Free-Wheeling Operation A diode connected in parallel to the output of a rectifier system ypasses the load current during the intervals of negative voltage. ‘This results in a smaller ripple voltage and reduced reactive power The characteristics for this mode of operation will be derived and graphically presented. ‘The two rectifier connections shown in igs. 13.1a and & display the prin- ciple of free-wheeling operation. Let us compare their performance, Both ‘operate with the relatively large angle of phase control necessary for this investigation. The cireuit shown at the left is a regular 3-pulse midpoint connection and has been explained in Chapter 2. Its direct voltage turns to negative values before the next commutation ovcurs, because the inductance of the circuit maintains the current flow. Different phenomena occur with a diode connected in parallel to the output (fg. 13.18), Since this diode is able to carry the load current with very little voltage drop, the current is not forced to flow through the rectifier connection against the negative emf of the conducting phase. ‘This diode would not even tolerate any negative output voltage exceeding the forward voltage drop of this diode. Thus the diode starts to bypass the Joad current as soon as the potential of the conducting phase turns to negative values, and maintains nearly zero output voltage until the current is returned to the succeeding phase, as illustrated by the curves of potential and current of fig. 13.15. In accordance with its character this kind of ‘operation is called FREE-WHEELING OPERATION. ‘The Direct Voltage For deriving a relation between the angle of phase control and the corre- sponding voltage reduction we introduce the auxiliary angle p, which is 192Free-Wheeling Operation a ly o o Fig. 13:1. Comparison between regular and free-vhealing operation. (a) Regular operation, (8) Freewheeling operation, defined in accordance with fig. 13.2 by 180° for 150° for 120° for 105° for q = 12 Furthermore, we assume instantaneous commutation so that £,'= 0 and Fig. 18:2, Area representing Eas — Ee.suopesado Suypoys-o0y 30} onstseIRGD [ONUOD “CEL BL uso D-C Characteristics 5/2 P8)Free-Wheeling Operation 195 from the remaining portion £,. However, we use Ey, — By instead of E, in the relations so that they can later be used for the general condition where the reactive voltage drop is not zero, Guided by fig. 13.2 we compute: X erosshatched area in fig, 13.2 7 Ow “2 {’ "By cin ot doot LEA — cos } aa El 6) (13.2) With Bq expressed by #,, according to equation (6) this relation can be further developed into | Free-whecling operation: For the pulse numbers of interest the result is graphically presented by fig, 13.3. It can be seen that the curves for the various pulse numbers separate from the curve for regular operation at the angles where the free-wheeling mode starts. This is at 0 for gu 30° for g=3 60° for g=6 75° for g= 12 ‘Commutations During a commutation under regular operation the current is transferred from the preceding to the succeeding phase. This transfer has been | investigated in Chapter 8. It was learned that the potential difference between the commutating phases causes the transfer and determines the rate of change ofthe current, and it was concluded that during the transfer the d-ccireut stays on the mean value ofthe potentials of the commutating phases. For comparison this is again shown in fig. 13.4. Under free-wheeling operation the situation is different: The current is first transferred to the bypass circuit and then retransferred to the suc- ceeding phase so that there is no direct transfer from one phase to another.196 D-C Characteristies Iola (phase 2), ple ease 2, (= 2 ee firing ine phase 2 phase? @ o Fig. 134, Commutath n under regular and free-wheeling operation, (a) Regular ‘operation. (0) Free-whe:ting operation, ‘This is illustrated for a 3-pulse midpoint connection by fig. 13.46. During the first transfer from the preceding phase to the bypass circuit, the diode of the preceding phase as well as the free-wheeling diode are conducting Hence the line-to-neutral transformer emf of the preceding phase must be absorbed in the loop that consists of these.two branches. If we disregard the resistive voltage drop, this emf must be balanced by the voltage induced in the inductance of this loop and thus determines tie rate of rise of the ccurrent in the free-wheeling diode as well as the corresponding rate of decay in the preceding phase, If we also disregard the inductance of the bypass circuit, since it is usually small in comparison to the leakage inductance of the transformer, this emf appears across the inductance of the preceding phase, and the voltage across the d-c circuit is practically zero during this first commutation.Free-Wheeling Operation 197 ‘The