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to decide which model should be used for the Combined result. Mixing routines
can be as simple as setting a single model over a zone or more complex – for
example, using multiple logic statements to determine which model to use for each
individual depth level.
NOTE: Please obtain detailed information about the MinSolve module in the
Help guide accessible from Interactive Petrophysics.
click on the LLD curve in the Top Insert of the plot, this will select LLD in
the Curve to Trend box.
• Click on Start trend and then click on the LLD curve at about 4525 m, to
determine resistivity of shale in the shale zone. You can now click on the
point already selected, and the point becomes a cross hair, which you can
use to drag the trend line to sit about the middle of the LLD curve in the
shale zone.
• Click on the Finish Trend, and accept it to be displayed in the Track. You
may want to save the trend on disk if you intend to edit it later on by using
Recall Trend.
• You can now use the Trend Curve (LLD_t) or the value of the trend curve
as the Illite Resistivity parameter.
NOTE: The 'Trend Curve' is very useful. For example, defining 'GRclean' and 'GRshale'
lines over large log intervals, or for capturing Rw trends over long well sections as input
to Sw determination. Trend Curves can be created for any log analysis parameter and
substituted in any IP calculation module where a parameter is called for. The trend curve
can be used to compute straight-line trends for logarithmically scaled curves for example,
for defining normal shale compaction trend curves for sonic/resistivity in pore pressure
analysis.
11. Go to the Models tab to make the first model and setup the model as below:
12. Run Model and Make Plot. You will see that the Error is very high in the zone
above 4520 m, and quite high in front of shales. The reconstructed GR and RHOB
are not matching the original curves above 4520, and only the RHOB is not
matching below that in front of shales.
13. Change the RHOB for Illite to 2.75, which is the RHOB value in front of shales,
and rerun the model. This time the error is reduced to the zone above 4520 and
4656 to 4666 m. The upper one is probably due to Anhydrite and the lower is due
to bad hole. Another detail you may notice is that there are some hydrocarbon
traces showing in front of shales.
14. Go back to Parameters tab and under the Sw Logic tab, select ‘m vari with Vcl’
and change the Vcl Cutoff to 0.4. Run Model 1 again and you will notice the
shales have been cleaned up.
15. Go to the Models tab and click on the right arrow beside Model 1. This changes
Model 1 with Model 2. Create the Anhydrite model as below, and Run Model
then Make Plot. This model will fit well with the Anhydrite section above 4520 m.
16. Go to Model 3 window to create a Bad Hole Model and set it up as below, Run
Model then Make Plot to see the results:
17. Now we need to get the complete analysis, by combining the results of each
model over the appropriate zone. The Anhydrite model is applicable over a
specific depth zone above 4520 m. So we need to create a Zone from the top
depth to 4520 m. For the rest of the well we shall use Model 1 as the default
model, and Model 3 kicks in whenever VCL calculated in Model1 exceeds 0.5.
19. Shift to Mixing 2 with the arrow, and create Mixing 2 as follows:
20. Now go to the Parameters tab and create a new zone for the Anhydrite model by
clicking on New Zone, select the existing Zone, enter the depth where you want to
split the Zone (4520 m), and click on Split Zone.
21. Select Mix 2 for the top Zone, as this refers to Model 2, which is the Anhydrite
model.
22. Now Run, which will run all the models then Make Plot, which will create the
combined plot according to our mixing and zoning selections:
The likely error range of these estimated parameters can be computed through
randomly changing the input parameters within a certain range of values. A
complete analysis workflow is executed and the results are stored. This workflow
is repeated several thousand times, storing the results each time. When the
analysis is finished, the complete result can then be analyzed.
Since there are several thousand possible solutions - one from each execution -
displaying the results in an organized manner is essential. Normally, the results
are sorted in an ascending order for each input parameter. The results contain
both the user computations along with the percentile computations for easy
comparison.
After completing the Monte Carlo analysis, not only can the best estimate of the
interpretation be given, but also the most likely range of errors. A tornado plot error
analysis (see figure below) can be generated showing the relative importance of
each parameter in the overall error.
