Free-Wheeling Operation 193 les Kil ig. 131. Comparison between regular and free-wheeling operation. (a) Regular ‘operation, (6) Fre-wheeling operation, defined in accordance with fig, 13.2 by 180° for q=2 150° for q=3 120° for q=6 10S* for q= 12 we assume instantaneous commutation so that E, Ee Fig. 13:2. Area representing FayFree-Wheeling Operation A diode connected in parallel to the output of a rectifier system bypasses the load current during the intercals of negative voltage, "his results in a smaller ripple voltage and reduced reactive power. The characteristics for this mode of operation will be derived and graphically presented. The two rectifier connections shown in figs. 13.1a and 6 display the prin- ciple of free-wheeling operation. Let us compare their performance. Both operate with the relatively large angle of phase control necessary for this investigation, The cizeuit shown at the left is a regular 3-pulse midpoint connection and has been explained in Chapter 2. Its direct voltage turns to negative values before the next commutation ovcurs, because the inductance of the circuit maintains the current flow. Different phenomena occur with a diode connected in parallel to the output (fig. 13.14), Since this diode is able to carry the load current with very little voltage drop, the current is not forced to flow through the rectifier connection against the negative emf of the conducting phase. This diode would not even tolerate any negative output voltage exceeding, the forward voltage drop of this diode. Thus the diode starts to bypass the Toad current as soon as the potential of the conducting phase turns to negative values, and maintains nearly zero output voltage until the current is returned to the succeeding phase, as illustrated by the curves of potential and current of fig. 13.1, In accordance with its character this kind of ‘operation is called FREE-WHEELING OPERATION, ‘The Direct Voltage For deriving a relation between the angle of phase control and the corre- sponding voltage reduction we introduce the auxiliary angle , which is 192222 D-C Characteristics General Again we are facing a wide variety of different connections and operating conditions, and it is necessary to restrict the treatment to the typical Phenomena and the performance characteristics under idealized con- ditions. Concerning the load circuit, we establish a simple and clear situation by the statement that the voltage across the d-c terminals of the rect connection will be assumed without fluctuations. Only a brief study bbe devoted to connections with a vahie of capacitance too small to suppress the voltage ripple completely. Concerning the rectifier connection, the variables are, besides the pulse ‘number, the values of inductance and resistance, and in more complex systems, the manner in which these values are common to different branches. In order to simplify the treatment, only the limit cases of pure inductance ot pure resistance will be investigated, with the accent on the inductive circuit as the closest representation of the usual situation, and it will be assumed that these values are either only common or only individual for different branches. We shall discover that, thanks fo the assumption of constant voltage across the d-c circuit, the load characteristic of the single-phase single-way connection can be easily modified for 2- or 3-pulse performance by just changing the voltage and the current scales. However, certain phenomena “disturb” the operation and have to be regarded: (@ Ina 2-pulse connection the operation of one branch influences the operation of the other one if inductance is common. This will be explained for the extreme condition of only common inductance, @ Ina 6-pulse system consisting of two 3-pulse commutating groups (G-phase bridge or double-wye connection with interphase trans- formet) the direct voltage of the total system is kept constant, but not the direct voltage of each commutating group. This changes the results derived for a 3-pulse commutating group and will be explained for these two connections. © In a 6-pulse system with common inductance novel phenomena ‘occur beyond a certain load. At such load conditions, however, ‘the operating characteristic is very similar to that of regular operation. These phenomena will therefore not be investigated, ‘Thus the wide field of different conditions is reduced to a few basic points which will now be studied.Operation with Capacitive Load ingle-Phase Single-Way Connection ‘The performance of a single-phase single-way connection with capacitive load is illustrated by fig. 14.1. At wf of this figure the alternating voltage exceeds the voltage across the capacitor, Ey, with the consequence that 1 ai time integral of vtage te integral of vtage