retransfer from the bypass circuit to the succeeding phase occurs in a similar manner, starting with the firing of the diode of the succeeding phase, During the retransfer the transformer-emf of the succeeding phase must be absorbed in the loop in which the retransfer occurs, and thus controls this process. Again, practically the full voltage is absorbed by the transformer leakage inductance, $0 that the direct voltage stays close to zero until the retransfer is completed. Then the voltage across the d-c cirtuit swings to the value of the emf of the succeeding phase, as shown in fig. 13.46. Reactive Voltage Drop As explained in Chapter 8, the reactive voltage drop is the consequen of the time integral of the voltage withheld from the dec circuit during commutation. For regular operation this voltage-time integral is computed from the total rise of the current in the succeeding phase from zero to the value of the current to be commutated, Z,, resulting in Lyf, where Lis the line-to-neutral commutating inductance. Under free-wheeling operation the situation is similar since the current also fses in the succeeding phase from zero to Jy, and a voltagectime integral of the same value, Lyf is absorbed by the line-to-neutral commutating inductance of this phase and is withheld from the dec circuit. Hence if there is no additional voltage reduction caused by the current transfer from the preceding phase to the bypass cicuit—and there is no such reduction if we disregard any imped ance of the bypass circuit—the reactive voltage drop is, for a certain current, the same for regular and for free-wheeling operation. ‘This is not true, however, for combinations of commutating groups in 1 bridge or interphase transformer connection, as will be shown later in this chapter. ‘The commutating angle u depends on the voltage that causes the current transfer and is, for the two modes of operation, a diferent function of the current, or of the reactive voltage drop, respectively. As an example, in 1 pulse midpoint connection this voltage is, for regular operation, the line-torine voltage, absorbed by the line-to-neutral commutating induct- ance of two phases, while for free-wheeling operation it is the line-to- neutral voltage, absorbed by the line-o-neutral commutating inductance of one phase. For regular operation the relation between w and £, has been derived in Chapter 8. Under free-wheeling operation the direct voltage remains practically zer0 until the retransfer is completed, and the waveshape of the direct voltage is only a function of the total angle198 D-C Characteristies a + u (see fig. 13.48). ‘Thus the curves of fig, 13.3 present both (E,, — F,)/ Eg, a8 a function of # and EJE,, 88 a function of «+ u, so that the commutating angle can be easily determined, Example (Reactive voltage drop and commutating angle) ‘A 3-pulse midpoint connection with a free-wheeling diode and L, = 0.2 mH is operated with Fy= 3001V} E,= 130(V] 1, = 1000 [A] ‘Compute the reactive voltage drop and determine the commutating angle from the chart of fig. 13.3. Furthermore, derive the relations that permit 1 computation of this angle Solution, The reactive voltage drop is determined by the time integral of the voltage withheld from the d-c circuit during commutation. Thus ‘we compute according to relation (8.1): result B,=02(mH] 1000{A] 3 x 60 [see or in terms of Es. 361M Eg. 300{V] From fig. 13.3 we read forg 0.38 Which actually represents o + u. Hence For the mathematical development we insert q = 3 in relation (13.3), and ‘compute 1 ~ cos 8 Os Va where B = 150° — «, resulting in c0s(150° ~ a)Free-Wheeling Operation For the total angle « + u we find ¢05(150° — « — u) = 1 — 0.38 3 atu = 80.0° Lee w= 122" Bypass Circuit with Inductance Although the inductance of the bypass circuit is usually negligible in ‘comparison to the leakage inductance of the transformer windings, its influence will be briefly discussed, assisted by fig. 13.5. at ' a i Lala (phase 2) fring phase 2 Fig. 135, Freewheeling operation with a bypass circuit with inductance.200 D-C Characteristics Starting with the transfer of the current from the rectifier connection to the free-wheeling diode, the emf of the preceding phase will be absorbed during this commutation by the inductance of the transfer loop, if we disregard the resistance, and will be divided between the various sections of this loop in proportion to the values of inductance. The current carried by the free-wheeling diode rises from zero to Zg, and if we denote the inductance of this path by L,, a voltage-time integral of Ly/, will appear across the bypass circuit during this first commutation. During the retransfer to the succeeding phase the current in the bypass circuit changes by the same amount, but in the opposite direction, and a voltage-time integral of