6. Select the Clay Volume tab and remove the check from the SP clean,
SP clay, Res clean, and Res clay.
7. Notice the Type Shift and Shift Distribution are selected from drop
down lists. The Initial Value, Low Value Shift and High Value Shift can
9. Click the Cutoff tab. Notice the Parameter Name, Type Shift, Shift
Distribution, Initial Value, Low Value, and High Value. Turn off the
Other Cutoff 1, 2, 3.
10. Click the Input Curves tab. Make sure all curve names are selected.
11. Click the Output Curves tab. Make sure PHIE, SW, and VWCL are
selected
12. Keep the defaults for the Stop simulation, Update Graphics and the
Output Percentiles.
13. Click the Display button by the Auto Log Plot and arrange the
windows so that you are able to see both the Monte Carlo Simulation
window and the log plot.
14. Click Start to begin the simulation.
15. Notice the Log Plot updating automatically every 20 iterations.
16. After the simulation is complete maximize the Log Plot to view the MN,
PSD and MSN curves created.
17. Click the Display button by Histogram and Crossplot to view these
graphical outputs.
18. Go back to the Monte Carlo Simulation window and click Results
Listing view the results.
19. Close the Results Listing window, the Log Plot and the Monte Carlo
Simulation window.
The Fuzzy logic allows the prediction of one curve from a number of other curves.
Single or Multiple wells can be used to create the prediction model.
Fuzzy Logic is a type of logic that recognizes more than simple true and false
values. With fuzzy logic, propositions can be represented with degrees of
truthfulness and falsehood. For example, the statement, today is sunny, might be
100% true if there are no clouds, 80% true if there are a few clouds, 50% true if it's
hazy and 0% true if it rains all day.
The program analyzes the input curves by dividing the data up into bins. The
number of bins maybe selected by the user and depends on the type of data to
predict.
The ‘Variable size bins’ should be used for discrete input data such as Facies log
data. For this type of data, the number of bins depends on the number of Facies.
For example, if you have 'facies-type' data with facies numbers between 1 and 8,
then set the number of bins to '8', the starting bin number will be '1' and the bin
width will be '1'. If user selects this option, the ‘Weight bin by number of
samples in bin’ needs to be toggled on.
The ‘Equaled sampled bins’ should be used for continuous data (other than
Facies data type). The user selects the number of bins; bin numbers should be
large enough to describe the range of data but small enough so that the statistics
in each bin is not too erratic. This can be accomplished by running the prediction
model few times using different number of bins and then comparing the final result
with the input curve defined in the prediction model.
The program will try to distribute the data samples equally into each bin however
in some cases, this will not always provide an exactly equal number of samples in
each bin. For example, when data samples have more identical data values than
there should be in a bin.
The data samples in each bin are computed to provide statistical data of the Mean
and Standard deviation for each input curve. The Mean and Standard deviation
statistics for each curve represents the model and are the inputs to the prediction
model. The final result will be an output curve with the highest combined
probability of all the input curves in the bins.
After the final result is produced and quality controlled, the prediction model can
then be used to predict similar curve for the other wells in the project.
NOTE: Please obtain detailed information about the Fuzzy Logic module in the
Help guide accessible from Interactive Petrophysics.
15. Use the right arrow from the Scroll Bin Statistics to view bins 1-10.
16. Scroll back to bin 1 with the left arrow.
17. Click the Show Stats Histo’s button to view the histogram.
18. Close the histogram window.
19. Click the Show Curve Xplots button to view the crossplots.
20. Close the crossplot window.
22. For the Output Result, select Most Likely, Wt av. 2 most likely, Most
Likely high/low probability and Wt av. 2 most likely high/low
probability. Leave the defaults for the Curve Name, Probability,
Closeness of fit, Result Bin and Percentile.
23. Use Perm for the Default curve name and click Run.
24. Click the Show Log Plots button to view a log plot of the results.
Notice the results in each track.