sbuorbed by inductance = returned by inductance luring RSE of curent during BECKY fearent at, ay Fig. 14.1, Performance of a single-phase singlé-way connection with capacitive load. the diode starts to conduct. The difference of the two voltages then appears across the inductance ofthe circuit and determines the rate of rise of the current. Later, at af, the alternating voltage decreases below the capacitor voltage, and the current starts to decay. Finally, at at, the current is reduced to zero, and during the following interval the difference between the alternating voltage and the voltage across the capacitor is absorbed by the diode until the next current pulse stars. For deriving # relation between the voltage and the current we utilize the fact that the voltage across the inductance determines at any instant24 D-C Characteristies the rate of rise or decay of the current. We introduce the auxiliary angles i {and é, shown in fig. 14.1, and reed from the illustration: voltage across _ sec, transf, _ voltage across inductance ~ voltage ~ capacitor sin of — By sin ‘The current is deseribed by the integral function of this expression (cos wt + wi sin ] + const. Sf leosct + asin] + The constant is defined by the condition that i = Oat af = f, which leads to the final form ‘9 = Es cos — cos ot + (B — asin (14.1) ‘This relation describes the current as a function of wf and is presented in fig. 14.1c, For the load characteristic we need the average value of the ‘current, ‘This value corresponds to the crosshatched area in fig. 14.1c, and is computed by integration over the interval from wt = 6 to wt = 6. Referred to the length of one cycle, 2n, this finally results in Ey, [sin B — sin J" OL 4rsing : -fy() (14.2) Relation (14.2) still contains the angles f and 6 which are functions of the voltage ratio Eo/Ey, and have to be expressed by this ratio. This is no problem for 8, since sin = Eo/E,, while 8 is defined by the condition | that the two double-crosshatched ‘areas in fig. 14.18 must be equal in | size which is, in arithmetical terms, | [ftsin ot — sin f)dor =o , with the implicit result / os f — cos 5 = (5 — A) sin (143) } From equations (14.2) and (14.3), with f expressed by the ratio Eo/Eys the desired load characteristic can be computed, For practical use the factor f(Eo|Eq) of (14.2) is graphically presented by the solid curve fig. 14.2. It is shown on the horizontal scale since, in accordance other illustrations, the voltage ratio is vertically plotted. Compared with i the characteristic for regular operation which for single-phase circuits isOperation with Capacitive Load 2s a straight line between the no-load and the short circuit point (fig. 10.8), the curve for capacitive load shows very high “slope” at values elose to the no-load point. This becomes obvious if we recognize that close to the crest value of the sine eurve the double-crosshatched areas in fig. 14.16 are very small and the current pulses are of very short duration, resulting, 10 smtp values ot heron seaieby 01 | i ony commen | inductance only individu inuclance % ole lees 08 08 10 ‘Bcfn), acai to ain (142) —>- Fig. 142. Operating characteristics of single-phase connections with eapacitive load, in an extremely low average value. The light solid curve in fig. 14.2 presents the starting range in a larger scale. Example (Singlephase singleway conection with capacitive oad) In a circuit as shown in fig. 14.ta the secondary transformer no-load voltage is 150 V. In order to determine the inductance, the transformer ‘was short circuited at 10% input voltage, and an alternating short circuit current of 0.5 A (rms value) was measured. Compute (@ the ditect voltage if the load resistor carries 0.1 A, ©) the direct voltage if te load resistor is disconnected, (©) the average value of the direct current ifthe load resistor is short circuited. ‘Assume infinite capacitance and an a- circuit without Fosss.26 D-C Characteristics Solution. (a) The short circuit et discloses the value of wl 1180 V) _ 0.5 [A] With this value and elation (14.2) we then compute 21501]. pf Eo) HAT = soa] «A() i(&8) <0 oL= 30(Q) and read from fig. 14.2 = 084 Hence Cs sverago value —~Z7 pa be 2 4] Fig. 143. Short circuit current in a single-phase singl-way connection, (®) Without load, the capacitor voltage rises to the crest value of the V3 x 150(¥] = 2121} (©) Under the short-circuit condition there is Ec) Ae) ' Hence : En. ¥2X 1501) 0714) oL 30 (0) Alternate approach: without the diode the crest value of the steady state short-circuit current equals the crest value of the voltage, Ey, divided by @L. With the diode and no losses there is a transient component that doubles the crest value, as shown in fig. 14.3. We read from this illustration that the average value is E,/eoL.Operation