Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Water Cycle
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/water-cycle/

Water reuse and recycling in Canada- history, current situation and

future perspectives
Tony Van Rossum
Corporation of the City of London, 300 Dufferin Avenue, Post Office Box 5035, London, Ontario, N6A 4L9, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water reuse and recycling in Canada has been alive and viable where there is a need for water conservation or to
Water reuse reduce nutrients going to rivers and lakes. A study on response to reuse shows many people are in favour, but not
Regulations and guidelines for drinking or washing/bathing. This is a position when water nearby is plentiful. Reuse of water for irrigation
Zero liquid discharge
has occurred in Canada since the 1980’s in arid areas of the country. Guidelines have been developed across the
Reuse research
country. Provincial or Federal regulation is minimal except for British Columbia. In this paper, reuse in Canada
will be broken into three groups; residential, industrial and research. Sustainable development is a driver for
residential and institutional sties. Industrial application is driven by lack of availability of water or costs which has
led to the Zero Liquid Discharge sites in Canada, particularly in arid areas. There are companies in Canada
designing and building equipment to meet the need in Canada and elsewhere. Research is also ongoing on reuse
applications for treatment systems for inside sustainable homes and buildings. We are blest with abundant water
in part of the country and the arid areas are leading the future for reuse in Canada.

1. Introduction
Canada is blest with water including the Great Lakes and rivers
sourced by glaciers, snow and rainfall. However, Canada is a vast country
with arid parts. As cities expand, the demand for water increases and can
stress groundwater or surface water sources. Climate change is
decreasing the size of glaciers and the source of a regular supply of water
in the western provinces is at risk. The Canadian response to reuse was
studied at Western University in 2015 [1]. The study showed that a
majority of the university community were in favour of use of reuse
water, however they were more likely to accept reuse wastewater for
applications that do not involve drinking or close personal contact. The
report goes on to suggest that there are concerns about the presence of
chemicals such as pharmaceuticals.
Canadian Guidelines are produced by the federal government and
provincial governments. The Federal Government published Canadian
Guidelines for Domestic reuse Water for Use in Toilet and Urinal Flushing
in 2010 [2]. British Columbia has the only provincial regulation on reuse
water but there are reuse guidelines in some of the provinces. British
Columbia has the Municipal Wastewater Regulation, 2018 and the
Reclaimed Water Guideline, 2013 [3,4]. Alberta has Guidelines for
Residential Rainwater Harvesting Systems, 2010 and a fact sheet on
Alternative Solutions Guide for Small System Water Reuse, January 2017
[5]. Southern Saskatchewan is arid and has used wastewater effluent for
irrigation since the 1980’s (WWTP effluent for crop irrigation) [6].
Manitoba has used lagoon effluent to reduce nutrient discharges to sur-
face water. Roblin and Wasagaming/Clear Lake in Riding Mountain
National Park are two sites that have used wetlands and uptake by
Popular trees or crop irrigation [7]. "Water and Energy Conservation
Guidance Manual for Sewage Works" is published by the province of
Ontario, of which Part 4 is on Water reclamation and reuse [8].
The Atlantic Provinces and Environment Canada published Atlantic
Canada Wastewater Guidelines Manual, for Collection, Treatment, and
Disposal in 2006 and part 10 provides information on planning consid-
erations, re-use applications, water quality considerations, and guide-
lines for wastewater irrigation and other reuse criteria [9]. A report on
golf course irrigation by the Centre for Water Resources Studies at Dal-
Tech, Dalhousie University was done in 1999 for the province of Prince
Edward Island [10]. Case studies of six golf courses throughout Canada
were documented in the report. A Canadian standard, CAN/-
CSA-B128.1–06/B128.2–06 (R2016) specifies Design and Installation of
Non-Potable Water Systems/Maintenance and Field Testing of
Non-Potable Water Systems [11]. It can be used for non-potable water
systems for applications such as flushing toilets, irrigating lawns and
gardens, washing automobiles, showering, bathing, washing clothes, or
heating and cooling. In this paper, reuse in Canada will be broken into
three groups, residential/commercial/institutional/applications,

E-mail address: tvanross@london.ca.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2020.07.001
Received 23 April 2020; Received in revised form 1 July 2020; Accepted 3 July 2020
Available online 11 July 2020
2666-4453/© 2020 The Authors. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Van Rossum
Acronyms
AOP Advanced Oxidation Process
BCTMP Bleached Chemi Thermal Mechanical Pulp
BD3 Unit 3 of the Boundary Dam coal-fired power plant
BPD barrels of oil per day
CBWS Cove Bay Water System
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CDWQG Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines
CIRS Centre for Interactive Research in Sustainability
CMHC Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CWWA Canadian Water and Wastewater Association
industrial applications and research.