25. Right mouse click in the closeness of fit track (track 4) and open up
the histogram. From the cumulative frequency curve it can easily be
seen that 70% of the results are within 2 bins and 50% are within 1 bin.
26. Close the crossplot and log plot window.
27. Click the Show CrossPlot button. View the results on the crossplot.
The crossplot will seem to be banded since the results have only
discrete values (the mean of each bin).
28. Close the crossplot window.
29. Close the Fuzzy Logic window.
The Shear sonic module is used to create a synthetic shear sonic curve from a
compressional sonic log, or to quality control a recorded shear sonic curve.
The shear sonic or “DT Shear” is calculated using the Greenberg-Castagna
(1992) empirical relationships for different minerals, and needed as an input
curve in the Fluid Substitution module. It is also used to compute the velocity
compressional (Vp) and velocity shear (Vs) curves plus the 'Poissons ratio',
'Vp/Vs ratio', 'Bulk Modulus' and 'Shear Modulus' curves.
The relationship between Vp and Vs curves are analyzed in a cross plot to check
that the recorded shear sonic curve is a good shear curve and is not a mud-wave
or Stoneley-wave velocity produced by bad processing of the sonic waveform
data.
The Fluid Substitution is a process of removing the effect of the drilling fluid in
order to make a good synthetic seismogram from the density and velocity (sonic
tool) that represent the true nature of the formation.
The density and sonic logs are run in a borehole and make measurements in the
invaded zones. The fluid substitution is done by first removing the effects of
invasion of the logs and producing logs, which represent the formation containing
100% water. The second step is to replace any water by the true hydrocarbons
seen in the formation.
The fluid substitution for the density is relatively straight forward since the density
equation is linear and well characterized.
Fluid substituted densities:
: input porosity
The fluid substitution for the sonic is more complicated due to the different
hydrocarbon (gas) effect on velocity at different frequencies of sound. Sonic
logging tools are at relatively high frequency around 15kHz compared to seismic
frequencies, which are around 5 Hz. The effect of a small amount of gas (~3%) in
a formation is relatively significant at seismic frequency while logging tools will
hardly notice it. Since we are interested in the response at seismic frequencies we
must first remove the hydrocarbon effects at logging tool frequencies in the
invaded zone and then substitute in the hydrocarbon response at seismic
frequencies.
The basic equation for removing drilling fluid from the sonic tool comes from
Gassmann, which relates the elastic bulk and shear moduli of a fully saturated
rock to the elastic and shear moduli of the dry-rock frame, porosity, and bulk
moduli of the mineral phase and pore fluid.
Where,
Kf : Fluid module of the pore space (hydrocarbon and water)
Kma : matrix moduli
Kd : dry rock moduli
: porosity
Ksat : wet rock moduli
Once the wet rock moduli for the different zones are found, the velocity is easy to
calculate.
The substituted density and sonic logs will then be used to produce the acoustic
impedance AI (density x velocity).
From the AI, the reflection coefficient (RC) of a boundary between two different
types of rock can be calculated and then used to generate the synthetic
seismograms.
NOTE: Please obtain detailed information about the Shear Sonic and Fluid
Substitution modules in the Help guide accessible from Interactive
Petrophysics.
1. From the IP main menu, select Interpretation > Rock Physics >
Shear Sonic QC/Create.
2. Select the Create DT Shear tab.
Vp 2 − 2Vs 2
ν=
(
2 Vp 2 − Vs 2 )
The default Z-axis curve, which is optional, is the gamma ray.
When Run is clicked, a crossplot of Vp versus Vs is displayed. The crossplot
contains the overlay lines set by the Lithology Lines box. The overlay lines are
created each time the user clicks Run. These lines represent the relationships
setup on the Create DT shear tab. Changing the coefficients for the relationships
will change the lines on the crossplot but only when a new crossplot is run. A
crossplot interval can be set by either specifying the depths or by specifying a
zonation set and zone number. The following crossplot displays a good quality
shear sonic. The relationship between Vp and Vs shows the Greenberg-Castagna
relationships for sand and shale.