with Capacitive Load 2-Palse Connections As the first step towards more complex rectifier systems a second branch has been added to the single-phase single-way connection, resulting in the 2-PULSE MIDPOINT CONNECTION of fig. 14.4. Provided the two branches do not have common values of impedance, they will operate independently, and the operating characteristic will be the same as derived for the 144. _2-puke midpoint connection with only individual inductance and eapactive load, connection of ig. 14.1; it only needs factor 2 for the current sale tecause vo branches are now feeding the load cleat: ton 2Eag( Ee) ole where Eo) ie) = characteristic of fig. 14.2 If, however, some value of impedance is common, the two branches will allect each other, and it can be expected that this changes the load charac- teristic. For investigating the situation we go right to the other extreme, assume only common inductance, and emphasize this by showing the inductance in series connection with the primary winding (Rig. 14.5). Tt cean now be understood that the voltage across the transformer windings is not sinusoidal any more, because it is the supply voltage in series connection with the voltage across the inductance. In fact, if we disregard the forward voltage drop of the conducting diode, the voltage across the secondary transformer winding of the conducting branch equals the voltage across the capacitor, and this value is reflected with opposite polarity to the other secondary winding. Thus it happens that branch 2 does not start to conduct until, at wf, branch 1 goes out of operation, and thé transformer-emf is released 10 its natural value, However, the transformer-emf does not return to the value of the supply voltage; it ‘only swings to the value of the capacitor voltage in the opposite direction228 D-C Characteristies sont to yp @ th ° ley, @ LLG ‘ranch Fig.14, Performance ofa 2-pulse midpoint connection with only common inductance and capacitive loa. to which it is clamped through the diode, ‘This results in the curves of voltage and current shown in fig. 14.5. A mathematical development similar to that presented for single-way operation leads to Ee) 1 = (Ee Be) 1 fy 2 (Ee 143) Aes) ae cas Inserted in expression (144) this relation permits the computation ofthe average value of the current. For practical use the factor f(EolE,) for inis new condition is graphically presented by the dashed-dtted curve in fig. 14.2. The characteristic separates from the curve for individual inductance at 6 — f= 180°, that is, at EiOperation with Capacitive Load 29 It should be emphasized that the short circuit current with only common inductance is reduced to 1I/r of the value with only individual inductance (Gee fig. 14.2). This big difference becomes evident if we recognize that with common inductance the steady state short circuit current is not set 2 suect A+ Ba 2r ‘Areas representing short-circuit currents in 2-pule connections with only ‘and with only individual inductance, accompanied by transient components, as explained in Chapter 11. It corresponds to area A of fig. 14.6 rather than to the total crosshatched area A +B that is responsible for the short circuit current with only individual inductance. Both curves in fig. 14.2 envelop the field of all possible combinations of common and individual inductance. However, except for the short circuit condition, which is thoroughly treated in 4 o ig. 147. Conversion of two midpoint connections (a) into a bridge connection (8): Chapter 11 and which is of special interest for the circuit design, these combinations will not be studied because the investigation is extremely difficult. With an additional pair of diodes the circuit can be converted into a SINGLE-PHAS® BRIDGE CONNECTION, illustrated by fig. 14.7. Since the circuit is symmetrical, both pairs of diodes. operate identically, and the relation between the direct voltage and the current will be the same as derived for the 2-pulse midpoint connection, mathematically expressed by230 D-C Characteristics ‘equation (14.5), Moreover, the influence of common inductance is the same, ‘The only things that differ are the voltage and current scales, because now two commutating groups operate in series connection, and the currents of both groups commonly induce voltage in the leakage inductance of the transformer. The best method of determining the correct seales is from the no-load and the short circuit points, as demonstrated with the following example. Example (Comparison between the single-phase single-way and the single- Phase bridge connection) Determine the voltage across the capacitor, Eo, for the two circuits shown in fg. 14.84 and b. wk 1a) w 3 fas usw ak = 5010) 115 1M, ie o pale Fig. 148. Circuits for sample ealeulation, Solution, In