the same value is returned by the bypass circuit. This results in the waveshape shown in fig. 13.5. With a fixed instant of firing the diode of the succeeding phase, an additional voltage-time integral of Ll, is withheld from the d-c circuit, It causes an additional reduction of the direct voltage and may be taken into account by computing the reactive voltage drop ftom L, + Z,. If the rectifier is magnetically con- trolled, the succeeding phase starts to conduct as soon as the control reactor of this phase has absorbed a certain voltage-time integral, and the value Lyf, will be part of this integral. Hence there is no additional voltage reduction in this case. Intermediate State In a certain range of operating conditions the diode of the succeeding phase is being fired during the current transfer from the preceding phase to the bypass circuit. Such a situation i illustrated for a 3-pulse midpoint ‘connection by fig. 13.6 and will now be explained. Until firing occurs, the phenomena are as treated before. Then, during the interval from the instant of firing to the instant where the current is fully returned from the bypass circuit to the rectifier connection, the situation is the following: 1, The direct voltage stays close to zero because the free-wheeling diode is conducting (nitglecting any impedance of the bypass circuit). 2. The emf of phase 2 dictates the rate of rise of the.current of this phase. 3. The (negative) emf of phase 1 determines the rate of decay of the ‘current of this phase, 4. The current of the bypass circuit is the difference of the currents of pphases 1 and 2, and it decays.Free-Wheeling Operation rh ey 1) Leta ohave 2, ‘determines By Hig. 13.6. Intermediate stato between regular and free-wheeling operation After the current in the bypass circuit has been reduced to zero, the commutation between phases 1 and 2 continues in the regular manner, and the output stays on the mean value of the potentials of the two phases until the current transfer is completed. The “voltage-time areas” corre- sponding to the various current changes are marked in fig 13.6, and it can be seen that the reactive voltage drop is still determined by L,J, because the current stil rises in the succeeding phase after the instant of fring from zero to J, before the voltage of this phase appears with its full value across the d-c circuit. Hence the intermediate state does not need special attention.202 D-C Characteristics Comparison Between Free-Whecling Operation and ‘The operation of a rectifier connection with resistive load is very similar to free-wheeling operation, because in both cases the direct voltage does not assume negative values. Therefore, a brief description of operation with resistive load will be inserted at this point. Again, we select the 3:pulse midpoint connection as the most convenient circuit for the investigation, but itis not difficult to modify the results for more complex. be aR (3:7. Performance ofa 3-pulse midpoint connection with resistive load rectifier systems. For this connection the situation is illustrated by fig. and we notice that the current follows the decay of the transformer- cemf with a certain delay because the inductance of the conducting phase ‘opposes this decay and induces additional voltage. Later, after the diode of the succeeding phase has been fired, the current rises, again delayed in relation to the voltage because the inductance absorbs voltage. At any instant the voltage across the inductance determines the rate of rise or decay of the current, and since the total rise and the total decay are in balance, no voltseconds are added or withheld, seen over a full interval of operation. Hence the average value of the direct voltage, Ey, is equal to the no-load value Ey, — Eq if we distegard the small arcas below the zero line in fig. 13.7. From this we conclude that the direct voltage can bbe computed from the curves of fig. 13.3, and that no reactive voltage drop has to be regarded, as long as the current flow is discontinuous. In fact, the more the commutation is delayed by phase control, starting from = 0, the smaller the current at the instant of commutation, and the smaller the reactive voltage drop, until it is zero atthe limit of continuous operation,Free-Wheeling Operation ‘Single-Phase Bridge Connection with Free-Wheeling Diode As an introduction to the “half-controlled” rectifier circuits, the operation of a single-phase bridge connection with a free-wheeling diode will now be investigated, guided by fig. 13.8. At cf, the transformer-emtf reverses the polarity, and the free-wheeling diode comes into action because it docs not tolerate that the direct voltage assumes negative values. During the transfer of the load current from the rectifier connection to the bypass citouit the branches with the diodes