NOTE: For this lesson you will need to create a Top Set called Fluidsub with the
following zones;
Top Gas 7776-7922.5, Water 7922.5 – 8240.5, Bottom Gas 8339 – 8464 and
Bottom Water 8464-8632.
1. From the IP main menu, select Interpretation > Rock Physics >
Fluid Substitution.
2. Click the Fluid Properties tab.
3. In the Reservoir Pressure and Temperature box, enter 200 for the
temperature and 6000 for the pressure.
4. Select Deg F for the temperature units and PSI for the pressure units.
5. In the Water box, enter 38861 for the Salinity ppm NaCL.
6. Select the Gas Saturated water radio button.
7. Click the Calculate button. Notice the Brine column populates in the
Fluid Properties Results box.
8. In the Oil box, enter 35 for the API, 0.8 for Gas Density.
9. Toggle Gas Saturated to ON.
10. Select ScuFt/bbl for the units.
11. Click the Calculate button. Notice the Oil column populates in the
Fluid Properties Results box. The GOR box will also display 1781.6,
this is the calculated GOR assuming a gas-saturated oil.
12. In the Gas box, enter 0.8 for the Gas Density.
13. Click Calculate. Notice the Gas column populates in the Fluid
17. Select DTLN for the DTp/Vp Compressional, DtsEmp for the DTs/Vs
Shear, RHOB for the Bulk Density, PHIE for the Porosity, SW for the
Water Saturation and SXO for Sxo Saturation.
18. The Display Velocity units box should be set to ft/sec.
19. Set the Sonic Input Type and Units set to DT usec/ft.
20. In the Matrix Properties, on the mineral row, select Quartz in the first
cell and Wet Clay in the second cell. Use the default values for
Density, Modulus and Velocity.
21. In the Input Curve row, select VWCL for the Wet Clay and select
Default Mineral for Quartz.
22. Click the Average Gassmann tab.
27. Click the Fluid Substitution Crossplot and observe the crossplot
produced.
28. Close the crossplot and click the Discriminators tab. Here
discriminators can be setup to be used in the calculation. For this
exercise we will leave them blank.
30. In the Actual Reservoir fluid type seen by Sonic/Density box, click in
the Oil box.
31. Make sure Interval Depths is selected in the Analysis Interval box.
32. Click the Run button.
33. Click the Log Plot button. Notice the results plot in the Log Plot.
34. Close the log plot and the Fluid Substitution window.
Elastic Impedance (EI) is the generalization of acoustic impedance (AI) for variable
seismic incidence angle. For zero-offset incident angle, AI can be computed
directly from the well logs, however the far-offset incident angle stacking data
requires a different approach.
This Elastic Impedance module uses the equation proposed by P. Connolly
(1999):
Based on this equation, it was found that there is little difference between the low
angle equation and the high angle equation for angles below about 20°. But for
angles above 30° the low angle equation starts to become unstable.
NOTE: For more detailed information about the Elastic Impedance module,
please access the Help guide from the Interactive Petrophysics software.
1. From the IP main menu, select Interpretation > Rock Physics >
Elastic Impedance.
2. In the Input Curves box, use the default curves as inputs and for the
Velocity Curve Units select ft/sec.
3. In the Results Elastic Impedance Curves box, select EI_ for the Base
Name.
4. Enter 10, 15 and 20 for the Angles to process.
5. In the K constant box, enter 7940.5 for the top depth and 8179 for the
bottom depth.
6. Click the Calculate ‘K’ from interval button.
12. Leaving the Log Plot open, go back to the Elastic Impedance setup
window and in the EI Normalization box, enter 7710.5 for the Log
Depths to normalize EI curves to AI curve.
13. Check the Normalize to AI curve box.
14. Click Run to recalculate the EI curves. Notice that now all the EI
curves have been shifted so that at 7710.5 they read the same value.
15. Close the Log Plot window and the Elastic Impedance window.
REFERENCE: