86 D-C Characteristics Example (3-Phase bridge connection) The direct voltage of a 3-phase bridge connection with Ey, = 100 V is reduced by phase control to 60 V. Determine (a) the angle of phase control, (®) the time integral of the voltage absorbed during each delay by the device that causes the delay, f= 60 eps. Solution, (a) We compute “This value is shovin in fig. 74 at (By ~ E,)/Eeo (The voltage reduction is 40 V, and the voltage-time integral under ‘consideration is six times withheld from the d-c circuit during each cycle. Hence the value of this integral is A _401Y) 114 fms OWN 30 per] 111 [msec]Reactive Voltage Drop ‘The current transfer between the commutating phases causes the reactive voltage drop. For computing this voltage drop, we interpret the transfer as the result of a short cireuit in the commutating loop ‘and define the “line-to-neutral commutating inductance”. In Chapter 1 it was shown that a rectifier connection must consist of at east two alternately conducting branches if a continuous current flow is demanded. ‘The periodic transfer of the current from one branch to the other causes a reduction of the direct voltage and is therefore of special interest. This transfer is called commutation and will now be investigated, ‘The Principle of Commutation © For the following investigation we select } the 3-pulse midpoint connection asthe “commutating group” of most of the ‘more complex rectifier systems. This con- nections shown in fg. 8, and the curves Fig. 81. Commutation in a “of potential and current are presented by — pube midpoint connection, G fig. 8.2. Starting at or, of fig. 8.2 the _ Potential of phase 2 exceeds that of phase 1. This causes the diode of phase 2 to conduct, since otherwise it would have to absorb voltage in the forward iMirection, The diode of phase | is also conducting, because it still carries ; the load current. ‘Thus the potential difference between phases 1 and 2 is, ‘suddenly forced to be absorbed in a circuit that contains only the resistance fand the inductance of the transformer windings and of the bus bars of hases 1 and 2 (disregarding the diodes, which have nearly the same forward voltage drop). This condition is comparable to a short circuit fit existed permanently, the current curve would be displaced in relation a88 D-C Characteristics to the curve of the voltage (potential difference between phases 1 and 2) by the phase angle 4, as shown in fig. 8.26, and the ratio of the crest values of the voltage and the current would be determined by the impedance of the circuit, just as explained in Chapter 1. But this condition starts suddenly at ct, and the current of phase 2 is zero at this instant, Hence o iv, @| o ete wt ig. 82, Commutation with ze phase control *,** indicat that value correspond, thete is an unbalance at ot, of the magnitude i,, decaying with the time ‘constant of the circuit, This transient component has been taken into fecount in’ fig. 825 by displacing the zero line for the current in such manner that the real current values are represented by the distance between. the solid current curve and the dashed-dotted zero line. ‘The path of this short circuit current is marked in fig. 8.1 by a dashed Tine, In phase this current flows inthe forward direction, while it opposesReactive Voltage Drop 89 the load current in phase 1. At af, the current in phase 1 is reduced to zero and, thanks to the diode, it does not reverse the polarity. Thus the short circuit is cleared at this instant, and the transfer of the load current from phase 1 to phase 2 is completed. The resulting current curves are shown in fig. 8.2c, assuming a load current without ripple. Reactive Voltage Drop With the knowledge just acquired we now determine the reduction of the irect voltage caused by the current transfer. With no load the d-c circuit, is “switched over” from phase 1 to phase 2 as soon as the potential of phase 2 exceeds that of phase 1, so that the output always stays on the highest potential. With load the output potential is commonly determined during the period of current transfer by phases 1 and 2, and itis therefore lower. In fact, the current of phase 2 rises during the transfer from zero to the value of the load current, Z,, 80 that the inductance of this phase, Ly absorbs a voltage-time integral of L,1, during the transfer, according to the law of induction in integral form. This value, represented by area A in fig. 8.2, is withheld from the d-c circuit, Since it is withheld three times during each cycle, the average reduction of the direct voltage, B, is determined by 1 yale 6.) eee Z, denotes the “line-to-neutral commutating inductance” and will be investigated later in more detail Relation (8.1) discloses the fundamental fact that the reduction of the direct voltage caused by commutation is proportional to the current. However, this is only true up to a certain load, Beyond this load novel phenomena occur and change the relation. They will be studied in & Chapter 10. Commutating Angle ‘To determine the commutating angle we disregard the resistance of the insfer oop and assume equal values of inductance in all phases and a Hdirect current without ripple. Under these conditions the voltage that auses the transfer, Le, the potential difference between the commutati hases, will be equally divided between the iiductances of the commutatingD-C Characteristics Aine nea of ‘age easing Ba time integral of ‘eltags cai By ‘rensent component 10 "® © le T Zi, a le wt Fig. £3. Commutation with phase control. *, *¢ indicate that values correspond, phases, with the consequence that during the transfer the d- circuit stays Penthe mean value of the potentials ofthe two phases, as shown in fig, 8.22 Sinee the current rises in one phase by the same amount as it decays in the other, a total voltage-time integral of two times LJ, must be furnished by the source ofthe transfer, before the transfer is completed. This total woltage-time integral is represented by area Bin fig 8.2. Its the same value Teptesented by the crosshatched area in fig 7-1, and it would be withheld from the dee circuit if w-(ig. 8.2) were the angle of phase control. Hence there is the same relation between the commutating angle or “overlapReactive Voltage Drop on angle” w and two rimes the reactive voltage drop, as thee is between the angle of phase control # and Ey. Therefore we change relation (7.2) into 2B, Ey ‘This is, however, true only if the transfer starts without delay, right atthe intersection of the curves of potential of the commutating phases, With phase control the relation is different, It is derived next cos u (8.2) ‘Commutation Delayed by Phase Control With phase control the current transfer occurs under a higher potential difference between the commutating phases, so that the voltage-time integral necessary for the transfer can be furnished in a shorter period of time. This does not affect the relation between the current and the reactive voltage drop, expressed for a 3-pulse commutating group by equation (8.1), because the current in the succeeding phase still rises from zero to Jy so that the same voltage-time integral is withheld from the d-c circuit. Butit changes the relation between the commutating angle and the current, or between the commutating angle and the reactive voltage drop, respectively. ‘The situation with phase control is illustrated by fig. 8.3. This figure shows that the time integral of the potential difference between the commutating phases during the angle « + u (represented by areas B and C) corresponds to E, plus two times E,. Hence, according to relation (7.2), = c08 («+ u) j If we subtract relation (7.2), we find Eq _ cosa cos(e + u) ea as well as £08 + cos (a+ u) : es is result is graphically presented in section (c) of fig. 8.4. In the other cctions the situation is shown for no load or zero phase control, respec lively.2 D-C Characteristics Example (Reactive voltage drop and commutating angle) ‘The direct voltage of a 3-pulse midpoint connection with Ey, reduced by phase control to 150 V. In addition, there isa reactive voltage drop of 10 V at 500 A. Determine (@) the commutating angle at this load, (@) the fine-to-neutral commutating inductance. Solution. (a) We compute = Fs = 075 = cosa em 41d? = PEs 0.65 = c0s(« + 1) Hence (This value can also be taken from fig. 7.4, guided by fig. 8.4.) sea determines ect vol ir i, Baca it rea eter sea determine h [ol Fig. 84. Relations between « and « andthe corresponding voltage reductions, (@) Noload. (8) Zero phase contol. (¢) Load and phase contr,Reactive Voltage Drop 93 (@) There are three commutations per eyele, Hence, according to relation (8.1), a Seep SOO Tay = 0 isec] = 0.11 fmt] ‘Commutation in Systems with More Than One Commutating Group Power rectifier systems are usually combinations of several commutating groups. For example, a 3-phase bridge connection or a double-wye connection with interphase transformer consists of two independently commutating 3-pulse groups, and larger systems are frequently comt nations of even more groups. These groups usually have a common trans former or, at least, a common supply line, so that certain portions of the ‘commutating inductance are common for several groups. Therefore, we must investigate how far the individual commutations affect each other. As the fitst step, we distinguish between two cases (@) The individual groups do nor simultaneously commutate, and the commutations do not overlap. Furthermore, the phases that are involved in a commutation in one group do not conduct at the same time in another group. This category of circuits covers mainly those systems where the individual groups operate with a certain displace- ‘ment in order to increase the pulse number of the whole system in i relation to the pulse numbers of the individual groups. In this {case there is no mutual influence, and each group can be treated 4} _ individually, as already explained. Hence no investigation is needed for this category of circuits, except for extreme load conditions where the commutations overlap, and the whole system must be treated as a unit. However, this is a different story; it will be investigited in Chapter 10. © The individual groups commutate simultaneously. In this case the commutations affect each other, and it will now be shown how to handle such a situation. Asa start, fig. 8.5 shows two identical and simultaneously commutating -pulse midpoint connections. Assuming that these connections have @ Common supply system and eventually common primary transformer ings, it seems justified to show them with just one set of secondary fansformer windings and partially common and partially individual values inductance (fig. 8.6). This displays the problem: During a commutationD-C Characteristics ig. 85, “Two simultaneously commuting ple mispoint snsssions the voltage across the individual inductance is induced BY the change of not fgespecively, whereas the voltage induced 0 ‘the eommon inductance 1 he result of the change of fy + jae Thus both ports of inductance is the rently involved in the commutation, and it would ‘be incorrect to ae cir sur in conjunction with the relations derived fr single groups. Instead, it is necessary to co ‘such a manner that the now value represents for each group the 1e commutating tee ce L, doce for a single group. Actually, Las 60 Be given a more general definition so that it ean be used for ‘single groups and more complex Ye ig, 86. Two simultaneously commutaing pao mG connections with feommon transformer.Reactive Voltage Drop 98 systems as well. For this purpose let us recall the correct meaning of comimutating inductance for a single group Single group: line-to-neutral component of voltage induced in commutating loop as a result of current change in this loop during commutation rate of change of current in commutating loop In systems where groups that are partially linked by common values of inductance commutate simultaneously, the voltage induced in each com- mutating loop is the result of all simultaneous commutations, Therefore wwe define: Line-to-neutral commutating inductance General: line-to-neutral component of voltage commonly induced in commutating group under consideration by the current changes in all simultaneously commutating groups ommutatig ~ re of change of current in ommutatng group under consideration —___._ &5) This is a very practical definition for a rather complex situation, Applied to fig, 8.6 this concept results in: 6 = Linaty H+ Leommen diy + diy dt a Sine f= iat any instant, e di, at line-to-neutral commutating inductance of each group ¢ = (Linaty + 2Lcommon] ‘The -< citéuits of simultaneously commutating groups as wel as of groups that commutate during other periods of time may be connected in