D2 and D3, as wellas the bypasscircuit, are conducting and the transformer-emf must be absorbed in this loop. Since the circuit is symmetrical, all potentials shown in fig. 13.8 are referred to the center point of the secondary transformer winding, and the inductance of this loop has been represented by the “line-to-neutral commutating inductance” L, of each side. The current through this inductance changes from /, to zero so that at each side a voltage-time integral of Lz is absorbed or returned, respectively. One of these values is represented by area A in fig. 13.8. Simultaneously with the rise of the current in the bypass circuit the currents @) and @) decay. (The illustration shows the currents @ and @ downwards.) The retransfer starts with the firing of the diodes D1 and D4, delayed by « with respect to o,. Again, the transfer is eaused and controlled by the transformer-emf, and the time integral of the voltage absorbed by the inductance of one side is represented by the area B. Similar phenomena occur during the following half-eyele, and the areas C and D correspond to the two steps in which the current in the secondary transformer winding, ©, changes from the full value in one direction to the same value in the ‘opposite direction. This connection has only theoretical value since there are more econom- ical circuits with the same characteristics, and with the knowledge just acqqired these other circuits will now be given attention. Half-Controlled Single-Phase Bridge Connections A. single-phase bridge connection with two controlled and two regular diodes shows a performance similar to free-wheeling operation. Since the direct voltage can be reduced to zero with only two controlled diodes, this connection is an extremely economical circuit, and frequently used. ‘The diodes can be arranged according to fig. 13.9 or according to fi. 13.10. In both illustrations the controlled diodes are shown with a “gate” whichD-C Characteristics single-phase bridge connection with free-wheeling diode,Free-Wheeling Operation Fg 139, Performance of a half-controlled single-phase bridge connection, type A.206 D-C Characteristics ae Fig. 13.10, Performance of a half-contolled single-phase bridge connection, type B.Free-Wheeling Operation 207 the regular ones do not have. Concerning the operation, both circuits differ very lite, and with the curves of potential and current shown in these ilstrations, the performance can be easily analyzed. In both cases the firing of DI is delayed by a with respect to ot, while D4 starts to conduct without delay because i isa regular diode. Ata, the diode D4 starts to conduct because the voltage across this diode reverses the polarity, and the transformerem then has to be absorbed in the loop that consists of ‘D3iinseries with the transformer winding, and of D4, Thus thetransformer- emf dictates the rate of decay ofthe current in the transformer winding and the corresponding rate of rise of the current through D4. After the transfer is completed, the load current is carried by D2 and D4, skipping the transformer winding which is comparable with the action of a free- wheeling diode. Later, D1 is being fired, and the retransfer starts, again controlled by the transformer-emf. The current flow during the com- notation starting ato, is marked in fig. 13.11 Similar phenomena occur during the next half-cycle, However, there the two connections shown in figs. 139 and 13.10 differ in so far as the diode that starts frst and the diode that starts with delay are erchanged. Comparing these two con- nections wefind that the currents carried by the transformer windings are identical and hence the a-c characteristics. We also find thatthe direct voltages, represented by the diference between the curves a-0 and 6-0, fare equal. Hence the two connections are equivalent. The circuit of fig. 13.10 is sometimes preferred since the conducting angle of all diodes and as a consequence, the average value of the current to be carried by them are unaffected by the phase control angle, whereas in the case of fig. ee 129 thediodes D2 and Dé have tobe rated cretion ins halfeoneled for an increased conducting angle under single-phase bridge conection. phase control, On the other hand, the rout of fig. 13.10, operated with inductive load, does not permit us to Teduce the direct voltage to zero. AS a approaches 180°, the current will not successfully be commutated to the succeeding phase, and the preceding phase remains conducting and delivers the full next half-wave ofthe transformer-emf to the output. ‘The circuit of fig. 13.10 may be interpreted as the series connection of fan uncontrolled and a controlled 2-pulse midpoint connection. If the direct voltage is reduced below 50% one side operates as a rectifier and208 D-C Characteristics 10] ‘ ont ug ‘system ll