Basic Relations Based on the assumption that the power taken from the a-e supply system is at any instant in balance with the power delivered (0 the de circuit, relations between the a-e and the d-e quantities wil be derived without investigating the rectifier connection A rectifier connection represents a special kind of load to the a-e supply system, While a resistor or a linear reactor carries a sinusoidal current if connected to a source of sinusoidal voltage, the alternating currents of a rectifier connection are not sinusoidal. This is because these currents balance the d-c oad, and the manner in which the direct current is reflected through the rectifier connection to the a-c side changes every time the current is commutated from one phase to another. For determining the waveshape of the alternating currents, the rectifier connection is usually analyzed, and for each interval of operation the path of the load current is located in order to determine the primary currents that balance, in the various transformer windings, the secondary ampere- turns. Certainly, this is a rather complex meth; its most unfavorable aspect is that each rectifier coniiection needs its individual investigation, ‘Another approach is to establish a relation between the a-c and d-c quantities from the condition that input and output power must be in balance at any instant—under certain assumptions, of course. This climiniates the rectifier connection, the most complex and versatile part of ‘the investigation, and is therefore a very elegant and extremely useful method. It will be used for all further investigations and will now be explained. 3 Balance Between Input and Output Power For deriving the desired relations we assume that the rectifier connection is not able to absorb or to store any amount of energy. This is true under 23214 A-C Characteristics the following conditions: (@) We disregard any value of internal resistance and commutating reactance so that no heat is dissipated and no energy is stored in the leakage field of the transformer or the magnetic field of the bus bars. () We exclude connections with ampere-turn unbalance so that no energy is stored in the magnetic field caused by the unbalanced ampere-turns, (6) We disregard the transformer exciting current so that no energy is stored in the core of the transformer, Under these conditions the input power must be in balance with the output power at any instant, If we further assume, for the beginning, that the direct current is without ripple (regular operation), and the alternating voltages are undistorted so that both quantities are precisely defined, there ‘must be a strict relation between the other two quantities involved in the power formula—the alternating currents and the direct voltage. This relation concerns the waveshape as well as the real values, and will now be derived Deriving a General Relation Between the A-C and D-C Quantities The input power of each phase of a rectifier system connected toa 3-phase supply line is the product of the fine current (ii /) with the line-to- neutral voltage (ey ¢y ¢.). ‘The output power of the rectifier connection + is the product ofthe direct current Z, with the direct voltage ¢. Input and ‘output power st be:in balance at any instant. ‘Hence hes + ea + bate = ete (16.1) In order to express the voltages:as functions of wo, we define the point ‘of = 0 according to fig: 16.1. and read from the illustration: 1 = V2E, sin ot som se inte 1) = 88s or Fase a= vi sin(oot — 240° e[ Lani Bese] eg = Ey sin(ot — §) = E,lsin ot cos § — cos wt sin £] for ah Sat SofBasie Relations Pe) ae aan figure Fig. 163. Atterating line curéhts graphically Qéierminéd. (@) Lineto-nentrl voltages. (6) Direct voltage () Line currents, ‘Whéii these relations are inserted in equation (16.1), the sine as well as the ‘cosine functions must be in balance, This leads to Uhh — He H)V/3E, sin of = 148, 008 € sin ot i [BiB ify aeccos ot = Lg sin Beas ot as well as With pao this finally results in h= (cos 1 V2Enle fae [GEE feos — 1209) a= -os( — 240")276 A-C Characteristics Equations (16.2) disclose that the values of the three currents during the analyzed interval are represented by certain points on a sine curve with the crest value V2 E'yf,/32,, as shown in fig. 16.1c. During other intervals of operation the direct voltage is described by other functions, and other ete ty ty vltages current ig. 162. Relations between the a-c and d-c quantities, ppoints on the sine éirve will define the current values. Tn fact, these points are still on the same sine curve; they are only displaced by angles that correspond to the successive pulses of operation because the sine functions that describe the direct voltage during the successive pulses are displaced by the same angles. Hence, if we use for the three currents three separate, 120°-displaced sine curves, each curve is the locus for the steps of the corresponding current curve, as illustrated by fg. 16.2.Basic Relations on “The factor in relation (16.2) refers to a 3-phase supply system. Assuming instantaneous commutation, it ean be further developed with relation (172) into crest value of fundamental fit, wwe conclude: Crest value of sine curve defining steps _ Ey, ‘rest value of fundamental -E,, 63) ‘This relation is the key for drawing the sine curve that defines the steps. It does not apply to single-phase connections, but for those the current curve is very simple and does not need the method just presented. Situation with Phase Control In the mathematical development no assumptions have been made con- cerning the location of the analyzed section with respect to the point wt = 0, Hence the result must also be valid for operation with phase ‘control. ‘This seems logical since the manner in which, during the successive intervals of operation, the direct current is reflected through the rectifier shernating tne-to- neutral otages eo shernating tine crent wih fayeamental ro phase cairo! wth phase control Fig. 163. Relations between the a-c and dic quantities; influence of phase control,278 + AC Characteristios connection to the a-c side is an unchangeable property of the connection and cannot be affected by phase control. Indeed, as long as the magnitude of the direct current remains the same, the alternating currents will only be displaced but with unchanged shape, Furthermore, the sine curve that defines the steps and the fundamental will be displaced by the same angle and thus remain “in phase,” instantaneous commutation assumed. ‘This is illustrated by fig. 16.3 for 3-pulse operation. At the left the situation with zero phase control is shown, and both sine curves, the fundamental as well as the sine curve that defines the steps (not shown), are in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage of the corresponding phase. At the right, the intervals of operation are delayed by «, and so are the current curve and. its fundamental, neral Rule In order to enhance the understanding of the relations just derived let us turn them into a “general rule” for drawing the curves of the alternating currents of a rectifier connection, ASSUMPTIONS. (@) The rectifier system meets the specifications of a regular connection (Chis excludes connections with ampere-turn unbalance) (®) Single-phase connections are excluded, (6) The direct current is without ripple (This excludes free-wheeling operation and operation with resistive or capacitive load) @ The transformer exciting current is disregarded. (© Instantaneous commutation is assumed. Water, ttc method will be extended to a load current with ripple and to operation with a certain commutating angle.) THE PROBLEM Determine wave shape-and-magnitude of the alteating line currents knowing “About the connection: g and ¢ For the scale: Fyatid Py (or 1) THE SOLUTION (1) Determine Z, the tms value ofthe fundamental, according t0 equation 72): P Iya Fee 3E, (2) Compute £q/E,, according to equation (63).Basic Relations 29 (3) Draw in phase with the fundamental a sine curve with a crest value of E,,/Ey, times the crest value of the fundamental (\/21,). (4) Mark along this sine curve the points that define the steps of the current curve. Start at a point that follows the erest value of the sine curve with a delay of &, and find the other points in intervals of 360°%/q (Each point marks the middle of @ pulse). Example (Alternating current of a pulse connection with &-— 15°) A 6-pulse rectifier connection with § = 15° and Ey, = 250 V at Eyorig = 125V is operated with a direct current of J, = 2000 A. Determine the curve of the alternating current. Solution. First, we compute the erest value of the Fundamental: iad 3E, 2 x 250{V]_2000 [A] 3x 2251] ‘Then we multiply this value by q/B,y, Which is 1.05 for 6-pulse perform- ance, resulting in 1980 [A]. This isthe crest value of the sine curve that defines the steps of the current curve. For £ = 15° we compute: Ist step = crest value times cos 15° = 1910 [A] crest value times cos 75° = 512 [A] crest value times cos 135° = —1400 [A] The same values will then follow with opposite polarity resulting in the ccurve shown in fig. 16.4 Vih= = 1885 [A] 