Heating in transformer cores due to

radial leakage flux

Pt.1: Experimental models and test results
R.F. Hemmings, M.A., C.Eng., M.I.E.E., and G.D. Wale, B.Sc.(Eng), M.Phil., M.I.E.E.

Indexing terms: Heating, Magneticflux,Magnetic leakage, Transformers

Abstract
The heating effects of radial flux.become increasingly important in the design of large power transformers, both
because of the higher flux densities generally involved and larger dimensions of components affected, particularly
the core clamping structure. This paper describes two series of models constructed to study the heating of trans-
formers cores and core clamping structures under the influence of radial leakage flux from the windings. The first
series of models was designed to obtain urgently needed design information on the temperatures to be expected in
various practical geometries, and their longer-term effect on the insulating materials used in their construction,
while the second series was used to allow a more detailed study of flux penetration and eddy-current effects to be
made. Formulas for the calculation of the losses and resultant temperature rises are derived and compared with
measurements made both on the models and on transformers. The significance of the results for the design, testing
and operation of transformers is discussed.

List of symbols
$ = magnetic flux, Wb (peak)
B = flux density, T (peak)
G = temperature rise, degC
/ = frequency, Hz
Po = specific loss, kW/m3
q = surface loss, kW/m2
w = plate width, mm
t = plate thickness, mm
5 = skin depth, mm
p = specific resistance, ixSl-m
1 Introduction
In core-type transformers, leakage flux due to load current
can complete its magnetic circuit either externally by passing between
the windings and tank wall, or internally by passing into the trans-
former core. In high-power transformers, above about 400 MVA, the
heating effect of the leakage flux passing into the transformer core
becomes important owing to increases both in the magnitude of the
working flux densities and in the dimensions of the core and clamping
structure.
The stray load losses are increased, but the more important effect is
the production of hot spots which can cause damage to solid insulation,
producing gas to increase the gas content of the oil, and then eventually
leading to the operation of the gas alarm relay.
In one instance, during a preliminary heat run of short duration at
normal current, the core clamping plates of a large autotransformer
were heated sufficiently to melt the solder used for securing the
thermocouples.
On another occasion the Permali clamping boards used on the core
of a large generator transformer showed evidence of overheating on
dismantling. Other instances have been reported and discussed.1
The path the leakage flux follows depends on the relative reluc-
tances of the alternative magnetic circuits, which vary in a particular
design with the load conditions of the transformer, e.g. the magnetising
flux density, the leakage flux density and the phase angle between
them. In the factory load test, the leakage flux path will depend on
whether the inner or outer winding is short-circuited; and this change
is reflected in different loss and temperature measurements. The
regions most likely to be heated by the leakage flux are the flat sur-
faces of the core laminations and leg clamping plates outside the core
window and generally opposite the ends of the windings, where the
radial flux density is a maximum.
The case of nonmagnetic conducting plates subject to uniform flux
density has been considered by several authors, 2 " 5 "and the specific
loss and total loss in the plate can be calculated using either analytical
formulas or computer methods which allow for the reaction, or
perturbation, of the induced eddy currents on the incident flux.
Paper 7980P, first received 1st November 1976 and in revised form 25th July
1977
Mr. Hemmings is with Kennedy & Donkin, Consulting Engineers, Chatsworth
House, Lever Street, Manchester Ml 3LT, England, and Mr. Wale is with GEC
Power Transformers Ltd., Stafford ST17 4LN, England
The effects of saturation in solid magnetic steel plates has been
analysed, and the results of test and calculation compared,6""9 follow-
ing the earlier work of Rosenberg.10
The important problem of the losses in a laminated stack, in con-
trast to that of a solid conducting block, has only recently received
theoretical study and is the subject of a published paper.11
The transformer application involves in addition a wide range of
other parameters, for example the ratios of clamping plate width and
thickness to skin depth, and the significant effect of magnetic per-
meability in the case of core steel. Solutions for the two extremes of
leg clamping plate thickness which are small or large compared with
the skin depth are given for an isolated plate,3 but in practice many
problems fall into the intermediate range where computer calculation
may be necessary. Even with the loss distribution in the plate deter-
mined, in order to calculate the temperature of hot spots, further
study is required, particularly of the heat transfer to the cooling oil.12
Some work has been done on a thermometric method of measuring
power loss in solid metal elements,13 but the local rates of rise of tem-
perature were used to estimate the stray loss, rather than the final
temperature. Other factors of relevance to the transformer application
are the nonuniformity of the radial flux distribution along the core,
and the thermal and magnetic as well as electrical anisotropy of the
core.
In view of the complexity of the theoretical approach, transformer
manufacturers have done much experimental work on transformers, in
the factory and at site, and have built test rigs designed to simulate
the important features. There are also references in the literature to
models. Losses in the end clamping plates and leg clamping plates have
been studied in papers by Boriv,14 and Man'kin,15 with supporting
tests on steel and brass plates together with scale models. A further
paper by Man'kin16 investigates with a full-size model the losses in
core laminations due to the combination of radial leakage flux and
magnetising flux.
To reproduce realistic temperature gradients, the thermal loading,
oil flow conditions and size of any model must be similar to those
used in large transformers.
Until the time of the work to be described in this paper, owing to
difficulties of instrumentation, measurements of temperatures, but
not flux densities, had been made on transformers; and measurements
of flux densities, but not realistic temperatures, had been made on
models. This new work covers both temperature and flux-density
measurements made on two different series of full-sized models, and
some temperature measurements on transformers.
The first models for the earlier development investigation were
constructed in 1966 by one company to obtain urgently needed
design information on the temperature rises in structural parts of the
transformer which were then being subjected to substantially greater
magnetic loading than in earlier designs. This work was thus especially
directed towards measurement of temperatures arising in typical struc-
tures, and to the effect of prolonged exposure to such temperatures
on the insulation materials in the structure. The second series of
models was constructed in 1972 for the research investigation by
another company as a facility to determine in some detail the mechan-
isms of flux penetration and loss generation in typical core structures,