oso : _ uncangtes) ‘tem retiree Fig, 13.12. Control characteristic of « halfcontrolled bridge connection the other as an inverter, At zero output voltage the inverter returns the full d-c power of the uncontrolled side to the a-e supply system, as illus- trated by fig. 13.12. ‘3-Phase Bridge Connection with Free-Wheeling Diode Ina bridge connection free-wheeling operation starts as soon as the poten- tial of the positive output terminal tends to decrease below that of the negative side, The performance of a 3-phase bridge connection with a free-wheeling diode (ig. 13.13) is illustrated by fig. 13.14. At ot, the current is flowing through D1 to the positive output terminal and returning through DS. At this instant the direct voltage reaches zero and the free- wheeling diode starts to conduct. This closes a circuit in which the potential difference between phases 1 and 2 must be absorbed and thus initiates a commutating current that flows in forward direction through the bypass circuit and reduces the current carried by D1 and DS (Gg. 13,132). After the current transfer to the bypass circuit is completed, the rectifier connection runs idle and the potential of the load current is not defined with respect to the potentials of the transformer windings and therefore not marked in fig, 13.14. The firing at ot establishes the commutating cireuit shown in fig. 13.136, and with the emf of phase 1 being less negative than the emf of phase 3 a ‘commutating current is caused that retransfers the load current from the free-wheeling diode to the rectifier connection. Corresponding phenomena occur during the following intervals of operation; they result in the curves of potential and current shown in fig. 13.14. During each transfer or retransfer of the current a voltage-timeFig. 13.13, Commutations in a 3phase bridge connection with free-wheeling diode. (Curren transfer to the bypass circuit, (8) Retranstr, integral of the value L,J; is absorbed or returned: by the line-to-neutral inductance of each phase that is involved. The areas that represent these ‘values for phase 2 are marked by crosshatching in fig. 13.14, and it ean be seen that these areas correspond with the periods of rise or decay of the current of phase 2. Tt should be emphasized that these investigations have more than theoretical value, The results are important for designing the circuitry that distributes the firing pulses to the various controlled diodes. Under regular operation it is sufficient to fire just the diode of the succeeding phase, In the free-wheeling mode two diodes always have to be fired {although one of them was conducting before), and our investigations disclose the required “firing program. Example (Reactive voltage drop in a 3-phase bridge connection under regular and free-wheeling operation) Explain why in a 3-phase bridge connection the reactive voltage drop caused by a certain load current is twice as high under free-wheeling operation as itis under regular operation,210 D-C Characteristics eat Fig, 13:14, Performance of a 3.phase bridge connection with free-wheeling diode. Solution. Under regular operation the current rises in each leg one time during each eycle so that with 6 legs a total of: Lede is withheld from the d-c circuit duting each cycle. Under free-wheeling ‘operation the current of each leg rises and decays two times per cycle, as illustrated by fig. 13.14, Hence the value Lyly is twice as many times retained, and since itis not returned to the d-c circuit during the decay, theFree-Wheeling Operation reactive drop will be twice as high; it will be By = Lola X 12h (For the positive leg of phase 2, the areas under consideration are A and Cin fig. 13.14.) Half-Controlled 3-Phase Bridge Connection It was shown that a half-controlled single-phase bridge connection is a ‘very economical substitute for a regular bridge connection with a free- wheeling diode, A similar result may be expected from a 3-phase bridge Fig, 13.45. Commutatios ina half-controlled 3-phase bridge connection ‘connection with three regular and three controlled diodes. ‘Therefore, such a circuit will now be investigated. For two different operating conditions the connection is shown in fig. 13.15, and the curves of potential and current are presented by fig, 13.16. Starting the investigation at cfs, D1 is conducting in the positive and D6 in the negative commutating group and the direct voltage tends to reverse the polarity. This will not be tolerated by Dé because this diode is not controlled and starts to conduct as soon as the voltage across this diode ‘changes from the blocking to the forward direction. Thus phases 1 and 3 are being “short circuited,” as illustrated by fig. 13.152, and a current22 D-C Characteristics Fig, 13.46, Performance ofa hal-controlled 3-phase bridge connection, transferring