series [or in parallel, In the last case, the current in the load circuit is different "from the current commutated in an individual group. Therefore, to avoid confusion, the current commutated in a group will be distinguished from {the current in the d-c circuit, _, by a new symbol: 1, = current commutated in group under consideration {With this new quantity, the time integral ofthe voltage withheld during one smmutation from the d-c circuit of each commutating group is Ll,96 D-C Characteristics regardless of whether other groups with simultaneous or displaced ‘commutations are connected in parallel. ‘A slightly different approach—but with the same basic idea—is to conceive all simultaneously commutating groups as one unit and to define 'L, and I, for this “set of commutating groups"; this is the way these ‘quantities are defined in the ASA standards. However, the ASA method is more abstract and not as flexible as the one just presented. It has therefore not been selected for this book. Example (Commutating inductance of simultaneously commutating groups) Two double-wye connections with interphase transformer operate in parallel, Ata total load current of f, = 10,000 A the reactive voltage drop is E,=9V. Determine L, of each commutating group, assuming 60 ops. ‘Soluiion, ‘There are four commutating groups. Hence I, = 2500 A. With this value we compute according to relation (8.1) Per-Unit System Many computations are simplified if the circuit characteristics such as resistance, reactance, and imptdance are expressed in relation toa reference quantity; that is, ina per-unit system. Since these characteristics have the dimension “ohms”, the ratio rated voltage/rated current, which has the ‘same dimension, is selected for the reference quantity, so that the per-unit values are plain ratios. They will be distinguished from the real values by the subscript “pu.” With Rj symbolizing the above ratio, _ rated voltage ‘et = Fated current the new qua Yme Xe, me Ru => Reet Reet Reet ‘Any portion or component of the cireut impedance can be expressed in terms of Rp and since the reference quantity isthesemeforall components,Reactive Voltage Drop 7 the per-unit values can be geometrically added just like the real ones: Zyl = Rat + Xue 67 Applied to the internal impedance of a voltage source (fig. 8.7), Zp, represents rated curret 6.8) short circuit current at rated voltage because the rated voltage equals the internal impedance times the short cireuit current, Sometimes the internal impedance of a voltage source is au Nit external ‘ead A votage short ‘eure rout Fig. 8.7. Voltage source with internal impedance Z. ‘expressed by the ratio in which the voltage has to be reduced in order to jg) Cblaln a short cecut curent equal to rated current, This ratio is also = Feduced voltage Z rated voltage 8.9) Ina circuit with a transformer, all values of resistance or reactance can be teferred to one side, For a regular power transformer there is Rated rated rated rated primary x primary = secondary x secondary current voltage current voltage ‘nd the per-unit values are the same whether related to the primary side for to the secondary. ‘Thus primary and secondary values can be easil fcombined without regarding the ratio of transformation. This is not Iways true for rectifier transformers, however; there the rating of the iccondary side is sometimes higher than that of the primary, since the ondary windings sometimes have to carry an additional d-c component 3 more harmonics of the current than the primary side, Therefore let us98 D-C Characteristies ‘make the statement that throughout this book, in accordance with common practice, all per-unit values referring to rectifier systems have to be based vrated line current and rated line-to-neutral voltage at the ae side of the transformer, even if these values are later transformed to the dec side for the purpose of computing the voltage reductions. ote. In the European literature the internal impedance of a voltage source is usually expressed in a per-unit system by the “short circuit voltage” with the components ¢, and e,. These quantities correspond t0 Zeus Rowe 204 Xp Example (Per-unit system) Determine the per-unit values of resistance, reactance, and impedance ae mo x2 een voltage J — Fig. 68, Circuit for sample calculation. of the single-phase transformer shown in fig, 8.8. Assume: Rated power (both sides) = 400 VA Rated primary voltage = 200 V 40 V (no-load value) ‘Then we compute 400 [VA] _ Rated primary current = <> = 2 [A] fed primary current = “9 yy = 2 (A Reet prim = 200 1V) _ Ay 10010Reactive Voltage Drop 99 ‘Above results expressed in terms of this reference quantity: O18) oe 100 [Q) ° 810) _ sma = 008 Zou = VR pat + Xp = 0.4 ALTERNATE APPROACH (cortect ony if both sides ofthe transformer have the same power rating): Primary Side Seoondary Side Rated _ 400 [VA] Rated _ 400 [VA] current = "300 vy =?!) current = “goqyy = 10 (Al = 200) 0 OM) 410) Reet 2 IAT 100 (Q) Ry 10[A] 4(Q] = 210) _ 6 F010] = °° Bom "4 i0) ~ 904 Xp = 3) Xpu = 22181 _ 95 : 100 (Q) " 4[Q) Total: te X= 0.08 ‘These values coincide with the results computed above and lead to the same resultant Z,,, Per-Unit Commutating Reactance In the previous paragraphs it was shown thatthe reactive voltage drop is determined by the commutating inductance. This quantity was then defined for rectifier systems with more than one commutating group, and sistance, reactance, and impedance were expressed in a per-unit system ‘order to simplify the mathematical treatment. The concluding step is fo apply the per-unit system to the commutating inductance L,. However, the reference quantity is measured in ohms, and wL, must be transferred instead of L,. Thus we define the per-unit lin-to-neutral commutating feavtance: rated primary line curren Xo ou = (OL dee to yim sta wed primary Hine current ; rated primary line-to-neutral voltage (8.10)100 D-C Characteristics “The tert X, yy aetually represents in a condensed form the circuit charac- teristics as fat as they determine the reactive voltage drop. Thus the reactive ‘Voltage drop is frequently computed in two steps: 1. The circuit characteristics are converted into Xe pw: 2, From X, qq the reactive voltage drop is computed. “The first step is explained further below. ‘The second step establishes, fOr rie ttain lond, a relation between X-yy and E,[Eg, which is always the syave