1064 PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977

with a view of evolving general solutions with a wide range of appli-
cations. This work is still in progress.
2 Earlier development investigation
2.1 Scope
This early investigation proceeded along two lines. The first
was concerned with the exposure of typical clamping and core struc- although the peak value of the radial leakage-flux density is less.
tures to magnetic loadings appropriate to the designs of that time, and
to the greater loadings expected in future designs. The second provided
for the prolonged heating of typical clamping structures at the tem-
peratures observed in the electromagnetic model so that their long- the correct distribution. The coreplates were interleaved at their ends
term effects could be assessed.
Fig. 1
General view of electromagnetic model
Fig. 2
View of pancake coil: electromagnetic model
2.2 Electromagnetic model
This model was designed and constructed to reproduce as
closely as possible the conditions near the top of the windings of a
PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977
large generator transformer, and the geometry chosen reflected the
design practice typical of that period. The radial leakage flux distri-
bution chosen was that appropriate to a generator transformer,
although conditions in a large autotransformer may be no less severe.
A large autotransformer will normally have a less 'peaky' radial
leakage-flux distribution as a result of the generally greater distance
between the current-carrying conductors and the core, but the total
amount of heat may be just as great as in a generator transformer,
Although in the full-size transformer the radial flux is normal to
each of the three limbs, in the model two limb sections were built fac-
ing one another, so that radial flux passed directly between them in
to complete the magnetic circuit. Windings were provided in this area
so that magnetising flux could be induced in the coreplate, but it was
found that insufficient power could be introduced to provide satisfac-
torily high flux densities.
An axial length of rather more than half a leg length was exposed
to a radial flux, Bz, produced by a suitable pancake winding, inserted
between the two groups of coreplates, whose intensity modelled the
calculated radial flux distribution in a real transformer.
A general view of the completed model, outside its oil tank, and
without the pancake coil is shown in Fig. 1. The general scale can be
judged from the standard (1500 mm) gauge railway lines set into the
floor, and the clamping structure ready for test on the right-hand core
section can be clearly seen. In most investigations the clamping
arrangements on the two faces were different, so that results could be
obtained for two arrangements simultaneously. The leads from several
hundreds of thermocouples and flux search coils within the core stack
and clamping structures are seen running to their terminations near
the top of the model.
The radial flux excitation m.m.f. was produced by the pancake
windings, whose turns were suitably graded, and of construction
shown in Fig. 2. The completed winding was inserted vertically be-
tween the two groups of coreplates, and with the more closely spaced
top of transformer
2OO
• top of winding _—-^"
^—o—
2OO
E 4OO
/
6OO
8OO-
{
1000-
O4 O6 O8 IO
radial flux density, p.u.
Fig. 3
Radial flux density (Bz) variation with y: electromagnetic model
1 p. u. radial flux density is 0-105 T peak (or 0 0 7 5 T r.m.s.)
o Search coil traverse results
25
I1
Fig. 4
Core section: electromagnetic model
Packet sizes: 248 X 7; 254 X 8 and 273 X 8
wXfmm : 286 X8;298 X9 and 311 X 11
1065
turns uppermost, so as to model the conditions near the top of a Both these effects would be expected to restrain incident flux to
transformer leg, where higher temperatures than at the bottom are the front face of the core stack, unless the axial flux density were
experienced. The flux distribution profile at which the clamping struc- close to saturation, and a typical result is shown in Fig. 6, the values
tures were exposed is shown in Fig. 3. being obtained in the absence of axial magnetising flux and with a