the load from D6 to D4 starts in this loop. After this transfer is completed, the load current flows straight from b to a by the two diodes connected to phase 1 (broken curves in fig. 13.16) so that the transformer does not carry any current. This situation lasts until D2 is being fired at ,, Then the current is transferred from DI to D2, as illustrated by fig, 13.156, At the end of this commutation, the short circuit between phases 1 and 2 is cleared, and the full potential difference appears across the de circuit,Free-Wheeling Operation 213 With « = 0, the direct voltage shows a regular 6-pulse ripple, and the primary line current shows a regular shape. With a certain degree of phase control, however, the operation becomes asymmetrical since only bne side is controlled, and changes more and more to 3-pulse performance. {in view of this it must be carefully considered whether this connection is suited for a certain application. Interphase Transformer Connections with Free-Wheeling Diode Many different types of rectifier systems can be paralleled through an interphase transformer, as explained in Chapters 4 and 5, but the principle of operation is the same for all these combinations, Therefore, just one Fig. 1347. Current transfer to the bypass creut in a double-wye connection with interphase transformer and free-wheeling diode, of them, the double-wye connection with interphase transformer, will be Selected for demonstration, and we shall show how a free-wheeling diode influences the operation. “Assisted by figs. 13.17 and 13.18, we again develop the story from the situation at fy. At this instant phases 1 and 5 are conducting (current @) ‘and the other currents of the second wye are plotted downwards in fig. 13.18), and phase 1 is as much positive as phase 5 is negative, Hence point ¢ is on zero potential, tending to assume negative values. This is prevented by the free-wheeling diode which starts to conduct at this Instant. Thus, the center point of the interphase transformer is tied to zero potential, and the two outside points, a and 6, are forced to stay on potentials that are symmetrical to zero. But this isin contradiction to the natural tendency where the two conducting phases, 1 and 5, are both214 D-C Characteristies directed towards more negative values. As a compromise, points a and b 4 follow curves that would represent the mean value of the potentials of the conducting phases if one or the other potential were given opposite polarity. These curves are shown in fig. 13.18, and are identical with the ig. 13.18. Performance of a double-wye connection with interphase transformer and free-wheeling diode. * Shown with haf scale. curve that determines the common potential of the commutating phases in a 3-phase bridge connection. Indeed, a double-wye connection with interphase transformer can easily be converted into a bridge connection, as demonstrated in Chapter 11. ‘Thus in both wyes the potential of « o 5, respectively, is more positive than that of the conducting phase which causes the two commutating currents shown in fig, 13.17, transferringFree-Wheeling Operation 215 simultancously the load current to the bypass circuit. After this is com pleted, point a follows phase I to zero, and b varies inversely, as demanded by the interphase transformer. Then, points given the negative potential fof phase 1 which is reflected with opposite polarity to point &. Finally, at toh, diodes D1 and D6 are being fired (D1 was conducting before but fost its current during the interval of free-wheeling operation), and the retransfer starts. During this transfer the potentials of a and 6 again vaty symmetrically to zefo. At the end of the retransfer, the free-wheeling Giode releases point c, and the voltage across the d-c circuit swings to the mean value of the emf of phases 1 and 6, ‘Corresponding phenomena occur during the other intervals of operation. “They result in the curves of potential and current shown in fig. 13.18. In this illustration area E corresponds to the time integral of the voltage absorbed by the interphase transformer. Areas A, B, C, and D represent the voltage-time integral across the line-to-neutral commutatinginductance fof phase 2, and it will be found that these areas correspond with the periods of rise and decay of the current of phase 2. The fact that this Enrrent rises and decays twice as many times as it does under regular ‘operation again leads to an increased reactive voltage drop, as explained for the 3:phase bridge connection. Applications ‘After all this treatment the question comes up: For what reason will a rectifier connection be equipped with a free-wheeling diode? It will be answered in the following way: (@ Under free-wheeling operation the ripple of the direct voltage is smaller than under regular operation, compared