2. Residential/commercial/institutional applications
The "Toronto Healthy House" was a demonstration project initiated
by a design competition by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
(CMHC) in 1991. In the report by Ada Leung (2004), the house water
supply and reuse water system includes a cistern beneath the backyard
deck connected to a filtration system that collects rain and grey water for
recycling and reuse within the house [12]. Approximately 80% of the
water used in the home is through recycling.
Reuse in London Ontario includes a 3 M Office and Fanshawe College.
The 3 M office uses cistern water from the basement sump weeping tile
system for flushing toilets. This effort reduced building potable water
consumption by 25% annually for the 600 employees at the site (about
200 m3 per month since 2017).
The 10 year old, 14,000 square meters Fanshawe College building has
a green roof to lower energy consumption, storm water reuse for toilet
flushing and site irrigation of the green roof. The building has two 5,000
L cisterns for storage of rainwater. Excess rainwater overflows the tanks
and goes to the storm sewer. The storm water from the cistern is filtered
and disinfected prior to use for flushing urinals and toilets and irrigation
of the green roof. The grey water is not clear and stains the toilets and
urinals. Signs above the toilets have been installed advising that the
water is from disinfected rainwater. The students in the building are in
mechanical courses and on the second floor some pre-med students. The
students have accepted the use of grey water once they have learned
about the reuse effort and the custodial staff have been provided infor-
mation of the water source and the toilets don’t need scrubbing due to the
reuse water staining. They rarely run out of water and occasionally have
had float level issues in the cisterns.
In British Columbia, examples of buildings with internal wastewater
reuse and non-potable reuse systems are the Vancouver Convention
Centre (VCC) West building (Vancouver, BC); and the University of
British Columbia Centre for Interactive Research in Sustainability (CIRS)
building (Vancouver, BC) [13,14]. The CIRS building collects rainwater
from the roofs of the building and stores it in a cistern. Sprinkler irri-
gation can use the backup cistern water as a secondary supply of water.
The rainwater is filtered and disinfected onsite and distributed through
the building for potable water applications. Wastewater from the build-
ing is treated onsite and used for toilet flushing and irrigation within the
building [15]. The Vancouver Convention Centre (VCC) West building
has a black water treatment plant that reuses grey and black water for
washrooms toilet flushing and rooftop irrigation during warmer weather
[16]. Blackwater generally refers to wastewater originating from sanitary
sources (e.g. toilets, urinals, and bidets), as well as drainage from food
preparation and utensil cleaning activities (e.g. kitchen sinks and
dishwashers).
Bowen Island Municipality’s Cove Bay Water System (CBWS), a Zero
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Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103
EDCs Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
EPCOR City of Edmonton sole shareholder of the Utility Company
FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection
GRTS Groundwater Recovery and Treatment System
HRT hydraulic retention time
OLR organic loading rate
RAP Remedial Action Plan
PPCPs Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
RASR Remedial Action Status Report
USAB Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors
VCC Vancouver Convention Centre
WSAC Wet Surface Air Cooler
ZLD Zero liquid Discharge
Liquid Disposal (ZLD) system, treats surface water from Grafton Lake for
potable water. Historically, the lake water was treated with hypochlorite
addition, however this treatment is insufficient to meet the Canadian
Drinking Water Quality Guidelines (CDWQG) for several parameters
including protozoa, turbidity, manganese and colour. To comply with
CDWQG, the Municipality reviewed several treatment technologies for
ability to meet the treatment commitment and affordability of treatment.
Purifics Ceramic membrane filtration (CUF) was identified as the
preferred water treatment system. A three-month pilot study was con-
ducted to prove the effectiveness and efficiency of the system for the
removal of organics and manganese in the water. Purifics has been
awarded a contract to supply a drinking water purification system for
Bowen Island [17].
The City of Guelph did a study entitled Residential Greywater Field
Test that was published in 2012 [18]. Greywater generally refers to
wastewater from household baths and showers, hand basins and kitchen
sinks. The City gathered information on the costs, benefits, barriers,
opportunities and requirements of residential greywater reuse systems.
The research team installed greywater reuse systems in 30 homes to
collect greywater from showers and baths for reuse in toilet flushing. A
Greywater Rebate Program was initiated that offers residential home
owners $1,000 if they install and use an approved greywater system [19].
The Rebate program identifies some applicable codes, regulations,
by-laws and building permits, requirements of installation of approved
greywater reuse system technologies that must be completed by a qual-
ified plumber and contractor. The contractor must also provide an op-
erations manual, train homeowners on the operation of the system and
required maintenance procedures.
3. Industrial applications
The City of Edmonton, Alberta, through a subsidiary, EPCOR joined
with Suncor on a treated wastewater reuse project and pipeline to sup-
port a $2 billion expansion and upgrade to the Suncor refinery [20]. Gold
Bar Wastewater Treatment Plant treats wastewater from about 700,000
people and has the capacity to treat 310 million litres of wastewater per
day. The membrane facility is being operated by EPCOR. Suncor built a
460 mm, 5.5 km water pipeline between the refinery and EPCOR’s Gold
Bar Wastewater Treatment Plant. The partnership between Suncor and
EPCOR ensured consistent, high quality water for the refinery and a
source of 15 million litres of water each day. An EPCOR/Suncor video on
the Reuse Project is posted on the website (Environmentally-friendly
solutions: EPCOR’s water reuse project with Suncor Edmonton Refinery
2014) [21]. The video goes into detail about: the zee weed membrane
plant at Gold Bar wastewater treatment plant and quality of permeate;
the reuse at the refinery in the cooling tower and hydrogen plant; and for
the boiler water which goes through an ultrafiltration and reverse
osmosis system.
There are zero liquid disposal (ZLD) facilities in Saskatchewan
T. Van Rossum
including a refinery, a steel plant, a power plant and a paper mill.
Another ZLD facility using a Canadian systems supplier is below. ZLD
generally refers to no liquid leaving the plant boundary.
The Co-op Refinery Complex (CRC) in Regina, expanded its opera-
tions to produce 30,000 more barrels of oil per day (BPD) taking it from
100,000 BPD to a 130,000-BPD facility, which increased its water usage.
The refinery’s water source was a blend of well water and city water.
Faced with restricted use of city water, the refinery had to find a new
source of water. The plant is the first North American refinery recycling
all of its wastewater. The wastewater first goes into oil water separator
open tanks where the oil is skimmed and sludge is removed from the
bottom of the tanks. The second stage is a dissolved nitrogen gas flotation
unit where the oil is recovered for reprocessing. The third stage has
biological treatment to degrade volatile organic compounds and
ammonia and then Zee weed membranes. The solids are treated in a
centrifuge and the centrate is recycled. The treated water then goes to a
demineralization plant to remove dissolved solids and organics. The first
step is filtering through a multi-bed filter to remove solids. Then goes to
ion exchange to remove cations and anions. The water goes to a forced air
de-carbonator to remove carbon dioxide. The next step for the water is to
go through conventional spiral wound reverse osmosis with two units in
series. The final step is to go through a mixed bed ion exchanger for
polishing. Sixty-five per cent of the recycled water goes into steam pro-
duction for heating, hydrogen production and powering equipment with
the remaining recycled water being used in other processes such as
cooling and hydrogen production [22]. The zero wastewater design with
equipment is described in a video [23]. The refinery uses every drop of
water that falls on its 800-acre property which allows less usage from
wells. The waste brine is disposed into a deep well. The Zee Weed
membrane bioreactor (MBR) and a high efficiency reverse osmosis sys-
tem used GE technology with a capacity of up to 7.6 million litres of
wastewater a day [24].
The EVRAZ Regina facility is a zero liquid effluent electric-arc furnace
steelmaking facility. It discharges no wastewater, with the exception of a
small amount of spent softener brine (which is hauled to the Regina
sanitary sewer system). The Regina steel facility has very low water use,
at less than 1,000 L per tonne (L/t) of steel produced. A study by
WorldSteel shows the world average for electric-arc furnace steelmaking
is 28,000 L/t [25]. Domestic wastewater from the site is treated and
disinfected and used for cooling tower makeup. Monitoring of water
usage is critical to minimize water requirements. Water softening is used
to decrease dissolved solids form cooling tower blow down and recycled
cooling sprays.
Saskatchewan is a world-leader in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
[26]. Saskatchewan and its provincial utility, SaskPower, pioneered the
Fig. 1. Boundary dam carbon capture and storage facility [26].
100
Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103
way for full-scale carbon capture facilities around the world with their
fully-integrated carbon capture and storage demonstration project on
Unit 3 of the Boundary Dam (Fig. 1) coal-fired power plant (BD3). The
integration of CCS to a coal-fired power plant not only results in the in-
crease in water consumption and cooling duty, but also additional water
discharge especially from cooling the flue gas to the much lower tem-
perature required for the CO2 capture process. Using the dry cooler for
rejecting the higher grade heat, and the Wet Surface Air Cooler (WSAC)
for the lower grade heat improves cooling water temperature, while also
maintaining ZLD status [27].
In 1992, Millar Western opened the world’s first zero-effluent, high-
yield market pulp mill, in Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan. The first in the
world not to discharge any effluent or waste water into any nearby creek,
river, stream or lake. The logs are fed into two, ring debarkers and two,
disc chippers. The chips are fed into storage bins for use in the pulp mill.
There are two production lines and move through stages of steaming,
storage, chemical treatment and mechanical de-structuring. Refining
changes the chips into pulp. The pulp is bleached and washed to remove
impurities. Hydrogen peroxide is a main bleaching chemical. The last
phase is drying, weighting, baling and packaging. All the effluent goes to
a feed chest or settling pond. The water goes through clarifier and the
excess fibre is pressed and compressed and incinerated. The liquid passes
through evaporators and concentrated up to 30% solids. The liquid is
further concentrated via steam to about 68% and used as fuel in the re-
covery boiler. The molten salt mixture from the recovery boiler is dis-
solved to produce green liquor. The green liquor is filtered, oxidized and
reused as caustic in the pulping process. The company was sold to Paper
Excellence in 2006 and has the capacity to produce 400,000 tonnes of
Bleached Chemi Thermal Mechanical Pulp (BCTMP) annually. BCTMP
which uses heat, mechanical action and mild chemicals to separate cel-
lulose fibers is used in the production of printing and writing papers,
tissue and toweling, paperboard and specialty papers [28]. The mill
serves primarily Asian export markets.
4. Reuse equipment
More information on two of the companies mentioned above are as
follows:

Waterloo Biofilter Systems has experience in onsite treatment and
reuse of wastewaters including: The Toronto Healthy House™ –which
was the first residential wastewater reuse system in Canada – to
numerous; golf courses, truck stops, and vehicle washing stations
[29]. Waterloo Biofilter Systems have over 14 years of experience in
T. Van Rossum
delivering advanced onsite wastewater reuse installations for resi-
dential and commercial applications.

Purifics Water Inc. is a Canadian company that has done installations
in Canada and the United States for water, wastewater and reuse
applications [30]. Their Ceramic Membrane Process system has a
small footprint with complexity reduction over other ceramic,
hybrid-ceramic or polymeric membrane filtration processes. The low
Trans Membrane Pressure (TMP, namely the hydraulic pressure dif-
ferential (net driving force) across the membrane), flux and duty
contribute to lower operating and structure capital costs. Photo-Cat is
an AOP that is chemical free and destroys organic contaminants using
a TiO2 slurry-based photocatalytic process. Photo-Cat degrades
chemical contaminants (such as 1,4-dioxane), biologicals, viruses,
oocysts, EDCs, PPCPs, removes sub-micron particulate, metals and
can change bromate back to bromide. The De-Watering Recovery
System (DeWRS) is a residuals management system to concentrate
solids to enable a ZLD system. Purifics has Canadian sites but these
sites don’t have documented data available that comes from a super
fund site.
In the United States, legislation requires public disclosure and so the
reports from one of these super fund sites is below with significant third
party data and analysis. This is a groundwater treatment system which
discharges to a wastewater treatment plant and a portion of the water
goes to an RO system and injected into the aquifer to maintain water
levels in the wetlands. The American Beryllium Company site in Tall-
evast, Florida was purchased by Lockheed Martin. Due to contamination
on the site Lockheed Martin submitted a Remedial Action Plan (RAP) to
the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP). The FDEP
approved the RAP Addendum in November 2010 and construction of the
Fig. 2. Treatment system general arrangement plan [31,32].
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Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103
Groundwater Recovery and Treatment System (GRTS) was completed in
summer of 2013. The Lockheed Martin ground water treatment system
includes Purifics Ceramic Ultra Filtration and the Photo-Cat, an
Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) equipment that are used in the GRTS
(Fig. 2). Photo-Cat is a system that destroys organic contaminants using a
titanium dioxide (TiO2) slurry-based photocatalytic process to purify or
detoxify water. The annual reports submitted to the FDEP can be found
on the Lockheed Martin website [31,32].
The report also includes removal levels for the three trains of
Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) Equipment and Activated carbon
units separately in Table 7 of the 2016 RASR [32]. Chemicals analysed
for the process equipment operation monitoring include 1,1-dicchloro-
ethane (1,1-DCA), 1,1-dichloroethene (1,1-DCE), cis-1,2-dichloroethene
(cis-1,2-DCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE), Trichloroethene (TCE), Vinyl
chloride (VC), 1,4-dioxane. The data on the monitored process equip-
ment shows that effluent from the AOP and Carbon filters were below
criteria and for 1,4-dioxane, which did not have a criterion, the reduction
was 93%. The RASR states “The GRTS was operational for 98% of the
reporting period. The GRTS was able to process groundwater for 8,610.3
h, with 145.1 h of planned downtime and 28.6 h of unplanned
downtime”.
5. Research
Staff from the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Alberta, Edmonton did a number of presentations at the
Canadian Water and Wastewater Association (CWWA) Annual Confer-
ence in Banff, Alberta in 2019 related to the future of reuse for decen-
tralized systems. Decentralized systems need to be robust with little
owner maintenance for future acceptance.
T. Van Rossum
“Performance of anaerobic treatment of blackwater collected from
different toilet flushing systems, low flow and vacuum, could achieve
both energy recovery and water conservation?” [33] The presentation
looks at future community water services for decentralized wastewater
treatment and resource recovery for onsite treatment. The onsite treat-
ment eliminates transport or pipelines and would fit in rural or remote
communities. An anaerobic digester could deal with high concentrations
of organic material. Hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis can be promoted
in digesters with, hydrogen or iron or granular activated carbon or high
free ammonia in lab scale testing. Vacuum toilets use less water and
generate higher organics and ammonia concentrations. Promoting
hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis in anaerobic digesters improves
methane generation for energy and less solids.
Anaerobic treatment of source-diverted blackwater: energy recovery
from human excreta [34]. There are digesters operating in decentralized
sites in countries such as Germany, China, Netherland, Belgium and
Sweden. High ammonia can inhibit methane production, so options are
being investigated to enhance methane generation for energy recovery
using Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors (USAB) operating at 35
C. One promising option for black water digestion is the co-digestion by
using black water and food wastes. In this study, there was a 2 fold in-
crease in the organic loading rate (OLR) kg COD/m3/day. A step-wise
organic loading rate allowed microorganisms to adapt to high
ammonia concentrations. A threefold increase in methane production
was achieved in the study and a significant lower production of sludge.
High-loading food waste and blackwater anaerobic co-digestion:
Maximizing bioenergy recovery [35]. This study had food wastes
added to blackwater in a thermophilic reactor to improve production of
methane at various mixing ratios of blackwater to food wastes. The study
reports that “The information provided by the present work should help
to assess the environmental and economic feasibility of blackwater and
food waste co-digestion strategy and potentially guide future decentral-
ized waste/wastewater treatment system designs.” The best performance
of COD reduction and methane production was obtained under the OLR
of 10 kg COD/m3/day.
Co-digestion of blackwater with kitchen organic waste: Effects of
mixing ratios and insights into microbial community [36]. This study
looked at thermophilic (at 35 C) and mesophilic (55 C) reactors in lab
scale operation for blackwater and kitchen organic wastes. The study
looked at different hydraulic retention times (HRT) for both the ther-
mophilic and mesophilic reactors. The loading stages ranged from 1.7 Kg
COD/m3/d in stage 1–4.8 Kg COD/m3/d in stage 4 and HRT ranged from
20 days in stage 1–7 days in stage 4. The Thermophilic reactor was shut
down after 10 days HRT in stage 3 due to decreasing methane produc-
tion. The stage 3 and stage 4 methane generation was over 80% based on
the COD balance. The study states “The mixing of kitchen waste with
blackwater improves anaerobic treatment capacity and mesophilic
treatment showed significantly higher efficiency as compared to treat-
ment under thermophilic conditions.” The results indicate that a meso-
philic reactor could be smaller for decentralized systems and generate
more methane for energy and could have less accumulation. The effluent
would still need to be dealt with potentially as a fertilizer due to high
ammonia concentrations.
6. Conclusion
Water reuse is an important alternative water resources to alleviate
the ever-increasing demands for water resources and water quality
deterioration issues. This study introduces water reuse applications as
well as relevant guidelines and government initiatives in Canada fol-
lowed by the case studies for illustrating the advanced technologies as an
enabler of water reuse development. The study also identifies techno-
logical and research innovations towards sustainable water reuse
development. Lessons from water reuse in Canada can be beneficial to
other countries and regions particularly those in arid areas that suffer
from severe water environment problems or remote sites.
102
Water Cycle 1 (2020) 98–103
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