources
Methodology 1:
 VTh can be found in same way.
 For R TH set all independent sources to zero.
 Remove load & put a test source Vtest across its terminals, let current through test source is Itest .
Vtest
 Thevenin resistance , R TH 
Itest

ww
This method is must if independent sources are absent.
Methodology 2:


w.E
VTH is calculated in same way.
For R TH short circuit load terminals & leave independent sources as it is


Obtain ISC through load terminals.
R TH  VOC ISC asy
En
Norton’s Theorem
gin
Any network composed ideal voltage & current sources, and of linear resistors, may be
equivalent resistance R N .
ee
represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal current source IN in parallel with an
rin


RN  R TH
g.n
To calculate IN we short circuit load terminals & calculate short circuit current.
 Therein equivalent & Norton equivalent are dual of each other.
et
14

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

A load resistance RL will receive maximum power from a circuit when load resistance is equal to
Thevenin’s/ Norton’s resistance seen at load terminals.
RL  R Th
In case of AC circuit, this condition translates to
ZL  Z*th
 But if load is resistive in AC circuit then
RL  Z Th

ww
w.E For maximum power transfer
asy RL  R2Th   XL  X Th 
2
En
gin

ee For maximum power transfer
XL  XTh  0 rin
g.n
et
Transient Analysis
Time Constant :
It is the time required for the response to delay by a factor of 1 e or 36.8 % of its initial value.
It is represented by τ.
For a RC circuit
  RC
For a RL circuit
  LR
R is the therein resistance across inductor or capacitor terminals.
15

General method of analysis
       
x t  x    x t0  x   e  o  , t  0
  t t 
If switching is done at t=t0
 
x t0  initial value of x  t  at t  t0
x     final value of x  t  at t  
Algorithm
ww
1. Choose any voltage & current in the circuit which has to be determined.
2. Assume circuit had reached steady state before switch was thrown at t  t0 . Draw the circuit at
w
    .E
t  t 0 with capacitor replaced by open circuit and inductor replaced by short circuit. Solve for
v C t0 & iL t0 .

3. Voltage across capacitor asyand inductor current cannot change instantaneously.
   V t   V t 
VC t 
0 C

0
i t   i t   i t 
C 0
En
L

0 L

0 L 0
gin
4. Draw the circuit for t  t  with switches in new position. Replace a capacitor with a voltage source
    ee    
VC t0  VC t0 and inductor with a current source of value iL t0  iL t0 . Solve for initial value
of variable x  t  .
0 rin
5. Draw the circuit for t   , in a similar manner as step-2 and calculate x    .
g.n
Calculate time constant of circuit
6. τ=Rth C or τ=L/Rth
et
7. Substitute all value to calculate x(t).
Example
In the circuit shown below, V1  t  for t > 0 will be given as
16

Solution
Step 1 :
For t < 0
30u  t   0 & 3u  t   0
 
V1 0  0V
For t  
V1     3mA  10k
ww = -30 V
w.E
Step 2 :
At t  0
V1  0   30
 3mA 
V1  0 
asy
0
3
20k
V1  0   1.5mA
10k
En
20k
V1  0   10V
gin
V1  t   30   10  30  e
R TH  30k ;   R THC  0.3s
t
t

ee rin
V1  t    30  20e 


0.3
u t V

g.n
Series RLC circuit
Without Source
et
0
1
V 0   i  t  dt  V0
C 
i  o   I0
By KVL
di  t  1
t
Ri  t   L   i  t  dt  0
dt C 
Difference both sides
d2 i  t  R di  t  1
  i t  0
dt 2
L dt LC
17

Substitute i  t   Aest

Aest S2  R s  1
L LC 0  S2  R s  1  0
L LC
2 2
R  R R 
S1   R    1 , S2     1
2L  2L  LC 2L  2L  LC
1
S1 ,S2     2  w 02 ;   R 2L ; w 0 
LC
ww
1. If   w0 roots are real & unequal (over-damped)
w.E
i  t   Aes1t  Bes2t
2. If   w0 , roots are real & equal (critically damped)
i  t    A  Bt  et
asy
3. If   w0 , roots are complex conjugate (under-damped)
i  t   et  A cos wdt  Bsinw dt  En

wd  w20  2 gin
Calculate A & B using initial conditions.
With a Source
ee rin
v  t   VS  Ae
s1t
 Be
s2t
(Over-damped)
v  t   VS  A  Bt  et (Critically damped)

g.n
 
v  t   VS A cos wdt  Bsinwdt et under  damped et
Parallel RCL Circuit
Without Source
0
1
i 0   v  t  dt
L 
v  0   V0
By KCL
1 1
t dv  t 
v  t    v    d  C 0
R L  dt
18