on the basis of the ‘same voltage reduction E,. IP the direct voltage is reduced by phase control towards zero, the voltage ripple also approaches zero under free-wheeling operation while it approaches a maximum under regular operation, (These relations are investigated and graphically presented in Chapter 15.) ‘Under free-wheeling operation the reactive component of the input power is smaller than under regular operation, again compared on {he basis of the same E,, It also approaches zero under free- wheeling and a maximum under regular operation, if the direct voltage is reduced towards zero. (© Certain connections with free-wheeling performance such as half- controlled bridge connections are used because they employ fewer216 D-C Characteristics controlled diodes than regular connections and are therefore less expensive. (@ The bypass circuit protects the rectifier connection against voltage surges that may otherwise be induced in the transformer windings if the a-c supply lines are interrupted. This is of importance if the load circuit is highly inductive, and it will be investigated in the concluding section of this chapter titled “discharge of inductive load.” At high pulse numbers free-wheeling operation starts at a relatively large phase control angle. In a 6-pulse system, e.g. it starts at «= 60", This considerably diminishes the advantage if the free-wheeling diode is added just for the purpose of reducing the direct voltage ripple and the reactive power. The situation can be improved if each commutating group ‘of such a system is given its own free-wheeling diode. Then free-wheeling operation will start in a system consisting of two 3-pulse commutating groups at a = 30°, To complete the picture, it should be mentioned that the alternating ‘currents ofa rectifier connection with fre-whecling operation do not have “regular shape” any more, and the a-c characteristics of such connections are different from those derived for regular operation. However, this bbelongs in the section “a-c characteristics,” and will be investigated in Chapter 20. Furthermore, transformer connections with d-c unbalance (Chapter 2) are not compatible with this kind of operation because the magnetic flux caused by the unbalanced ampere-turns would respond to the pulsation of the load carried by the rectifier connection, and thus induce voltages in the windings and generate hea in adjacent construction parts, Itshould also be pointed out that a connection witha free-wheeling diode cannot be operated as an inverter; this operation is sometimes Aesired for increasing the speed with which the current in an inductive load can be reduced (see “transient inverter operation"). ‘Bypass ‘Cireuit Design For selecting properly rated diodes for the bypass circuit, we must deter- ‘ine the maximum current that has to be carried by this circuit. Therefore, {et us consider fig. 13.19. It shows-the.waveshape of the current flowing through the free-wheeling diode as a function-of the operating point on the control characteristic and. establishes a relation between this point and the operating point on the characteristic-of the load. Starting with the current curve, area A represents the time integral of the current to be handled by the free-wheeling diode during one intervalFree-Wheeling Operation 27 of operation, and if we disregard the fact that the curve enveloping this trea is differently shaped during the rise and the decay and that the wo commutations are not equal in length (because they occur under different values of voltage), area 4 equals the load current /, times the conducting langle of the bypass circuit, x — a, where «* represents the phase control langle at which free-wheeling operation starts. Area B corresponds to the time integral of the current to be handled by the free-wheeling diode during e133) fond current tu output feoscnheelng ‘operation ig. 139. Relations between the operating characteristics and the load carried by the free-whedling diode. cone interval of operation if it would permanently carry the load current, ‘Hence the current flowing through the free-wheeling diode under a certain ‘operating condition is defined by ‘Avg value of current carried by free-wheeling diode X load current and with a slight inaccuracy: ty eeewheling diode [A x ton escent as) “The ratio A/B is a function of (Ez) — Ey and is graphically presented by fig. 1320. The load current is also a function of the operating point218 D-C Characteristics and depends on the real output voltage, represented by Ey/E,, and the voltage-current characteristics of the load. ‘The characteristic of a load circuit without back-emf is shown in fig. 13.19. In this ease the ratio of the real load current to the curtent at full output voltage, denoted by a/b (Gg. 13.19), equals £/,,, The maximum current