connection (a) the short cirouit current is accompanied by ‘4 maximum transient component and is therefore, according to fig. 14.3: Vester ean = 25). _ 5 9514) 5012] ‘This value corresponds to f(Eg/E,) = 1. Hence, with Iy = 1.5 A, Bc) 18 Age) = 3357 088Operation with Capacitive Load For this value we read from fig, 14.2 a voltage ratio of Eo En 0.27 and compute Eq = 027/2 x 115 (V] = 441V] In connection () the short circuit current in the secondary transformer winding is a symmetrical sinusoidal current with a crest value of ‘V3 x 115 [VI/50 [Q). Since both half-waves are conducted to the d-c cireuit, the short circuit current is there 2yE x 115 1V) 7 50[Q) a This value corresponds to f(Eo/E,) = Wn. Hence, with Jy = 1.5 {A} (E pee Be) ow 1 1S 2023 Aes) zor For this value we read from fig. 14.2 a voltage ratio of resulting in Bo = 0443 x 115 {V] = 210] ‘3-Pulse Midpoint Connection This connection is seldom used as a single circuit, but it leads us to the category of multiphase connections, and will therefore be investigated. ‘Actually, the investigation is extremely simple. Since the voltage across the load circuit is assumed constant, the three phases operate independently, ‘each as described for the single-phase single-way. connection—provided that transformer and supply system are able to carry currents that do not total up to zero at any instant. We only have to change the voltage and the current scale of the load characteristic derived for the single-phase single-way connection, Concerning these scales, it seems time now to express By in terms of Eq which is defined as the no-load voltage without a capacitor, and to refer J,to the “theoretical short circuit current” J, introduced in Chapter 10. We shall then obtain a load characteristic that can be directly compared with that of regular operation.wedeo qua uonseuuco wodpmu agg v 30 opsuaseseye Supenedo “6 ¥t a rt or 0 0 ¥0 zo ey D-C Characteristics Tom ane fevtoy sein aOperation with Capacitive Load 233 In order to establish the new voltage scale, we compute E,, according to relation (6.3): ma By, 8 04.6) which leads to the conversion: slotted vertically E slotted vertically Ing. 149 nig a2) (4D For the current scale we determine the reactive voltage drop with inductive load, as treated in Chapter 8 Lala and then substitute Ey, for H, and fy for Ig as stated by the definition of Tuy (10.1) L Fux x With relation (14.6) this can be further developed into ari and changes w=) ‘Ew! ayg value of direct current in tach sigle pase (ration 142) (pees con into ted horizontal ted horizontal Bago = ViA(E) Inte aa 4) With relations (14.7) and (14.8) the curve of fig. 14.2.can be converted into the operating characteristic of a 3-pulse midpoint connection. This characteristic is presented in fig. 149. ‘The same chart shows with the dashed lines the operating characteristic for inductive load, taken from fig. 10.8. It should be noticed that both curves run closely together except for very small or no load, and approach the same short circuit point.234 D-C Characteristics 3-Phase Bridge Connection In previous chapters the 3-phase bridge connection was conceived as a combination of two 3-pulse commutating groups, and it was learned that under regular operation neither group disturbs the other. With capacitive load the situation is changed. This is because such a load, if applied to a single 3-pulse group, forces the direct voltage of this group to be constant, whereas, if applied to a 3-phase bridge connection, it demands that the + zy Ey Yat. Et le 2g ft ; F t—! Ly, o @ Fig. 1410. 3-phase bridge connection represented by a 6:puke midpoint connection (or discontinuous operation). total of the direct voltages of both commutating groups not fluctuate, but it does not force them to be individually constant, ‘Therefore, the 3-phase bridge connection must be treated as a unit, ‘At small load the current flow is discontinuous, and during each of the six current pulses per eycle another line-to-line voltageis connected through the line-to-neutral commutating inductances of the two conducting phases to the capacitor, Hence for discontinuous operation the 3-phase bridge connection can be understood asa 6-pulse midpoint connection, as shown in fg. 14.10, and the load characteristic ean be derived from the charac- teristic of the single-phase single-way connection, again by changing the scales. For the voltage scale the conversion is simple. It is according to relation (6.3) (149)Operation with Capacitive Load 235 For the current scale we compute the average value of the direct current with capacitive load, pri te= 6 AREey( 14.10) 2wL, f iE, : y avg value of current in 1 phase (relation 14.2 applied to fig. 14.108) (6) phases contribute and derive the reference quantity /,, from