for a particular connection and therefore of special interest. With the following sample calculations this relation will be determined for wo froquently used connections; for other circuits just the results will Be listed example (Reactive voltage drop ina 3-phase bridge connection, computed from X. ya) Derive forthe 3-phase bridge connection a elation between yy and the reactive voltage drop. Solution. We frst establish a relation between X, , and Le This can bbe done in two ways. (@) The secondary line-to-neutral commutating inductance, Le is Fane: formed to the primary side, For this purpose we assume equal voltages between corresponding points at both sides, so thatthe value of Lis not flected by the transformation. ‘Then we determine the reference quantity _ tated primary line-to-neutral voltage ine = “tated primary line current “At rated load the primary line current is v2 Passe Kapa = o> Hesuet ™ V3 Ee (0) The alternate method is based on relation (&.8). We assume that the secondary windings are short ieuited just as they are during commutation, and that the primary voltage is reduced to a value where the primary eu)Reactive Voltage Drop 101 current equals rated current, The ratio of reduction is then X, yy if we disregard the resistance of the circuit. This leads to - Kerby = be? heres a Gecondary currentif primary winding carries rated load Jine-to-neviral eommutating reactance of secondary side —reduced secondary Jine-to-neutral voltage which accords with 8.11), ‘The next step is to determine the relation between L, and the reactive voltage drop: 1 Eph = Lily 12 5 12) ime integral of voltage withheld from d-c exeuit uring one commutation —time integral of reactive voltage drop during # oycle (6 commutations during each cycle) ‘This relation i similar to (8.1). Finally, we introduce Eu 3p 35 jee 2 eR, # and combine relations (8.11) and (8.12). 3-phase bridge connect (8.13) (“factor of special interest It should be emphasized that, thanks to the per lependent of the turn ratio on the transformer. it system, this result is Example (Reactive voltage drop ina double-wye connection with interphase transformer, computed from X, y,) Derive for the double-wye connection with interphase transformer a elation between X, », and the reactive voltage drop.302 D-C Characteristics ‘Solution. Assuming a 1:1 ratio of voltage transformation we compute the reference quantity for the primary side: 8 hk primary ine current = 22 x current commotated in one Wye = 7 : G en LG rated prim. line-to- neutral voltage bE. Tine ourrent 7, sata “Then we recognize that the two wyes commutate independently, so that the second wye does not affect the valve ofthe line-to-neutral commutating ee setance iit is referred to the primary side; it has the value Lat both sides. Hence ol, L Xe py = 2 = ole Rot JOE e (8.14) With the alternate method we would have assumed that one secondary WYe seaport ciruited, since the two wyes do not commutate simultaneously, wrod that the primary voliage is reduced to a value at which the prin ine content equals the rated current, Then we would have computed for cone secondary phase: I Kopala = ole which accords with relation (8.14). The next step isto expres the reactive voltage drop as function of: feet Bey “ T_time integral of voltage withheld from d-c cirouit during one commutation time integral of reactive voltage drop during } cycle (3 commutations per cycle in each wyes the two ‘wyes are paralleled so that the ‘voltage reductions must not be added) Again, we substitute Ey, for Ey 2a an, [Tz eee = Exley forq = 3Reactive Voltage Drop 4103 and combine (8.14) with (8.15), resulting in: Double-wye connection with interphase transformer (8.16) Tested This result is identical with (8.13), which is no surprise since the two circuits are, with respect to the commutations, identical. The only difference is that the two wyes are seties connected in one case and paral- Ieled in the other. Reactive Voltage Drop in Other Connections ‘Similar developments can be made for other connections. However, too much accent would be placed on this field if all these calculations were lined up in detail. Therefore only the results are shown: 2-pulse midpoint and single-phase bridge connections: (ar) (8) eas) 12-pulse'systems consisting of 3-pulse commutating groups: . Be = sin 15° x Xepe (6.20) lo lazatea d that for all combinations of 3-pulse commutating ups the factor is sin (n/g) (g = pulse number of the total system). ixample (Reactive voltage drop in a 12-pulse system) transformer with two secondary windings, one in wye and one in delta nection, feeds two 3-phase bridge connections that are paralleled ‘ough an interphase transformer, as shown in fig. 5.15. ‘The line-tox tral commutating inductance, referred to the secondary is104 D-C Characteristics 1, = 20H, and f= 60.eps. Determine the reactive voltage drop at & total load of 1, = 10,000 A in two ways, (a) From the time integral of the voltage withheld from the de crcat, using relation (6.1), (®) By means of relation (8.20), and check the identity of the results. Assume that the commutations do not overlap, ‘Solution. (a) The two secondary systems are 30° phase shifted. Hence there are no simultaneous commutations, and each system can be individue ally treated. ‘The current commutated in each system is 5000 A “The direct voltage of each wye is reduced according to relation (8.1) by Exeacn ye = Plate 3 x 60 [sect] 20 x 10-* [Ase] 5 x 10° TA] =181V) “two wyes are combined ina bridge connection so that the total reduction is two times this valu 361V] (6) The alternate approach requires the computation of Xa pw and sints this quantity is based on rated voltage and current atthe primary sie, We have to transform L, to the primary side, But we do not have to knew Yio weal ratio of transformation because X, », does not depend onit. The purpose of the transformation is only to take the second system Ne Perrost which does not influence the commutations ofthe first one but sertributes to the primary current and thus influences the vale of ¥ yw srarttore we assume the most convenient rato, a1: 1 ratio of the voltages careto corresponding points atthe primary and the secondary side. This gives the same value of L, atthe primary side because the commutations Of the two systems do not affect each other. pe dee next step we have to determine the rated primary current, The