has to be carried by the bypass circuit at an operating condition somewhere in the middle of the lex 8 | (Bap~Ba) (Bsy—~ T lp=ie 2 a | ae 10) nape ocean] Alb(eee Fig, 1339) —> Fig. 1320, Chart for designing bypass citcut range of free-wheeling operation, since at one end the conducting angle is zero and at the other the current is zero, However, this has to be individu ally determined for each application, Example (Current carried by free-wheeling diode) A rectifier connection with 6-pulse performance and a free-wheeling diode feeds a load circuit with a characteristic as shown in fig. 13.19. At full ‘output, the load current is 5000 A, and E¥/E,, = 10%, Assume that the direct voltage can be reduced to zero by means of phase control, and determine the average value of the current in the bypass circuit under the worst condition, Solution. As a start, let us select the condition E,/By, condition we compute Es Eu 12, For this 0.22 0.02. andFree-Wheeling Operation and read from fig. 13.20 for g = 6 0.38 a B With the current ratio a/b = 0.2 we find the average value of the current carried by the free-wheeling diode ‘ $ x 5000 [A] = 0.38 x 0.2 x 5000 4] = 3804] In a similar manner we check other operating points, and find the worst condition in the vicinity of Ey/Ej,=0.24. With E,/E,,= 24% and A[B = 0.33 at (Eq, — E,)/Eqq = 0.264 we compute: ‘Avg value of current carried by free-wheeling diode ae Discharge of Inductive Load Sometimes the load of a rectifier is a big magnet with a high value of energy stored in the magnetic ficld, This energy must be discharged through the bypass circuit if the a-c supply lines are interrupted since, in such a case, Fig, 1221. Discharge of inductive load through bypass circuit the secondary ampere-turns cannot be balanced by the primary currents ‘any more, With a free-wheeling diode, the ditect current switches over to - the bypass circuit at the instant of line interruption, and decays with the time constant of load circuit and bypass, as illustrated by fig. 13.21. For selecting a free-wheeling diode with the proper rating, the time integral of the current that has to be carried during the discharge is the point of20 D-C Characteristies interest. This value, represented by the crosshatched area in fig. 13.21, an iferty =(-T)L(-) = Th, According to this result the dicharge pulse is equivalent to a current pulse with the value J, and the duration 7, shown by broken ines in fig. 13.21. However, the overload capacity of a diode depends on many more factors, and for more accurate calculations it may be necessary to compute the rise of the junction temperature from the “transient thermal resistance,” as explained in Chapter 11Operation with Capacitive Load Based on the assumption that the voltage across the d-e terminals is without any ripple, the performance of a rectifier connection with capacitive load wit! be investigated, and the load characteristics of the various connections will be derived. Most investigations presented in this book refer to a rectifier connection with infinite inductance in the load circuit, since it was realized that a load current without ripple is the “most natural” load of a rectifier connection and leads to the plainest results, Besides, this condition represents the real situation very closely in many cases, However, there are also other, completely different kinds of load, and since the performance of a rectifier ‘connection is a function of the load circuit, it seems necessary to include other conditions in the treatment. In fact, we can define two extreme conditions that limit very well the field of all possible load circuits and are therefore of special interest (@ The d-c cireuit contains infinite inductance. It is therefore “elastic,” and absorbs any voltage ripple without fluctuations of the current, @ A capacitor with infinite capacitance is connected in parallel to the rectifier output. In this case the d-c circuit is “sti” and able to carry any current ripple without fluctuations of the voltage. ‘The first condition is the condition of regular operation, used for most of the other investigations, The second condition is the one studied in this chapter. Itis of theoretical interest since itis the opposite extreme to the circuit with infinite inductance, but there are also applications for which the results have practical value, just as the results derived for regular operation are applied to circuits in which the current ripple is small but far from zero. Such applications with @ nearly constant voltage across the d-c terminals fare rectifiers that charge a battery or a capacitor bank with sufficient capacitance, or rectifiers feeding armature circuits of d-c motors, provided that the impedance of the load circuit is small in relation to the internal impedance of the rectifier connection. 2