the reactive voltage drop under regular operation, E = 6/Lly substituling Z,, for Ez and Iy, for Iy: /ifie, ars aatny From relations (14.10) and (14.11) we finally conclude # w(Z2) (14.12) With more load the individual current pulses overlap, and the investi- gation becomes rather complicated, especially the computation of the operating characteristic. Since the results do not differ considerably from those derived for inductive load, the treatment will be limited to a brief outline of the phenomena, just as a guide for going deeper into this field if necessary. ‘The operation of a 3-phase bridge connection with capacitive load and overlapping current pulses i illustrated by fig. 14.11, During the interval ‘ending at af,, phase 1 is conducting at the positive and phase 3 at the negative side. For this situation the bridge connection can be represented by the equivalent circuit shown in fig. 14.12a, where conducting diodes are replaced by straight connections. In order to determine the pickup point of the next phase, phase 2 at the positive side, we substitute the line-to-line ‘voltages for the lin-to-neutral voltages, change the position of £3, and find that point a (ig. 14.128) stays on the mean valuc of ¢, 4 and Eg because the difference between these voltages is equally absorbed by LI and L3. This determines the point where phase 2 starts to contribute to the current (ot in fig. 14.10 During the following interval phases 1 and 2 are both conducting at the positive side, resulting in the scheme of fig. 14.13a, Again it is necessary to determine the potential of point a. For this purpose we represent branches 1 and 2 by a new voltage source that delivers the mean value of236 DC Characteristics Fe (posi side) poste sie egsve side ss ae ti Ze on ie deny i i fee ite) ‘rane Se cay of “pote side) Fig. 14.11. Performance of a 3-phase bridge connection with capacitive load beyond the range of discontinuous operation, the two voltages and is connected to point a through L1 and £2 in parallel, as shown in fig. 14.13, Now it can be seen that the difference between this, ‘mean voltage (dashed curve in fig. 14.11) and Eq is divided between 13 ‘and the parallel connection of L1 and £2 ina ratio of 2:1, and the potential of point a can be determined. Finally, at «fy, the current of phase 1 is reduced to zero, and a new interval of operation starts that is similar to the first one. ‘This procedure can be continued over the full eyele, and we can specify the voltage-time areas that appear across the inductances of the individual phases, representing the rise and decay of the individual currents, Actually, it is sufficient to do this for one phase, The result is shown in fig. 14.11,Operation with Capacitive Load Fig. 14.12, Situation before ot (Og, 14.1). where all vertically crosshatched areas represent a rise and all horizontally crosshatched areas a decay of the current cartied by the positive branch of phase 2, This current is plotted at the top of fig. 14.11, and the mathe- ‘matical expression of this curve can be derived from the voltage appearing across the inductance during the periods of rise and decay. ‘The final aim is to determine the average valueof thecurrent, This needs the computation of the area under the current curve by means of another integration. However, this is a very complex procedure and will not be presented. For ‘most casts it is satisfying to know that the operating characteristic comes very close to that of operation with inductive load, especially in a range ‘where the phenomena described in Chapter 10 occur. o Fig. 14.13, Situation from cf, too, (fg. 14.10.238 D-C Characteristics Other Connections In a 3.phase bridge connection the capacitor suppresses any ripple of the ‘otal ofthe direct voltages ofthe two commutating groups; in a double-wye connection with interphase transformer it maintains the mean value of the direct voltages of the two wyes constant. This is just half of their total. Hence also in this case the operation of each commutating group is dictated by the condition that the total of the direct voltages must not fluctuate. From this we conclude that the load characteristics must be identical for both connections, except for the range of discontinuous ‘operation where the interphase transformer loses control. In this range the direct voltage of the interphase transformer connection approaches a no-load value of 1.21 Ey, (Eq of each wye), while the no-load value of the bridge connection is 1.054, (E of a 6-pulse system). The load characteristics for regular operation and operation with capacitive load differ since capacitive load suppresses fluctuations of the direct voltage. These voltage fluctuations become smaller as the pulse number rises, Hence the influence of the capacitor