Characteristics equation
1 1 1 1
s2  s 0 ;  , w0 
RC LC 2RC LC
S1 ,S2    2  w02
v  t   Ae 1  Be  over  damped
st S2t
v  t    A  Bt  et  critically damped
v  t   et  A cos wdt  Bsinwdt  under  damped
ww
 w 
With a step input
i  t   Is  Ae 1  Be
.E st S2 t
Over  damped
asy
i  t   Is   A  Bt  et Critically damped
i  t   Is   A cos wdt  Bsinwdt  et Under  damped

En
Steps:
gin
1. Write differential equation that describe the circuit.
ee
2. From differential equation model, construct characteristics equation & find roots.
rin
3. Roots of characteristics equation determine the type of response over-damped, critically damped
& under-damped.
4. Obtain the constant using initial conditions.
g.n
Sinusoidal steady state analysis
et
Lagging & Leading
We can compare the phases of two sinusoids provided that
 Both V1  t  & V2  t  are expressed in form of either sine function or cosine function.
 Both V1  t  & V2  t  are written with positive amplitude though they may not have same amplitude.
Both V1  t  & V2  t  have same frequency.
19

If V1  t   A sinwt
V2  t   Bsin  wt    ;   00
V2  t  leads v1  t  by an angle 
V1  t  lags v 2  t  by an angle 
PHASORS
A phasor is complex number that represents the amplitude & phase angle information of a
ww
sinusoidal function.
v  t   Vm sin  wt   
w.E
Phasor representation, V  Vrms
magnitude  Vrms
phase  
asy
Networks Elements
En
1. Resistor
V  RI
gin
2. Inductor
ee rin
V   jl I
  2f ; f  frequency of source g.n
3. Capacitor
I   j c  V
et
Impedance & Admittance
V Vrms
Impedance , Z      v  i 
I Irms
Unit of impedance  ohm   
Z  R  jX  Z 
R = resistive component
X = relative component
20

Phase angle,   tan1 X  R

Z  R2  X2
For Resistor ZR  R
For Inductor ZL  jL
1 j
For Capacitor Z C  
j L c
Inductive reactance, XL  L
ww
Capacitive reactance, XL 
1
c
w.E
If X = 0, impedance is resistive; current & voltage are in same phase.
If X > 0, impedance is inductive; current lags voltage.
If X < 0, impedance is capacitive; current leads voltage.
Admittance, Y 
1
Z
 G  jB asy
G = Capacitance
B = Susceptance En
 Series combination gin
Impedance in AC circuits behave like resistance in DC circuits and all the laws remain same like
Zeq  Z1  Z2  ................  Zn ee rin

 Parallel combination
1

1

1
 ...................... 
1 g.n
Z eq Z1 Z 2
Yeq  Y1  Y2  .........  Yn
Zn
et
 Star-delta conversion also remain same here.
Circuits analysis in AC domain
1. Identify the sinusoidal source & note the excitation frequency.

2. Convert source to phasor form.
3. Represent each circuit element by its impedance.
4. Solve circuits using circuit techniques (nodal analysis mesh analysis etc.)
5. All circuits’ theorems are applicable here as well
21

Power analysis
Real Power
P  VrmsIrms cos  v  i 
In a resistance
Vrms
2
P  Irms
2
R
R
Complex Power
*
S  VrmsIrms
ww
 Vrms Irms   v  i 

Real part of S  P  Vrms Irms cos v  i 
w.E
Real part of S  Q  Vrms Irms sin  v  i 
Reactive Power = Q
Q = 0 for resistive loads. asy
En
Q < 0 for capacitive loads  v  i  .
Q > 0 for inductive loads  v  i 

gin


power. ee
If the current goes into an element, then it absorbs power and if current comes out it delivers
rin
Hence, a capacitor absorbs leading reactive power. We can also say it delivers lagging reactive
power.