191014) 7 oan ig. 164, Current curve analyzed in sample calculation280 AC Characteristics ‘The Phase Shift Angle ‘The angle ¢ introduced for deriving equation (16.2) represents the displace. rent of the sine curve that defines the direct voltage during a certa interval of operation (pulse) in relation to the curve ofthe line-to-neutral voltage. In single-phase circuits there is no such displacement, and & has xno meaning, but for connections with a multiphase input any value of & is possible, Since the number of pulses per eycle is 1, 2,3, ~~ times the number of phases, it does not matter from which phase we start, and 7 times 360°/q may be added or subtracted from ¢. In fact, £ may be under- stood as the angle measured from the erest point of any line-to-neutral input voltage to the following crest point of the direct voltage at no load and zero phase control It should be emphasized that €is not merely the phase shift angle of the transformer; itis a combination of the phase shift angles of the trans- former and the diode connection. As an example, for a 3-phase bridge connection with a wye-wye connected transformer & is 30° although the transformer does not cause any phase shift. The phase shift is the result of the displaced operation of the two wyes ‘Combination of Systems For reducing the ripple of the direct voltage and improving the shape of the alternating currents towards the perfect sine curve, rectifier systems are frequently built of smaller units that operate with a certain displace- ‘ment, and the d-c outputs of these units are series connected or paralleled ~. through interphase transformers. In the simplest form, two 3-pulse com- “niutating groups opettite in series in a 3-phase bridge connection, and in parallel in a double-wye connection with interphase transformer. The petforniance of the total system will show all characteristics of a regular connection (especially identical operation during all successive intervals) if the following conditions are satisfied: 1. The d-c load is equally shared among the individual systems. 2, The individual systems operate with the same angles of phase control and commutation. 3, The individual systems have the same pulse number and are displaced against each other by : Aga 2 (16.4) ma ‘where rn = number of combined systems, pulse number of the individual systemsBasic Relations Equation (16.4) demands Ag = 60° for the combination of two 3-pulse systems Ag= 30° for the combination of two 6-pulse systems If rectifier connections are combined under these conditions the pulse number of the total system will be the sum of the pulse numbers of the individual systems, and the new phase shift angle will be the mean value of the individual angles, as illustrated by fig. 16.5. Furthermore, we Fig. 165. Combination of two retifer connections. conclude: Since the new system i a repuar connection, and the waveshape the allematng curent of a regular connetion i only function af g ghd the individual currents must total up toa wave shape thats identical sith that of any othe regular connection withthe same values of and | E's they bave been computtd for the combffation of the individual ‘Sonectons, This i ilutated in igs. 166 and 16.7 fr the combination Sto 3 pulse systems, and in fis. 168 ond 169 forthe combination of two fopukeaytema, Such currents that “complete” each other, will in the Lelowing be eiled coMPLEMNTARY CURRENTS, and it will now be shown with an example that the combination of ruch currents results in a new current with “regular shape.” Example” (Combination of two pute currents) 3 Determine the curv ofa 12-pulse current with & = 15° in two ways: (@) according to the “general rule,” () as the total of two complementary 6-pulse currents. ‘Solution (illustrated by fig. 16.10). .(a) Let.us refer all values to the rms value of the fundamental of the 12-pulse cirrent, . From this value we282 A-C Characteristics a) ae + i= ee | “Vw oun — baa" wu LC ane alternating earent rect voage Fig. 16.6 Combination of two 3-puse systems with & = 0 and & = 60° compute the crest value of the sine curve that defines the steps of the 12- “pulse curve, This @-+ Wt) : @= ea vin os 45 @- cos 75° = eh () As the second approach, we combine two 6-pulse currents with € = 0 and & = 30°, each with a fundamental of #/,. Again, we start with theBasic Relations 283 calculation of the crest value of the sine curve that defines the steps. This value is, for 6-pulse performance, lel. ‘Then we compute the steps, guided by fig. 16.10: primary linet TL erating curent ect voage Fig. 16.7. Combination of two 3-pulse systems with § = —30° and & = +30",284 * A-C Characteristics primary line-to- eral voages spt, Peg system 2, IT ane sitting current iret vtage ig. 16.8. Combination of two 6-pulse systems with & = O and ¢ = 30", ‘Fhe 12-pulse curr is,the total of the two 6-pulse currents. Hence the steps of the 12-pulse current are determined by O-@+0 @-O+© é * @-O & and it will be found that the results coincide with the values computed above. ‘The “Family of Current Curves’? In the last paragraphs it has been shown that all current curves of regular connections satisfy a general law and that, under instantaneous selina iiBasic’ Relations primary tineto outa voges oot, pl ane system 2, _[T as sterating current direct voltage Fig, 169, Combination of to 6:pulse systems with € = —15° and & = 415% commutation, q and & are the only variables—beSides.the scale, of course, Furthermore, since rectifier transformers are being made as simple as possible, only very few values of & are practised. Thus there is a rather limited assortment of current curves which may be regarded as the “family of current curves.” These curves are presented by figs. 16.12-16.14 for 3-, 6, and-12-pulse performance, and, for completeness, the single-phase curve which is not covered by the general rule is shown in fig, 16.11, Influence of Current Ripple and Commutation Up to this point idealized current curves have been investigated. ‘The real ‘curves differ, since they are deformed by commutation and the ripple of the direct current, However, commutation and ripple do not change the way in which the d-c load is reflected through the rectifier connection to286 © AC Characteristics Fig, 1610, Combination of two 6-pule curents the ac side. Henge the method derived for the idealized situation must ‘sill be suted fof determining the alternating currents; the curve obtained with this method must only be corrected for the real conditions. ‘Concerning the ripple, the situation is very simple:for the following reason: All relations between the ¢-c.and d-c quantities are valid for any oad level. Hence if the value:of the direct: current changes—and. the ripple is nothing but a periodic change—the a-c. quantities must change ig: 16.1. Alternating current of a single-phase rectifier connection. te leas wieBasic Relations jen Ta nls for a3 FR pe a andra Ate ‘curve defining steps Bh sin 75° hp Eh sin ase S95 Ph sins Fig. 1612. "Graphical analysis of 3-pulse current curves. proportionally, so that the ripple can be taken ikto account simply by increasing or reducing the value of the altervating ourrent at any instant in proportion to the fluctuations of the direct current. This is illustrated for two different current curves'in'figs. 16:15 and 16.16. Figure 16.156 shows the curve of the'direct current for 3-pulse performance with zero phase control and resistive load. “The average value of this current is then ‘used for plotting the idealized curve of the alternating current in section288 AC Characteristics (@ @ashed curve), according to the method just developed. At the points where the real direct current is equal to its average value, the curve of the real alternating current has an intersection with the idealized curve, while / Ela forg= 8 Svan exis Fig. 1613. Graphical analysis of 6-pulse current curves. 3 all other values are increased or reduced in proportion to the fluctuations of the direct current. In fig. 16.16 this philosophy is applied to-@ connection with the same values of q and £ (same idealized current curve), but with a pulsating current as obtaitied with a capacitive load circuit (explained in Chapter 14). ‘These current pulses appear at the ac side with the same shape, but[nla for g = 12 PEA, Capi mayo pn ce O=sing 5 N @ asin 907) 5 v Vv’ B=snes sn} stv Oe me ot) in © asin +1509, @= sin +00, Fig. 1645. Relations between alternating current (a) and direct current (6) with resistive load. 289290 A-C Characteristics ost capactor | _f androtoed i J @ Fig. 1616, Relations between alternating current (a), dreet current (6), and dicect voltage (6) with eapacitive load, @—t Fig. 16.17. Alternating current curve deformed by commuiation (a) and currents ia the secondaty branches () éBasic Relations 291 increased or reduced in proportion to the height ofthe steps of the idealized ‘The influence of commutation is similar, Again, the general rule is used to determine the idealized curve, and then the transitions between the steps are deformed in accordance with the shape of the current pulses in the secondary phases. This is illustrated by fig. 16.17,