on the load charac- teristic must also decrease as the pulse number rises. In fact, the load characteristic of a 12-pulse system with capacitive load is nearly identical with the characteristic for regular operation and is therefore not derived. ‘The main difference is that with capacitance load the direct voltage climbs close to the no-load point to a higher level. It approaches 1.05E,, if two 3ephase bridge connections are combined through an interphase trans- former, and 1.212, if four 3-pulse commutating groups are paralleled through an interphase transformer, Current Limited by Resistance Only In the last paragraphs it was assumed that the curreats in the individual branches of a rectifier connection are determined only by inductance Now the other extreme willbe investigated; we shall asoume that the cireuit is purely resistive. Tn this case the current is, at any instant, proportional to the difference between the alternating and the direct voltage, and the average value of the current of each phase is represented by the cross- hatched areain fig 14.14, divided by the resistance ofthe phase under con- sideration, R. As a function of the auxiliary angle 8 which is defined by sin,Operation with Capacitive Load wt=0 Fig. 4414, Area representing current flow in a purely resistive cirutt this value is Fmd (cin cot — sin B) dx Taoaonomne = 22 [Gin ot — sin 8) dat =2afoose— (C—p) snd] wile G4 Ba (2) Es (Ee 14.10 fe «(22 4a where ¢(EplE,) = characteristic of fig, 1415, (ia order to distinguish This Rassion Prom f(Es/E,) derived for an indooive cet it has teen denoted by g@folBq) It should be mentioned that this result ocr not apply (© commutating. groups operating with overlapping arent pues rr sB c/n) ig. 14.15, Operating characteristic of single-phase connections with capacitive load, ‘corent limited by resistance only, + = value of sample calulation240 D-C Characteristics Example (Single-phase bridge connection) ‘A single-phase bridge connection with a secondary transformer voltage of 115 V and a total resistance of the secondary winding (including the trans- formed primary portion) of 100 feeds @ capacitor that is discharged through a load resistor of 100.2. Assume zero inductance and infinite capacitance, and compute the voltage across the capacitor. ‘Solution. "The current through the load circuit is Eo 100 [9] According to relation (14.14) this current is also mate) 2) phases contribute Ie Je Both relations combined give Eg Fl This condition is satisfied for Ly = 0.76 (intersection between the tolideurve and the dashed line ini 14.15). With By = V2 x 115 [V] ve compute: Bo = Vix 115 1V] x 016 = 12419) Phase Control Under regular operation the current flow is continuous, and the average value of the direct voltage can be reduced by delaying the current transfer from the preceding to the succeeding phase, without any influence on the slope of the load characteristic. With capacitive load the double- ‘erosshatched area in fig. 14.16 represents the total rise and decay of the ‘current, and any delay of the instant of fring the diode reduces this area 50 that the current can be raised to the same value only with a lower voltage Zc. Thus in both cases phase control reduces the direct voltage, However, under regular operation there is only one relation between the angle of delay and the voltage reduction, while with a capacitor a different control characteristic exists for each load. Deriving all these characteristics would be more confusing than useful, With capacitive load the earliest instant at which a diode can be success- fully fired is function ofthe ratio Zo/Ey and thus changes with the load. ‘This needs special attention when designing the firing system.Operation with Capacitive Load Performance with Small Values of Capacitance For all previous investigations of this chapter it was assumed that the capacitor has infinite capacitance and hence suppresses any fluctuations voltage-ine integral vltage-im itera Yor ree of een Yr decay of current aie F time nega of current | ‘harging capacitor | tine integral of current ‘charging eapactor Fig, 14.16, Voltage across capacitor (e) and current flow (6) in a rout with a smal value of capacitance, = 2 of the direct voltage. Now we shall briefly study a situation where the voltage actoss the capacitor decays between the charging pulses, as a consequence of the load, Figure 14.16 shows the curves of potential and current for such @ con- dition and 2-pulse performance. At at, the current of the rectifier con- nection starts to rise, controlled by the difference between the transformer emf and the voltage across the capacitor, since this difference appears across the impedance of the circuit. The current, again, determines the242 D-C Characteristics change of the capacitor voltage, according to eat [G—1)dt + const. 14.15) Ef r (14.13) Where ey represents the instantaneous value of the voltage across the capacitor. Until wt, the current furnished by the rectifier circuit is smaller than the load current, and the capacitor is still being discharged. Then more current is delivered, and the capacitor voltage is being raised. At ‘of, the current of the rectifier connection again decreases below the load level, and a new discharging period begins. The total rise of the direct voltage corresponds to the time integral of the current charging the capacitor from a, to at,, It is represented by arca A of fig. 14.16 and must be in balance with the time integral of the current discharging the ‘capacitor, represented by area B. Furthermore, the sum of areas A and C corresponds to the average value of the load current, Hence the total swing of the capacitor voltage is I, area A afC ™ area +O AEg= (14.16) The ratio of these areas is a rather complex function of the operating conditions. For practical use the voltage swing AEg is graphically pre- sented in fig. 14.17 as a function of the ratio C/,, measured in microfarads per ampere. The chart is based on a supply frequency of 60 ops and shows the curves for g = I and q = 2. At higher pulse numbers the current flow is usually continuous, and the fluctuations of the capacitor voltage are determined from the harmonic composition of the direct voltage, as explained in Chapter 15, The operating conditions are specified for the chart of fig. 14.17 by the ratio Eo/E,. However, this is a rough approxi- ‘mation, In reality many more parameters are involved. Electrolytic capacitors are able to carry only a limited current, In view of this, the current flowing through the capacitor is of special interest. The average value can be easily determined from the voltage fluctuations: Average value of current flowing through capacitor ~ 2#/C4Fo aein However, the heat generated in the capacitor depends on the rms value, and to compute this value is much more difficult. For discontinuous current flow it can be determined by the following approximation, in- dependent of pulse number and supply frequency. lischarging time] ‘Secharsng tne) (14.18) asthe ase cing tin ‘lowing through capacitorOperation with Capacitive Load oa} a ee e100 CHa uF —> x10 Fig. 1417, Total voltage swing across capacitor as a function of the ratio City + = value of sample calculation. Example (Single-phase bridge connection, voltage ripple across capacitor) ‘A single-phase bridge connection with a capacitor bank of C = 10,000 uF ‘connected in parallel to the output terminals is operated with Eo = 40 V and J, =10 A. At no load the voltage rises to Ey, = 50. f= 60 cps Determine the voltage swing Ac. Solution. We compute C//, = 1000 (xF/A] and Eo/Ey = 0.8 and read from fig. 14.17 a voltage swing of AEg = 4.4 [V}. Voltage Doubler and Cascade Connections The treatment of connections with a capacitor across the d-c terminals, will be concluded with a brief presentation of voltage doubler and cascade connections since their operation is based on a capacitive load circuitOperation with Capacitive Load 45, ‘The connection shown in fig. 14.18 is a combination of two single-phase single-way connections, one using the positive and one the negative half- cycle ofthe alternating voltage. This results in a positive potential at point @ and a negative potential at point b, and a voltage from a to b of two times the crest value of the alternating voltage. Since the direct voltage is. symmetrical with respect to the secondary transformer winding, this Connection is used mainly for applications where the load circuit consists of a positive and a negative section. ‘The circuit illustrated by fig. 14.19 uses the same number of components, but in an asymmetrical arrangement. The result is that the load circuit Fig, 1420, Cascade connection and the secondary transformer winding have a common point of potential ‘which may be grounded. Again both half-waves of the alternating voltage are used. During the negative half-wave the first eapacitor is charged to the crest value of this voltage, and then, during the positive half-wave, this voltage in series connection with the alternating voltage charges the second capacitor to two times the crest value. "The same method successively applied leads to the cascade connections. Figure 14.20 shows such a connection that furnishes four times the erest ‘Value of the alternating voltage, disregarding any voltage drop. This figure also presents the curves of potential, and we now see that the reverse voltage across each diode reaches a crest value of two times the crest valle of the alternating voltage, while the voltages across the capacitors are as marked in the illustration.