g.n
Same way, inductor absorbs lagging reactive power & delivers leading reactive power.
Power Factor
pf 
P
 cos  v  i 
et
S
  v  i  power factor angle
If   0 , power factor is lagging
If   0 , power factor is leading
If   0 , power factor is unity
22

Resonance
Series resonance
For resonance
Im  Z   0
Z  R  j L  1 c 
1
L  1   rad s
c LC
ww
The frequency at which impedance of circuits is purely resistive is called resonant frequency.
1
w.E
0 
LC
At resonance
rad s
I 
VS
R asy
VR  IR  VS
En
VL  joL I  joL 
 VS
R




 gin
Vc 
j
0c
I
 j  VS

oC  R




ee rin
At   0 ; XL  XC , net reactance is capacitive so circuits operates at leading pf.
g.n
At   0 ; XL  XC , net reactance is zero, so circuits operates at unity pf.
At   0 ; XL  XC , net reactance is inductive, so circuits operates at lagging pf.

et
Bandwidth: range of frequency for which power delivered to R is half of power at resonance.
Bw  R L
Quality factor
1 2 1 2
I XL I XC
Re active power 2 2
Q  
Average power 1 2 1 2
I R I R
2 2
XL XC 1 L
Q  
R R R C
23

Parallel Resonance
1
Y1   j C
R j L
At resonance
Im  Y   0
1
o  rad s
LC
ww
At resonance V  IS R
IR  IS
w.E
IL 
V IR
 S
j0L j0L
IC  V  j0C   ISR  j0C 

asy
En
Bandwidth 
1
RC
gin
Quality factor, Q 
Re active Power
Average Power
ee rin
V
2 XC
2
V
2 XL
2
R R C
g.n
Q
V
2R
2

V
2R
2

XL

XC
R
L
et
24

Circuits analysis in Laplace domain

For basic of laplace transform, refer to signal & system k-notes. Laplace transform.
Resistor
V(s)  RI(s)
ww
Inductor
w.E
asy
En
gin
Capacitor
sL ee
V(s)  sL  I(s)  Li(0 ) Or I(s)  V(s)  i(0 )

rin
g.n
et
1 V(0  )
I(s)  C sV(s)  V(0  ) Or I(s)  I(s) 
sC s
Methodology
1. Draw circuit in s-domain by substituting s-domain equivalent for each circuit element.
2. Apply circuit analysis to obtain desired voltage or current in s-domain.
3. Take inverse Laplace transform to convert voltage and current back in time-domain.
25

Two Port Network

Impedance Parameters
V1  Z11 I1  Z12 I2
V2  Z21 I1  Z22 I2
 V1   Z11 Z12   I1 
In matrix form    
 V2   Z 21 Z 22  I2 
V1
Z11   open circuit input impedance
I1
ww
Z12 
V1
I2 0
 open circuit transfer impedance form part 1 to part 2
w.E I2
V2
I1 0
Z 21 
I1 I2 0 asy
 open circuit transfer impedance form part 2 to part 1.
Z 22 
V2
En
 open circuit output impedance
I2 I1 0
gin
Admittance parameters
I1  y11 V1  y12 V2
ee rin
I2  y 21 V1  y 22 V2 g.n
In matrix form,
 I1   y11 y12   V1 
et
   
I2   y 21 y 22   V2 
I1
y11  = short circuit input admittance.
V1 V2 0
I1
y12  = short circuit transfer admittance from part 1 to part 2.
V2 V1 0
26

I2
y 21  = short circuit transfer admittance from part 2 to part 1.
V1 V2 0
I2
y 22  = short circuit output admittance.
V2 V1 0
1
 y11 y12   Z11 Z12 
y 
 21 y 22   Z 21 Z 22 
ww
Hybrid parameters
w.E
V1  h11 I1  h12 V2
I2  h21 I1  h22 V2
In matrix form,
 V1  h11 h12   I1  asy
   
 I2  h21 h22   V2 
En
h11 
V1
I1
= short circuit input impedance. gin
h12 
V1
V2
V2 0
= open circuit reverse voltage gain.

ee rin
I2
I1 0
g.n
h21 
I1
I2
V2 0
= short circuit forward current gain.
et
h22  = open circuit output admittance.
V2 I
1 0
Inverse hybrid parameters
 I1  g11 g12   V1 
   
 V2  g21 g22   I2 
1
g11 g12  h11 h12 
g g22  h21 h22 
 21
27

Transmission parameters
V1  AV2  BI2
I1  CV2  DI2
 V1   A B   V2 
 I    C D   I 
 1   2
V1
A = open circuits voltage ratio
V2 I2 0
V1
ww B
I2
I1
V2 0
= negative short circuit transfer impedance.
w.E C
V2 I2 0
= open circuit transfer admittance.
D
I1
I2 V2 0
asy
= negative short circuit current ratio.
Symmetrical & Reciprocal N/w

En
For a reciprocal 2-part Network:
Z12  Z21
gin
Y12  Y21
h12  h21
ee rin
AD  BC  1
g.n
g12  g21
For a symmetric 2-part network:

et
Z11  Z22
Y11  Y22
h11h22  h21h12  1
A=D
g11g22  g21g12  1
28

Interconnection of 2-part networks
 For a series connection of two networks Na & Nb having z-parameters metric  Z a  &  Zb 
Z   Z   Z 
 eq   a   b 
Z – Parameter matrices are added.

ww
For a parallel connection of two networks Na & Nb having y-parameter matrices  ya  &  yo 
w.E
 yeq    ya    yb 
Y – Parameter matrices are added.
asy

En
For a cascade connection of two networks Na & Nb having transmission parameters matrices
 Ta  & Tb 
gin
Teq    Ta  Tb 
Transmission parameter matrices are multiplied.

ee rin
g.n
Magnetically coupled circuits et
If change in flux of one coil induces a voltage in second coil then both coils are said to be
magnetically coupled.
di1  t 
v 2  t   M21
dt
di2  t 
v1  t   M12
dt
M12  M21  M
29

Dot convention
If a current enters the dotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage in second coil has a
positive voltage reference at dotted terminal of second coil.
If a current enters undotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage n second coil as a positive
voltage reference at undotted terminals of second coil.
ww
w.E
asy
Series connection of coupled coils
Leq  L1  L2  2M En
gin
Leq  L1  L2  2M ee rin
Parallel connection of coupled coils g.n
et
L1L 2  M2 L1L 2  M2
L eq  L eq 
L1  L 2  2M L1  L 2  2M
M
Coefficient of coupling k 
L1L2
30

Equivalent circuits of linear transformers
T-equivalent circuit
ww
La  L1  M
Lb  L 2  M
w.E
LC  M
π- equivalent circuit
asy
LA 
L1L 2  M
L2  M
2
En
LB 
L1L 2  M2 gin
LC 
L1  M
L1L2  M2
M
ee rin
g.n
Three Phase Circuits
Balanced three phase system et
A system in which all three voltage have equal voltage magnitude and are phase displaced by
1200 with respect to each other.
Positive Sequence (abc)
Van  VP00
Vbn  VP  1200
Vcn  VP  240  VP1200
31

Negative Sequence (acb)
Van  VP00
Vcn  VP  1200
Vbn  VP  2400  VP1200
For both phase sequence,
ww Van  Vbn  Vcn
w.E
Connections
Star Connection
asy
En
gin
ee rin
VL  3VP 300
IL  Ip g.n
Vab = line to line voltage or line voltage
Vab  Van  Vbn  3VP 300

et
So, line voltage Vab , Vbc , Vca are 3 times the phase voltage & lead the respective phase voltage
by 30 0 .
Line currents Ia , Ib , Ic in this connection are equal to phase currents.
Phase current are the currents that flow in individual phases.
32

Delta Connection
VL  VP
IL  3IP   300
ww
w.E
Line current is 3 times phase current & lags respective phase current by 30 0 .
Power in a balanced 3   system
P  3VL IL cos   3VP IP cos 

asy
Q  3VL IL sin   3VP IP sin  En
S  3VL IL *  3VP IP* gin
ee
For power measurement, refer to electrical measurements k-notes, two wattmeter method.
rin
Electrical & magnetic fields g.n
Coulomb’s law et
Coulombs law states that magnitude of force between two point charges is directly proportional
to square of distance between them & direction of force is along the line joining the charges.
Q1 Q2
F 2
aˆR
4  R
or ; o  8.854  1012 F m = permittivity of free space
r = relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
33

Electric field intensity

F Q
E  aˆR
q 4  R 2
Electric field direction is away from a positive charge & towards negative charge.
Charge densities
1) Linear charge density

It is denoted by '  ' . It is equal to charge per unit length.
q
   c m
ww 2) Surface charge density

l
w.E It is denoted by '  ' . It is equal to charge per unit area.

q
c m2 
3) Volume charge density
A
asy
En
It is denoted by '  ' . It is equal to charge per unit volume.

q
V
c m3
gin

1) Infinite line charge

ee
Electric field due to continuous charge distribution
rin
E ˆ
a g.n
Electric field intensity at a distance ‘r’ from a line charge of linear charge density 

2) Infinite sheet charge

2o r r
et
Electric field at a distance ‘h’ from an infinite charged sheet with charge density  is

E aˆ ; aˆ n  Normal unit vector
2 n
3) Conducting sphere
If a conducting sphere of radius ‘R’ is charged with a charge ‘Q’ then electric field.
0 r R

E Q
 r R
 4  r2
Electric field inside conducting sphere is zero.
34

Electrical potential
The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a certain point in an
electric field is called electric potential.
A
VA   E.dL

E  V
 = represent gradiant
ww
For vector operations, refer engineering mathematics k-notes.
w.E
Electric Flux Density
D  E
Electrical flux    D.dS

S
asy
SI unit of electric flux is coulomb. En
Gauss’s law gin
surface.
ee
It states that total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to charge enclosed by that
rin
S D.dS  b dV g.n
By Gauss’s Divergence theorem
.D  
et
Magnetic flux Density
Magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density. It is a vector quantity and denoted by
B & its unit is tesla (T).
Flux    B. dS
35

Magnetic field intensity
Represented by H .
B  H
 = permeability.
  or
r = relative permeability
o = permeability of free space
ww o  4  107 H m
w.E 
Biot – Savart’s law
d H
4 R
I
2
dL  aˆR
asy
Magnetic field due to infinite line current
En H
I
aˆ 
gin 2
 = perpendicular distance of point from line current.
ee
â = Unit vector in cylindrical co-ordinates.
rin
Ampere’s Circuital law
g.n
et
It states that line integral of magnetic field intensity H around any closed path is exactly equal to
net current enclosed by that path.
 H . dL  I enclosed
 H . dL   J . ds
By stokes theorem
 H  J
36

Maxwell equations
d B
1)  E . dL  dt 
B . dS or  E 
t
1
2)  E . dS    dv or  . E  
3)  B . dS  0 or .B 0
d
4)  B . dL  0  J . ds  o o dt  E . ds
or
ww 
  B  o  J  o

E 

t 
w.E 
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
37

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

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Manual for K-Notes

ww What are K-Notes?

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

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Short circuit & open circuit

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Series resistance or voltage division

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Delta to start conversion

Independent current source

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Voltage Current relationship

Energy Stored in a capacitor

Properties of ideal capacitor

so voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

In ‘n’ capacitors are connected in series C1 ,C2 ,.............Cn

 If ‘n’ capacitors are connected in parallel, C1 ,C2 ,..........................Cn

In series connection, charge is same whereas in parallel connection voltage is same.

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Energy Stored asy

Series & parallel Connection ee

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Capacitance CF Inductance L=CH

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True & Co-tree

Twigs & Links

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with an equivalent resistance R TH .

Case – 1 : Circuit with independent sources only

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To calculate VTH , open circuit of RL

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Case – 1 : Circuit with both dependent & independent sources

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

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General method of analysis

If switching is done at t=t0

v C t0 & iL t0 .

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i  t   et  A cos wdt  Bsinw dt  En

v  t   VS  A  Bt  et (Critically damped)

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v  t    A  Bt  et  critically damped

v  t   et  A cos wdt  Bsinwdt  under  damped

i  t   Is   A cos wdt  Bsinwdt  et Under  damped

We can compare the phases of two sinusoids provided that

Both V1  t  & V2  t  have same frequency.

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Phase angle,   tan1 X  R

Zeq  Z1  Z2  ................  Zn ee rin

Circuits analysis in AC domain