ment elegant approach is to recognize that according to Chapter 19° Pia = 22Pae tL" «This relation disregards te deformation of the current curve caused by commutation,Reactive Voltage Drop 105 we find bat BBlaseaet = BEY Baty ree —— 62 —— Pig at Fated load Prat rated load ‘Then we insert = Ey of each bridge connection lB for ‘The rated primary voltage is E, (ine-to-neutral value because L, is defined as the line-to-neutral value). Thus X, y, can be determined, using relation (8.10) primary value = secondary value With £, expressed by Z, and with relation (8.20) we finally compute Ey = E,.sin 15° X Xepu X A : = Fe acy «NAV + ye te zi : =w, which leads to the same result as method (a) since fy = 21. ig inductance is determined by a short circuit st with the following procedure, (@ Short circuit in a single-phase connection, all secondary windings; in @ connection with 3-pulse commutaiing groups, all simul- taneously commutating groups; in a connection with a 6- or 12-pulse commutating group, just three 120%displaced secondary phases, If there is more than one group, short circuit also the corresponding phases of all other simultaneously commutating groups.D-C Characteristics (af this instruction asks you to short circuit not all secondary Gindings the rule isto repeat the test with other sets of windings hort circuited, and to take the mean value of the measurements) (6) Inerease the supply voltage from zero toa value at which the primary ine current equals the rated current. (This eauses more then the sine d load in the short circuited secondary windings if not all of {hem are short circuited, To avoid damage, the test may be per Formed at reduced values of voltage and current.) (6 Measure the supply voltage at this condition and refer it 10 the rated voltage. The ratio is Zu. (@ Split Zyq into the components Ry and Xjy- Thisrequires knowled gs SPthe phase angle or of the resistance, which ean be determined from a separate loss measurement. If R& X, the approximation Kyu © Zyu may sataly. (© Compute tom Xp (which also represents X,y) the primary value of wL, according to rated primary lineo-neutral voltage (OL deat. opto. ate = Xe me rated primary line current (f) Transform the reslt to the sesondary side, Mmore than one frou fr ahort circuited, the result represents the reactance of all these {groups as if they were connected in parallel. Instead of using () and (/), Xz ya can be directly converted into aL, of each individual group according to obem Xs ga tates ronda ine-to-neutral voltage «= Xe “econdary line current under short circuit condition with rated current at primary side Example (Computing commutating inductance from skort clr ts) ‘A double-wye connection with interphase transformer (Sg. 8.9) is rated Ew = 150V T,= 20004 “Under regular operation with rated load the copper losses are: Primary transformer windings = 10kW* ‘Secondary transformer windings = 15 kW* + tn onder to obian a restive component of Zp hat snot nelle in eaton fo ihe sree Component, the loses are assumed considerably higher than they wile 10 wear jel transformer of this te. Furthermore, any infiuence of the temperate ‘onthe losses as been disregarded.Reactive Voltage Drop 107 During a short circuit test, one secondary wye was short circuited, and with the supply voltage reduced from the rated value of 250 V (line-to-ine) to 40 ¥, a line current of $80 A was measured, Determine the contribution. of the transformer to the reactive voltage drop at rated load. fated: 250 ¥) test 401M 635 (may vest 54 josey ;6OCUE xsivi weit rated Input Bao = 150 V) rate: 1000 (ay) VF es 2000 (A) Fig. 89. Circuit for sample calculation, Solution. (a) The first value we need is the primary line current at rated ad. With a turn ratio on the transformer such thatthe primary line-to- eutral voltage is equal to the secondary lineto-neutal voltage, this value ould be Pe q B2 where 1,2 is the current commutated in one wye, and we would obtain : 3Y3_ 250 1V] y= SB p20) © 169 te VP WB MI To _= &, of each wye — = ExlEy forg = 3108 D-C Characteristics But E,,is 150 V, Hence the rated primary line current is wed <= 1000 [Al 310ml (B) As an alternate, the same value can be computed from the total input power according to Chapter 19: Prot 3 Pe forq = Jil, x 2501¥] = Z x 150 [V1 x 2000 1A] y= 7X 3001KW1 eSB x 250 (Vi (© With this value we determine Zyy. With 40 V applied to the input, the primary line current was 580A. "Hence, for rated current an input voltage of = 251A) Bs BS x 40 [Vv] = 501V] Fao * 01 = 501¥) is necessary, and the ratio of reduction, which equals Zyqy is = 20M 202 250 ¥] (@ This result must now be split into the resistive and the reactive ‘components. ‘The resistive component is defined by the power losses. However, the losses are specified for normal operation whereas Zy, was ‘measured with one short circuited secondary wye. Therefore, we first ‘compute the real values of resistance, For the primary side we find (without regard of the real transformer connection): Primary line-to- 40 [kW] neutral resistance 3¢725 (A) Zon = 635 [m0] ‘The resistance of each secondary line is: Secondary lineto- _ _15 {kW} 75 (m0) neutral resistance ~ G@O00[AI/3)" ‘This value must now be referred to the primary side: 150, Secondary line-to-neutral resistance (3 _ referred to primary sideReactive Voltage Drop 109 Since during the test only one wye was short circuited, this value can be directly added to the primary resistance, With 2501V1 iyi 725 [A] 199 fm] we then translate the sum into the per-unit system and find: 6.35 [m0] + 9.5 {mQ 199 {mQ] Row 0.08 (© From this value we compute with relation (8.16) the reactive voltage drop at rated load: 0.183 13.7 (V) Inductance of the Supply System thas been shown how to transform a certain value of resistance, reactance, or impedance into a per-unit system, and we discovered that the result is the same whether the transformation is made at the primary or secondary ide ofa transformer, as long as the primary and secondary power ratings are equal. Since this is not always true for a rectifier transformer, the primary ratings have been selected for the transformation, The next step is to extend this method to the various portions of resistance and reactance ‘ofthe supply system. In fact, these portions are usually already expressed {ina per-unit system; however, they are based on the power rating of the {f particular transformer or generator which they belong to, and this rating, ay be many times the rating ofthe rectifier installation. ‘Therefore, in $ order to combine these per-unit values directly with those of the rectifier system, itis necessary to relate all of them to the same reference quantity, and nothing is more obvious than to use the reference quantity already {defined forthe rectifier connection. This requires a simple transformation: ‘The per-unit values that are based on other power ratings have to be - multiplied by the ratio of the input power of the rectifier system to the power they are referred to. This is practiced with the following example. E Example (Inductance of the supply system) ‘Transform the resultant values of resistance and inductance of the supply {system shown in fg. 8.10 into the per-unit system of the rectifier installation,110 D-C Characteristics Solution, There ate two power inputs to the bus bars a. The values Xu and Ryy of the generator are based on 2 MVA, whereas the input power of the rectifier is, with a slight inaccuracy, according to Chapter 19, Prot = = Pyy = 1.05[MVA] Inpt with a shor crit poy with init owe” of 100 Al ewe (cee inpedance) ne on tn cable | toresiter 8.10, Analysis of « supply system, ‘Therefore, we convert these two values into = LOSIMVA] 9,94 — o.021 2[MVA] Xa Ryo = = 0.008 The value of X,y of the transformer is based on 5MVA and is converted into 1.05 [MV A] 0.06 = 0.0125 'S[MVA] ‘The “power” ofthe input lin i specified by the “short cieuit power” of 100 MVA. This information says that the internal impedance absorbs the apparent power of 100 MVA ifthe line is short circuited or, differently Xu bee se satReactive Voltage Drop ant interpreted, that Zp, = 1, based on 100 MVA. If we assume that there is, no resistance, we find on the basis of 1.05 MVA that 1.05 [MVA] 100 [MVA] 105 Xo ‘The other loads connected to bus bars a cause only an additional voltage drop; they do not change the internal resistance or reactance of the supply system. Therefore we are not concerned about them, Bus bars @ are connected to the rectifier through a cable with a total reactance (line-to- neutral value) of X = 200 [f] 50 [u0/ft] = 10 fmO} ‘This value is (intentionally) not expressed in the per-unit system. ‘There fore we compute the reference value for this point. From the input power ‘of the rectifier and the line-to-line voltage of 500 V (fg. 8.10), we determine the rated line current, i 1210 [A] V3x500(V] and finally the reference quantity rated line-to-neutral voltage rated line current 500 [V] /y/3. 1210 [A] = 240 {mQ] In terms of this quantity, the reactance of the cable is: _ 10 {may 20 1mO) _ o.o42 40 [m0] Xu All per-unit values are shown in the equivalent diagram at the right of fg. 8.10; Bach one represents a certain value of resistance or reactance, and all are based on the same reference quantity. Therefore, they can be geometrically added just as regular values of resistance and reactance, resulting in Rg = 0.002 Xu = 0.053 For further calculations these values have to be combined with those of the transformer and the bus bars of the rectifier system, based on the same reference quantity.112 D-C Characteristics Leakage Inductance of the Transformer, Computed from ‘the Energy Stored in the Leakage Field Although computing the leakage inductance of a transformer is not a rectifier problem, it will be thoroughly treated since it is an essential part of the circuit design and is sometimes not well understood. Furthermore, the “conventional method” of computing inductance from the induced voltage cannot be easily applied to the leakage inductance of transformer windings, for the leakage flux is only partially linked with the windings. In view of this, we shall compute the leakage inductance from the energy stored in the leakage field, a method that simplifies the computations considerably, especially if the arrangement of the windings is rather complex. {AS the first step we assume that an arrangement of conductors of any kind, with the value of inductance Z and with a linear relation between current and flux density, carries the current J. If it is suddenly discharged through the resistance R, the current decays with the time constant T = LJR, and the total energy dissipated in the resistance of the circuit is we [erat ae paler this leads to were [” ot ae ‘The value of the integral is 7/2. Hence Lr wot 8.21) 2 (8.21) ‘As the second step we assume a homogeneous magnetic field, for example, in a toroidal coil where the magnetic flux © is surrounded by N’ turns carrying the current Z. The inductance is L = ON/Z, and the energy stored in the magnetic field is, according to relation (8.21), vot 2 @=4B and N= HI cross-sectional area of the field lux density field strength 1 = length of the field sci carinaReactive Voltage Drop 115 leakage tux ie E ee le the curves ficld strength, as well as the results of the integration, are shown in fig. 12, assuming that the windings are enclosed by iron so that practically ‘all excitation is absorbed along the path through the windings or the gaps ‘between the windings, In reality, the return path for the leakage flux is [not as perfect, and the results have to be multiplied by a correction factor jf approximately 0.9. Since there are many other arrangements of windings, as well as complex onnections such as zigzag ot polygon, we now show with a few examples hhow to apply this philosophy to a specific problem.D-C Characteristies tubular winging | winding. o Fig. 8:12. Leakage inductance of typical arrangements of transformer windings (dig = mean elcunference of leakage path. aie oe oy nate) gy) nntne(atett an) Example (Leakage inductance of the transformer computed from the energy stored in the leakage field) Figure 8.13 gives a cross-sectional view through the windings on one leg of a 3phase transformer, Determine the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the Iie-to-neutral commutating inductance L, for the following conditions: (@) The two secondary windings on each leg are connected in series, ‘and the windings of the three phases in wye, feeding a 3-pulse midpoint connection. © The transformer feeds a double-wye connection with interphase tcansformer.* * A similar problem is investigated in a sample calculation in Chapter 11. There the Individual and the common portion ofthe leakage inductance areseparatey determine.Reactive Voltage Drop 417 ol (m 0.1 = 25) d= (e) u © st. Leaning arent se Teng caren o # A a Fig. 813, Arrangement of transformer windings for sample ealulation (©) The two windings on each leg are used for two separate but simul- taneously commutating 3-phase bridge connections. (@ The two windings on each leg are in zigzag, feeding a 3-pulse midpoint cénnectioin, Solutions. (a) We assume that both secondary windings carry a direct current of the value J, and that these ampere-turns are balanced by the primary ampere-turns. Under this condition, the field strength as a function of the variable ris presented by the curve of fg. 8.136. The square | of this value, again as a function of r, is shown in fig. 8.13c. ‘The cross- hatched area represents [noe (fetgte ene]D-C Characteristics With this expression and with (8.24) we finally compute * [Os] 400m x 3 fin] 1 fin) 2.54 fom) 4 fin) 1 fin} Since it was assumed that the current I is carried by both secondary ‘windings, the result refers to the secondary side of the transformer with the two secondary windings in series connection. Since the windings are connected from line to neutral, and since there are only three secondary phases, the result represents the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral commutating inductance, just as desired, Tt should be pointed out that no assumption was necessary concerning the primary number of turns or the connection of the primary windings. Tt ‘was sufficient that the primary ampere-turns were assumed in balance with the secondary ampere-turns. (B) In this case only one of the two secondary windings is, at a certain time, engaged in a commutation. Therefore we assume that only one secondary winding carries the current Z, and that this current is balanced by primary ampere-turns, Hence the field strength is distributed as shown in section (d) of fig. 8.12, and we compute: etd yt +s] 7 3 or [4445] = 18.7 [WH] Since the two wyes commutate independently, this result represents the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral commutating inductance of each wye. : (¢) Under this operating condition both secondary windings carry ‘current as if they were connected in parallel, Therefore, we assume a current of //2 in each winding, and find a value of inductance of 30 [vH]/4 = 7.5 (wH], This refers to the circuit in which the current has the value J, ie, the parallel connection of the two windings. Hence the voltage absorbed during commutation by the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of the transformer is 7.5 (zH] times the rate of change of the total of the currents in the two windings, or 15 [4H] times the rate of change of one of these currents. From this we conclude that the contri- bution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral ‘commutating inductance Z, of each individual 3-phase bridge connection is 15 Hl,Reactive Voltage Drop 119 (if, however, L, was interpreted as the line-to-neutral commutating inductance of a “set of commutating groups,” the result would be 7.5 4H.) (@) With a secondary zigzag winding, the situation is illustrated by fig, 8.14. Since the current of each secondary phase causes a leakage flux ‘on fwo legs, we investigate a situation where two phases carry current, just as they do during commutation, For this condition the curves of the. field strength are shown in fig. 8.14. The current flows in the same fe 2g 3 te} te << wet Slo NS | | | wed 01 Fig. 8:14. Leakage in vigeag winding direction through the two secondary windings of leg 1, whereas on leg 2 only secondary I and on leg 3 only secondary Il is conducting. The areas, marked by crosshatching represent the result of the current of phase 1, and the energy computed from these areas defines the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of this phase: Raat ge Lraaags = Heda nifA 8 4 S45, 4-5] 34 att) Example. (Leakage inductance of phase-shifting transformer in polygon connection) F One more example will be presented in order to give sufficient under- standing to the method of computing the leakage inductance of the transformer from the energy stored in the leakage field and to demonstrate that this method is not dificult if it is logically applied. Here is the problem: Determine the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of a phase- shifting transformer in polygon connection (fig. 8.15a). Assume Long windings = 41 turns Short windings 4 meen circumference md, = 2: fand the physical dimensions shown in fig. 8.156. turnsD-C Characteristics Solution, We assume that a current I flows from point 4 to point B (fig. 8.15a), representing the commutating current of the rectifier connec tion, For this current the primary supply lines are short circuited, as indicated by the three connections made to point C, because we have to take the balancing ampere-turns into account, but we are permitted ig. 815. Arrangement of transformer windings for sample calculation to ignore the main excitation. Then we determine the currents in the individual windings. For this purpose we designate the tur ratio as que tums of long winding iurns of short winding and find from the condition of ampere-turn balance For point 4: T=h+ha For point B: T=he+h Both relations result in aa kL and [p= a1 @n1 ‘The turn ratio is specified as a = 4. (This ratio gives, very accurately, a 30° turn and is therefore selected for this example.) With this ratio we compute i= 009 and = y= 0.337Reactive Voltage Drop 1 and further conclude, based on equations (8.21) and (8.22), amper-tums nl bm 2{terdal [fi AL cans) x[Steede (leg2) nt 3 Tages aeipy aon inletage 7 + °°" C083)" fel of fg cease ET T+ Ea] eX 10 [seo] _25 fin] AI X A fin] x O77 _ 94 ary L [em] 10fin.] a This is the total leakage inductance of the two commutating phases. The line-to-neutral value is one-half of this, 2 4H Inductance of Bus Bars In rectifier systems for high current and low voltage the bus bars contribute considerably to the total commutating inductance. Therefore, a brief introduction will be given into the calculation of bus bar inductance, However, only rough approximations can be presented since bus bars are usually rather complex arrangements. Actually, the bus bars have to be “{dealized,” and it is a matter of “technical feeling” to select proper ddimendions for the substitute, Two such idealized arrangements will now be