The coreplates stack, which was exposed to this flux, had dimen- steel-clamping structure in front of the laminations.
sions typical of the outer core packets of a large generator transformer It is seen that less than half of the flux incident in the region of
of the period, as shown in Fig. 4. As the width of the largest packets maximum intensity succeeds in penetrating more than 20 plates, or
of coreplate required to fill the core circle of this class of transformer about 6 mm, but that outside this region, where the axial flux density
exceeded the width of coreplate manufactured, a side-by-side con- is high and the incident flux density lower (search coils 7-8, 8-9,
struction had been adopted. In order to ease clamping and assembly 9-10), the picture is quite different.
difficulties, and also to allow for some cooling, a 25 mm gap was left
between the groups of plates, and this gap was maintained even in
packets where plate of sufficient width could have been obtained.
This construction was also used in the model. The model core was 2.4 Thermal endurance model
similarly clamped by bolts passing through this gap, as on a full-sized
Clamping structures, identical with those being studied on
transformer.
the electromagnetic model, were given prolonged heating under oil at
Measurements of flux densities within the coreplate stack were
the temperature value and the pattern observed on the electromagnetic
obtained from 123 search coils built into the core stack at various
model with a graded heater situated just under the coreplate surface.
depths and in various axial positions, as illustrated in Fig. 5, enabling
To start these endurance tests as soon as possible, calculated values of
normal and axial flux densities to be monitored throughout the stack.
loss distribution were used, supported by experimental results on a
The model was immersed in transformer oil maintained at a tem-
small-scale model at a higher frequency.
perature appropriate to normal service, and the temperatures of the
The high-frequency model indicated only the average loss density
oil, the clamping structure and the core face were monitored by 336
across the plates, and for the full-size thermal-endurance models, a
thermocouples connected to a data logger. The temperature results are
resistively limited (parabolic) loss distribution was assumed, so that
discussed in Section 2.5.
the peak loss density at the outside of the plates was three times the
For most tests one face of the coreplate stack was clamped by steel
average value. The axial-loss-density distribution was graded in pro-
plates with various ducting arrangements, the other by a Permali plate,
portion to the square of the incident flux density and the local pen-
again with various ducting arrangements. The opportunity was also
etration depth in accordance with the evidence then available. No heat
taken to assess the magnitude of the known danger of concentration
was applied in the areas where the loss density would be insufficient
of radial flux and consequent overheating of magnetic clamping bolts
to give appreciable temperature rise. The variable thermal loading was
in a nonmagnetic clamping structure.
achieved by folding the German silver heater strip axially to give 1,3
or 5 thicknesses of strip in a particular circuit under any point, and
the edge-to-edge variation was obtained by use of multiple strips of
bed e f 9 suitable width, the greatest number being used near the edge of the

1 plate. A thermal loading map is shown in Fig. 7.

The heater strip was sandwiched between core laminations to pro-
vide a heated core stack. The rear face of the coreplate stack was pro-
vided with substantial thermal insulation to prevent appreciable heat
dissipation in this direction, and the front face was kept pressed
against the clamping structure by bolts passing through the assembly.
The whole was fitted with thermocouples at various positions on the
face of the coreplate and the model immersed in transformer oil main-
tained at a temperature appropriate to that near the clamping struc-
ture in an actual transformer.

2.5 Thermal results

These results fall into two groups: those obtained from the
thermal endurance model and those obtained from the electromag-
netic model. They are then compared with the thermal endurance
model results.
The thermal-endurance models demonstrated the very strong
dependence of the rate of degradation of insulation materials on tem-
perature and oil access. A temperature of 175°C, for instance, in the
presence of oil at a comparable temperature, led to the destruction of
Permali within a few days.
Temperature results from the electromagnetic model showed that
Fig. 5 certain clamping arrangements gave unacceptably high temperatures,
Flux search coil matrix, electromagnetic model For instance, the heating of magnetic bolts in a nonmagnetic structure
a Incident flux distribution was found unacceptably severe at the radial flux densities likely to
b Side view of search coil matrix occur in a large transformer, and even the use of large copper flux-
Horizontal scale approximately 20 X vertical scale rejection rings as the clamping washer was not an adequate solution.
Dimensions Surface a — 2 plates 1—2 = 140 mm
a—b = 4 plates 2—3 = 140 mm The use of nonmagnetic steel bolts and load spreading washers was
b—c — 4 plates 3—4 = 51 mm found to give temperature rises of only one-tenth of those observed in
c—d = 8 plates 4 —S = 102 mm their ferromagnetic equivalents.
d-e — 1 8 plates 5—6 = 102 mm
e - / = 34 plates 6 - 7 = 152 mm By matching of temperature rises observed in the identical struc-
f-g = 68 plates 7 - 8 = 1 5 2 mm tures of the electromagnetic and thermal endurance models, it was
Plate thickness 0-35 mm 8—9 = 457 mm possible to estimate the power loss arising in the electromagnetic
9 — 10 = 89 mm
model at a known flux density.
It was seen that the temperature distribution in the electromagnetic
model was rather more extreme than in the thermal-endurance model,
2.3 Flux distribution with its parabolic thermal loading (Reference Fig. 7), indicating a
rather greater concentration of loss towards the edge of the plates. A
The flux distribution in the coreplate stack is controlled lack of symmetry in the temperature distribution in both the electro-
mainly by two effects: first, the perturbation of the field by the eddy magnetic and thermal endurance models reflected the better cooling
currents in the plane of the plates, as flux attempts to penetrate the at the outside edges of the core stacks than at the centre gap.
core stack, and secondly the relative reluctances of flux paths within
the core stack. Here the presence of nonmagnetic interlaminar material 2.6 Application of results
reduces the average permeability normal to the plates to a low value,
and so flux would tend to stay within a particular lamination unless The immediate application of the results was in modifications
the density in that lamination were close to the saturation value. to existing design practice.

1066 PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977

 It had now been found that the best arrangement of ducting be- Table 1
tween the clamping board and the face of the core reduced the tem- DETAILS OF RESEARCH MODEL
perature rise to less than half of that of the unducted arrangement, Core
but even this reduced temperature had been shown by the thermal- Vertical length 1778 mm
endurance model to be too high to be permissible for long-term Maximum width 685 mm
exposure of the structural insulating material. Width of top packet 485 mm
The loss in the coreplate was therefore reduced by design modifi- Depth of core 68 mm
cations, which took one of the two forms. The first modification*, Net area of c.s. 0 0 3 6 m2
particularly suitable for upgrading existing designs as it entailed no Clamping-plate section
alteration to the existing core, consisted of screening the areas of 1 st arrangement Stainless-steel 406 X 9-5 mm
highest loss by means of on-edge laminations of coreplate, by which 2nd arrangement Resin-impregnated wood 405 X 25 mm
the incident flux density on the core face was reduced. The second
Oil duct 6 mm
modification*, particularly suitable for new designs, relied on the con- Core bolts dia. 28-5 mm
trol of eddy-current loss under the full incident flux density by sub- centres 305 mm
division of the outer layers of coreplates. This method has now
become a standard feature in its company of origin on all designs Core section
subject to severe magnetic loading. Packet No. 1 2 3 4 5
Width, mm 485 535 585 635 685
Depth, mm 11 13 13 16 13
3 Research investigation
The research models used for this investigation were similar Winding
to the earlier development models in that a full sized section of trans- Number of turns 300
Axial length 650 mm
former core was exposed to radial leakage flux, but in order to pro-
Axial spacing 280 mm
vide a facility for varying the flux profile, in the research models two Radial gap 254 mm
movable coils were arranged round one of the vertical limbs of the Current rating 80 A
core, leakage flux returning through the test core on one side and Maximum flux density 0-16 T (peak)
through space on the other.

'British Patent 1,030,842

tBritish Patent 1,220,577

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Fig. 6
Search coil matrix results, electromagnetic model
Flux densities in Tesla (peak)
Core plate clamped with steel plates, 0-8 p. u. current

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977 1067

3.1 Description digital print-out equipment designed to amplify the d.c. e.m.f. of the
thermocouples while rejecting a.c. pickup voltages.
The general arrangement of these models is shown in Fig. 8, The whole core and windings were oil-cooled by natural convection,
and the main dimensions are given in Table 1. Radial flux, Bz, was the mild-steel tank being fitted with radiators at the level indicated in
generated by two windings carrying current in opposite directions Fig. 8.
located on the vertical leakage core. The core under test was situated
opposite the leakage core between its top and bottom yokes, and was 3.2 Radial flux distribution
exposed to radial flux with a vertical distribution which, although
symmetrical, was typical of a large autotransformer. The C-shaped The vertical variation of radial flux density (Bz with y) was
leakage flux yoke was of bolted construction using laminations obtained from the series of search coils positioned approximately
clamped between leg plates of mild steel, and carried the two coils 50 mm in front of the top lamination, and is shown for two current
wound on special formers of oval section. The test core of section levels in Fig. 11. The values of flux density calculated directly from
shown in Fig. 9 represented part of a typical transformer core and the winding m.m.f. and radial gap are also indicated for the highest
comprised a stack of laminations (Unisil 3OM5 grade, insulined), made current, 60-4 A. The measured values are less than those calculated
up as shown in Table 1. The laminations were clamped on to the resin- owing to perturbation and edge effects (see Part 2). Another point of
impregnated wood base by six stainless-steel bolts. In the first arrange- note is the increase in flux density on the axis of the core bolts (which
ment the clamping plate was stainless-steel (Nirus 3); in the second it in both cores were stainless-steel of permeability 1-5—2-0). The hori-
was resin impregnated wood. Between the clamping plates and lami- zontal variation in flux density (Bz with x) was measured from the
nations an oil duct was formed by wood sulphate board spacers. row of search coils located across the middle of the test core, and is
In both arrangements a survey of the radial flux density distribution shown in Fig. 12.
Bz was made with wound search coils attached to vertical and hori- The sharp rise in flux density towards the edges of laminations is
zontal strips generally positioned as shown in Fig. 9 and 10. In the apparent, and this effect, due to eddy-current reaction is discussed in
second arrangement, additional coils were located in the duct at close Part 2 of the paper.
spacing to record the variation in flux density across the plate. Also
the total flux through the outer packets of laminations was measured
by single-turn loops of insulated copper strip, linking packets of depth
increasing from 6 to 25 mm as shown in Fig. 10.
For temperature measurements, copper-constantan thermocouples
were inserted in the edges of the outer packet 2 mm from the surface,
and at three positions duplicate thermocouples were soldered to the
outer surface of the laminations close to the edge for the purpose of
making comparative measurements on the two types of thermo-
couples.
From both search coils and thermocouples, twin twisted connec-
tions were taken via a multiway output socket in the tank wall, to the
recording equipment. The search coil voltages were displayed on an
ultraviolet recorder, and the thermocouple temperatures typed out on

av. a
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Fig. 8
18 8 19 14 33 64 33 14 19 8 18
av. General arrangement of research model
7-9 248
a Leakage flux yoke
dimensions in millimetres b Core under test
c Main windings
d Clamping bolts
Fig. 7 e Level of radiators
Surface heat loading (kW/m2): thermal-endurance models / Tank flange and gasket
g Permali base
a top of leg h Tank base
b top of winding / Tank cover

1068 PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977

3.3 Vertical peak flux density

The values of peak flux density (By) in the packets were IO-
estimated assuming sinusoidal shape from the peak-peak voltages on
the waveforms recorded from the loops. Owing to the generally non-
sinusoidal waveshapes, great accuracy could not be expected, but the
results are illustrated in Fig. 13 and give a qualitative picture, showing
the progressive saturation of the different depths as the radial flux
8-
density increases, particularly at levels 8 and 10, the higher levels
away from the centre.
In Fig. 14 the total vertical flux $ y , as distinct from flux density
By, is calculated from the loop voltage and plotted as a function of
coil current. Also plotted are the theoretical values of total leakage 6-
flux incident on the core at each level (the dotted lines). It is evident
that the loops at the different depths and levels collect most of the
incident flux available. At the lower currents much of the flux is
collected by the loop at the first depth (6 or 12 mm). The curves are
characterised by a sharp change in gradient, showing clearly the extent 2-
of the flux penetration at different currents.

Table 2
GAS ANALYSIS
Current, A 30 36
Time, h 0 3* 7 0 3* 7
Hydrogen H 2 , p.p.m. N.D. 0-9 0-5 11 0-5 1-5
Methane CH 4 , p.p.m. 0-55 0-40 0-36 0-66 0-62 0-82
Ethylene C2 H 4 , p.p.m. 014 009 011 016 017 0-30
Ethane C 2 H 6 , p.p.m. 013 009 010 0-23 015 016
Acetylene C 2 H 2 , p.p.m. 004 001 002 003 002 003
Carbon 20 25 25 18 19 40
monoxide CO, p.p.m.
Carbon
360 415 410 505 470 645
dioxide CO 2) p.p.m.
Total gas, % 4-7 5-2 4-6 5-1 6-3 6-9
Top oil temp., degC 19 44 54 22 55 65
Hot spot temp., deg C 93 115 121 107 139 142
Fig. 10
N.D. = Not detectable
Test core: second arrangement of research model
a Search coils on vertical strips (for Bz)
b Search coils in duct (for Bz)
c Measuring loops (for <Dy) at levels 0, 2, 6, 8, 10
d Permali clamping plate
e Outer loops
/ Inner loops

2 -
Ol

O -

^008

OO6

OO4

OO2

3O5 centre 3O5 6IO I

bottom top
y

Fig. 11
Fig. 9 Radial flux density (Bz) variation with y
Test core: first arrangement of research model second arrangement, coils SO mm in front of laminations:
measured
a Search coils on vertical strips (for Bz) calculated
b Core clamping bolts 60-4 A o (bolt position •)
c Stainless-steel clamping plate 32 S A o (bolt position A)

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977 1069

3.4 Loss-density measurements 3.5 Final temperatures

Loss densities were measured directly by observing the initial
rate-of-rise temperature. Groups of thermocouple voltages were
sampled by the digital print-out equipment, and by repeated record-
ings, up to 8 per minute on any one thermocouple; values for specific
loss were established in the edges of the laminations and the stainless-
steel clamping plate. Typical results are plotted in Fig. 15 and show
the loss to be approximately proportional to current squared.
o cotton tapes used for positioning the search coils and clamped under a
CK
CL
1- "
•-£>
The variation of final metal-oil temperature gradient with
winding current was investigated for two current levels with the first
arrangement, and for four with the second. The results for the differ-
ent thermocouple positions are plotted as a function of current in Fig.
16. For the three lower current levels, the gradient is approximately
proportional to (current)16 but the relationship is not definitely
established.
The effect of core heating was investigated in two tests where the
condition of the oil was monitored over a period of seven hours. The
temperature, and gas-in-oil analysis, are given in Table 2. On dismantl-
ing, the only evidence of heating was the blackening of one of the
wood block at the edge of the stainless-steel plate. The rise in CO and
CO2 gas content would be consistent with this damage.

tD 1
1
OI2- \ 3.6 Loss formula
\
\ The following method of estimation may be used to provide
\ some guidelines for transformer designers:
\
OIO- \
1
O The specific loss at the edges of a long conducting plate in uniform
^--.Q O D-' flux can be calculated from the standard formula2'3 provided the flux
O
Q A
U O
-^ due to the induced eddy currents is small compared with the incident
0O8- \
\
flux, namely 5 2 > wt where 5 is the skin depth. An approximate
correction factor E to allow for the finite axial length of the radial
OO6 flux distribution can be taken from Reference 2. Thus the specific
\ x *\^J8 ° tu^ loss is
\ ^
OO4

OO2 w(mm) is the effective width of the plate exposed to radial flux, B
lamination edaes (T peak) the peak flux density at the core surface and p (fiQ-m) the
plate resistivity.
i i 1
152 76 O 76 152 In practice, core laminations and mild-steel leg plates lead to values
of skin depth such that 5 2 < wt and the ratios of (w/5) and (t/8) often
x , mm
lie outside the range of calculated data. In these circumstances the
Fig. 12 effective heated sectional area can be taken as \tb per unit axial
Radial flux density, Bz, variation with x length, and the corresponding cooling area approximately t, or t + 5,
first arrangement: 27-9 A; 36-2 A
second arrangement 25-1 A; 37-0 A, 60-4A
• 35 mm in front of laminations
A level 1 level IO
o level 0

level IO
X X X

g.
h-

O
level 8
level 8
OOI
IO

level 6
level 6
OOI
IO - - ' o o ° o o
• •" o
§ x x x x x x

level 2
level 2
OOI
IO
o o
_ _ - - - -g-g-~1?"

level O level O

_& X_
O O O O o
IO 2O 3O 4O 50 O
IO 2O 3O 4O SO 6O
current,A
coil currerit , A
Fig. 13 Fig. 14
Vertical flux density distribution, Bz, variation with coil current: refer Vertical flux distribution ($y) variation with coil current: refer to
to Fig. 10 for loop positions Fig. 13
Level number 0 2 6 8 10 ,X outer loop
X Outer depth, mm 6 6 6 12 12 0 both loops added
0 Inner depth, mm — 6 6 6 12 maximum flux available (calculated)

1070 PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977

depending on whether only the edge or both the edge and face of the
core are cooled. Furthermore, the presence of the first packet of
laninations or steel leg plate reduces the effective width w exposed to
flux of the next packet of laminations.
From the specific loss and the appropriate cooling area the surface
loss density q kW/m2 can be estimated, and hence the temperature
gradient, from the relationship
G = 7-l<7°*degC
which applies to metal surfaces in freely convecting oil.15
The calculated initial rate of rise of temperature is derived directly
from the specific loss for steel, being approximately 0 017p 0 deg
C/min.
3.7 Results from large transformers
Table 3 gives examples of the application of these formulas
to temperatures at the edges of the two arrangements of the research
model and to three transformers on which detailed measurements
were made. The methods of measurement used on the transformers
were generally similar to those used on the model and were applied
during short-circuit tests. The temperature gradient in the transformers
was taken as the difference between the measured hot-spot tempera-
ture and the bottom oil/header temperatures, as often, during a short-
circuit test, the core and adjacent oil is much cooler than the top oil.
Transformer A was tested with a mild-steel leg plate of width 304
mm and on overload gave a high measured gradient of 159 deg C.

9O

8O 0
2OO

° 7O
en
1
•c t
* 6O
%
c
V s6
•5 50 • •
I5O o
L.

4O
i $ /

2 /

/^n = 1-6
3O
IOO
/

8 //

2O

5O

IOOO 2OOO 3OOO 4OOO IO 2O 3O 4O 5O

(current)? A2 current ,A

Fig. 15 Fig. 16
Initial rates of rise of temperature; variation with coil current Final temperature gradients, variation with coil current
Second arrangement of research model Second arrangement of research model, refer to Fig. 13
Thermocouple details Level 7 3 0 2 4 6 8
o inserted at level 4 Inserted + o a X . • A
X inserted at level 6 Soldered • v A
a soldered at level 4

Table 3
GRADIENTS AND RATES OF RISE OF TEMPERATURE
Flux density Gradients Rates of rise
Transformer rating Component width Tpk. Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas.
MVA/kV mm(vv) degC degC deg C/min deg C/min
A 200/3 Core 54 .006 13 35
154/46 009 24 42 26 18
(60 Hz) Plate (MS) 304 006 96 83
009 185 159 780 97
B 90 Core 75 010 57 40 73 48
132/33 Plate (MS) 64 010 25 32 42 <20
C 750 Core 380 0079 96 103 203 120
400/275 0095 129 136 330 190
Plate (N3) 304 0079 86 87 124 65
0095 116 100 180 96
Research model Core 0045 82 69 127 60
(1st assembly) 0054 110 79 185 100
Plate (N3) 0045 59 68 66 45
0054 78 80 108 65
Research model Core 0038 65 57 93 36
(2nd assembly) 0055 117 87 205 81

PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977 1071

Transformer B had much narrower leg plates which, even though the
radial flux was higher, gave much lower temperature gradients. In
transformer C stainless-steel leg plates were used but the dimensions
were otherwise similar to transformer A. Here, whilst the leg-plate hot
spots were reduced, because of the absence of shielding, the tempera-
tures measured in the first packet of laminations were higher.
With transformer C it was possible to compare the measurements
made in the short-circuit test with those made subsequently on site
with the core energised. The results are indicated in Fig. 17, which
shows that a similar trend of increase of temperature gradient with
load is maintained under both conditions.
2O 4O 6O 8O IOO I2O
full load current,%
for their interest; and for giving permission for publication. They
Fig. 17 acknowledge the useful technical discussions with the CEGB and
Final temperature gradients, variation with load current; transformer thank them for their assistance. They also appreciate the general
whole-hearted co-operation given by their colleagues, past and pre-
Thermocouples inserted in core laninations sent, in GEC and Ferranti and for the many helpful discussions held
site measurements (mean of several readings) with Mr. C.J. Carpenter of Imperial College, London.
X works measurements
3.8 Discussion
The temperature measurements,in general, are clearly sensitive
to the exact location of the thermocouples — those soldered to the
surface of the laminations give generally lower readings than those
inserted at a depth of about 2 mm. Furthermore, the maxima in the
recorded temperature and flux density do not appear always to
coincide.
The simple method of calculation gives temperatures up to 30%
higher compared with measurement for large widths of plate, while
with small effective widths when the core is shielded by mild-steel leg
plates the calculated temperatures are low. In the research model the
temperatures measured in the core are affected slightly by the stainless-
steel clamping plate, and this point is discussed further in Part 2 of the
paper. The measurements of initial rates of rise of temperature appear
to be about 50% of those which would be calculated from the simple
formula. Possible reasons for the low readings are: thermal conduction
through metal and oil away from the heated region, the increase in
effective thermal capacity due to oil trapped between the laminations,
and the difficulty of positioning thermocouples exactly on the heated
region, which is highly localised.
The tests were generally performed without the magnetising flux
and correspond to conditions in the short-circuit factory heat run,
which is the usual method of test for large transformers. The effect of
magnetising flux was indicated by the measurements made on site for
transformers C, which shows that an additional constant gradient due
to the no-load core losses, under these conditions approximately
20degC, should be added to the gradient determined by the factory
test.
4 Conclusions
The work reported in this paper has shown that successful
simulation of the heating of transformer cores and core clamping
structures under the influence of radial leakage flux can be made by
use of experimental models, and such models allow measurements,
not economically possible on large transformers, to be made.
1072
Additionally, great accuracy of measurement cannot easily be
obtained on large transformers under factory test conditions as the
temperature gradients are large in the area of interest, and results are
strongly influenced by local variations in, for example, oil access Even
in the research model, rate-of-rise results obtained by the thermo-
couples appeared to be low when compared to the final temperatures
observed; this again may have been due to the large influence of local
conditions near the point of measurement.
Both models indicate that, in the absence of magnetising flux, the
radial flux penetrates only the outer few millimetres of laminations
and that flux densities approaching saturation values are measured in
the outermost laminations. The effect of interaction of the radial
leakage flux with magnetising flux appears to be small from the
measurements on energised transformers, but further studies of this
aspect of the problem may well be worthwhile, in particular the effect
of load phase angle and the detail pattern of flux distribution.
Since the problem of core heating by radial flux was first encoun-
tered some years ago, several practical solutions have been developed,
while at the same time design methods have been improved to estimate
core temperatures with more accuracy. The essential requirement for
reliability, together with the larger size of transformer, have made the
calculation of core temperatures increasingly important, particularly
for on-site conditions as well as for the short-circuit heat run, at pre-
sent part of the standard factory test.
The investigations described indicate some of the ways in which
progress has been made in a field of both engineering importance and
scientific interest.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Boards of Ferranti and GEC
References
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4 LURLE, S.I.: 'Calculating eddy-currents in thin plates for the determination
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( ),PP.
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PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 11, NOVEMBER 1977