investigated, starting with the loop of PARALLEL TUBE, CONDUCTORS shown in fig. 8.16, There is just one turn and no iron, Hence the induc- tance is defined by ie” T where @ represents the total flux encircled by the loop and caused by the current 7 flowing in the loop. If we now assume that only conductor 1 ‘carries current, the lines of the field are concentric, and the length of a line with the radius r is 2nr. Each line is caused by the current J. Hencethe field strength Mas a the conductor is and the flux density is Reactive Voltage Drop 123 function of the distance r from the centerline of ne = BO) = Ho ‘graphically presented in fig. 8.168. ‘The total flux encircled by the loop is This flux is represented 8.166, if this area is mul wall (Ly Qader (Cinfinitesimal area marked in fig. 8.164 Tux passing through infinitesimal area fdr ll nd — In snd — Inn) by the area enveloped by the heavy line in fig. Itiplied by /, the length of the arrangement, A similar development determines the flux caused by the current in con- ductor 2: wall 0, = Shand — tar) ‘The real flux is the sum of both, and the inductance of the loop is this sum divided by I: or with fy = rs For /= 1 ft the result is = 0.122 626) ‘Dsee 0-* 9822) 12 x 2.84 fem] Ind [BE] 2x 2seom (eH) ind mee cae Itshould be noticed that the inductance per unit of length is not a function Of the real dimensions but of the ratio of the dimensions.124 D-C Characteristies “The second arrangement under consideration is a pair of PARALLEL, FLAT BUS BARS, shown in a cross-sectional view in fig. 8.17. If we assume that the distance between these bars is small in comparison to their height, wwe shall find that the magnetic field is very similar to the leakage ficld between two transformer windings. In both cases the excitation is un formly spread over a rectangular area and balanced by an opposite ex- citation, and in both cases the flux is squeezed between the two conducting bodies. Furthermore, the leakage flux of the transformer returns through the iron core and the flux of the bus bars returns through a space of wide cross-sectional area, so that in both cases the main portion of the exci is absorbed along the path of the flux between the two conducting bodies. Therefore, we utilize the results obtained for the leakage inductance between transformer windings for ‘computing the inductance of parallel, flat bus bars, We just substitute the length of the bus bars, /, for the mean circumference of the windings, dy and the height of the con- ductors, h for the height of the windings, designated by /, Thus, with the symbols of fig. 8.17, we develop relation (8.25) into: Inductance of parallel fat bus bars: l(a ) 8. ih 3 - (8.28) This is for 1 fof length: ig. 8.17. Magnetic field epee re pages [OB] (EH) /n a) ‘This relation disregards the return path of the magnetic flux and is therefore a rough approximation, especially if the distance between the ‘bus bars is considerable in comparison to their height. More accurate calculations are very complex, and the results are usually presented by ‘charts, Such a chart, modified from Electrical Coils and Conductors, HB. Dwight, s shown in fig. 8.18. It gives wL instead of Land refers to single pairs of bus bars; but it ean be used also for multiphase rectifier connee- tions since only two phases are ever involved in a single commutation. ‘Sometimes bus bars arc interleaved in order to reduce their inductance, and proper formulas or charts may not be available, ‘Then the bus bars should be compared with interleaved transformer windings, and a relation simitar to (8.28) can be derived. ‘This will be practiced with the concluding example,Reactive Voltage Drop 15 dash) sa. ‘ila 0 (sla= 02 wat, ‘fa = 05 ike TT aes T a L oh = 02 feqh= OF hle= 6 al bd (Ogc02 eet oa 06 uaz DAagy Laps Lasts 1ameisnse Ls] aat— Fig. 8.18, Reactance ofa single pir of rectangular conductors at 60 ops. (Redrawn, from H. B. Dwight, Electrical Cotls and Conductors, McGraw-Hil, New York, 1945, ‘symbols modied,) ‘Example (Inductance of interleaved bus bars) (Determine the induetance per foot of length of the bus bars shown in the joross-sectional view of fig. 8.19. = Solution. The required value of inductance refers to the loop consisting fof conductors 1 and 4 in parallel and, as the return path, conductors 2 and Ps in parallel, In order to compute the inductance from the energy stored inthe magnetic field, we assume that a current I passes through the loop. This gives the current 1/2 in each conductor and results in the curve ofthe126 D-C Characteristies Fig, 819, Bus bar arrangement for sample calculation. field strongth shown in fig. 8.19, if the return path is disregarded. We compute 1/6 atl (bag 2s 4h 6G u ) and find with the given values fe X10" [Osee) 12 fin Sin} y 254m) 39 y pe ml 4x3 fin) 3 fing LResistive Voltage Drop The resistive voltage drop will be computed from the power losses that cause a reduction of the direct voltage. Corrections for measurements made with short-circuited dee terminals will be discussed. Basie Relations ‘The power losses in a rectifier system can be classified into 1. Losses that increase the primary current, 2. Losses that reduce the direct voltage. Losses of the first kind are the “no-load’ losses with the core losses of the transformer as the main portion; losses of the second category are the “load losses,” caused by the flow of the load current. Quite obviously, the load losses must equal the product of the direct current times the fesistve voltage drop. Hence this voltage drop can be computed from the losses according to total load losses cn Te It is now a logical step to conceive all values of resistance, which are ‘actually spread over the entire rectifier system and represented in fig, 9.1a by the resistors R in the three secondary phases, as being concen- trated in one resistor in series with the load circuit. This resistor, R’ in fig 9.16, carries the oad current, and the voltage drop across this resistor is B,. Thus the resistive voltage drop is eliminated from the rectifier connection and is included in the direct voltage £,, which simplifies the investigations, ‘This concept is the more justified since with instantaneous P commutation R= R’, because the load current passes at any instant through one of the three phases, and it does not matter whether the resistance isin this phase or in the d-c circuit. a