z

Giftedness
“We are all gifted. That is our inheritnace.”

DEFINITION
 Giftedness refers to students who perform at a much higher level, in objectively
measurable ways, than do their age peers. It may also be temred as an unusually
adnvanced degree of general intellectual ability that requires differentiated learning
experiences of a depth and breadth beyond those normally provided in the regular school
program to satisfy the level of educational potential indicated (ABC Ontario, 2015).

Furthermore, Minnesota Department of Education defined characterized gifted and

talented children and youth are those students with outstanding abilities, identified at
preschool, elementary and secondary levels. Moreover these students are capable of high
performance when compared to others of similar age, experience and environment, and
represent the diverse populations of our communities (Delano Public Schools 2016).

However, the definition of “Gifted and Talented” may be influenced by culture

and society’s perception. For those people who are not focused in the academic filed,
“Gifted maybe is a skilled weaver.” Snother, prodigies in chess maybe addressed
“Gifted” in a cultured wherein talent are valued and nurtured (Sousa 2009). Generally,
gifted individuals are those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an
exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or
achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains. Domains include any
structured area of activity with its own symbol system (e.g., mathematics, musci,
language) and/or set of sensorimotor skills (e.g., painting, dance, sports) (National
Association for Gifted Children, n.d.)

HISTORY
UNITED STATES

National Association of Gifted Council (2016) presented an international timeline

about Gifted and Talented.
1868 Superintendent of public schools in St. Louis, William Torrey Harris
instittutes the earliest systematic efforts in oublic schools to edticate gifted
students.
1869 “Hereditary Genius” by Francis Galton is published. The study indicates
that intelligence is passed through successive generations and by used of

1901 1st special school for gifted was established in Worcester, Massachusetts.
1905 (French) Binet- Simon intelligence test was developed to screen the high
functioning children from normal functioning children, for the prupose of
placement.
1908 Henry Goddard was Introduced to Binet- Simon Measured Scale, traveled
back to America and translated the Measurement scale to Emglish and
introduce it to American educators and psychologists.
1916 Stanfor- Binet was published by Lewis Terman (The Father of Gifted
Education Movement) that changes the intelligence testing in both
academics and with the general public use.
1918 “Opportunity Room” for gifted was established by Lulu Stedman within
University Training School at the Southern Branch of the University of
California.
1922 LetaHllington started Special Opportunity Class at P.S. 165 in New York
City fot gifted students that would produce nearly 40 research articles, a
textbook, and blueprints for Hollingsworth’s work at P.S 500, the Speyer
School.
The research showed that:
(a) Qualitatively different int school;
(b) Slightly better physically and emotionally in comparison to
normal students; (c) superior in academic subjects in comparison
to the average students;
(c) Emotionally stable;
(d) Most successful when education and family values were held in
high regard by family, and;
(e) Infinitely variable in combination with the number of traits
exhibited by those in the study.
1926 “Gifted Children: Their Nature and Nurture “considered as the first
textbook for gifted education was published by Leta Hollingworth.
1936 Hollingworth establishes P.S 500, the Speyer School, for gifted children
ages 7-9.
1950 “Challenging an examination of intelligence as a multidimensional
construct.” –J.P Guilford at Annual APA convention.
1954 Ann Isaacs founded The National Association of Gifted Children.
1958 The federal goverment passed The National Defense Education Act, a first
large-sclae effort for gifted education.
1972 Giftedness was formally defined by The Marland Report as an acdemic and
intellectual talent that includes leadership ability, visual and performing
arts, creative or productive thinking, and psychomotor ability.
[NOTE: psychomotor ability is excluded from subsequent revisions of the
federal definition.]
1974 The office of Gifted of and Talented was given official status by U.S office
of Education.
1983 Due to the failure of America’s brightest students to compete with
international counterparts, policies and practices in gifted education were
made, academic standards were raised and promotion of appropriate
curriculum for gifted students was used.
1988 The jacob javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act pass the
Congress.
1990 The national Research Center of the Gifted was established.
1993 U.S Department of Education publushed National Excellence: The Case of
Developing America’s Talent outlines how America is neglecting the most
talented youths.
1998 NACG published Pre-K 12 Gifted Program Stadards.
2002 No Child left Behind Act was passed. Javist Act was included in NCLB.
The definition of gifted and talented students is modified again: Students,
children , or youth who given evidence of high achieve,emt capability in
areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in
specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily
provide by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.\
2004 A Nation Deceived: How School s Hold Back America’s Brightest
Students, was published by the Bellin-Blank Centar at the University of
Iowa.
2006 NACH published National Gifted Standards for teacher
2012 Tha National Research Center for Gifted and Talented funding ended
2013 National Gifted Standards for the teacher was revised.

PHILIPPINES

Likewise, Camitan (2013) also presented a timeline on when Gifted and

Talented emerged in the philippine.
1949 Quezon City Science High school was inaugurared for gifted students.
1957 The Bureau public schools (BPS) of Department of education and culture
(DEC) created the Special Education Section of Special Subjects and
Services Division.
R.A 5250: An act establishing a ten years training program for teachers of
special and exceptional children in the Philippines. A teacher scholar at UP
commeced in the areas of hearing impairment , mental retadation and
giftedness.
1963 Manila Science High School for gifted student was established.
1967 BPS organized the National Committe on Special Education. General letter
No. 213: Regulating the size of special classes for maximum effectiveness.
1968 R.A No. 213: Teacher training program for exeptional children started at
PNU.
1999 DECS Order No. 108: “Strengthening of Special Education Program For
Gifted in Public School System”.
DECS Order No. 448: “Search for the 1999 Most Outstanding Special
Education Teacher of the Gifted”.
2000’s Every 4th week of November: National Observance of the week Gifted and
Talented.
 CHARACTERISTEICS

Student may manifest a characteristic of a gifted individual in two ways, either in a

positive way or negative way Virginia Beach City Public Schools Office of Gifted
Educational and Curriculum Development (2012). Also a study contacted by National
Association of Gifted Council with the participation of Parent of gifted individuals
showed that 90% said the following charachteristic is displayed by theire child; Learn
rapidly, Extencive Vocabulary, Excellent memory, Reason well, Strong curiousity,
Mature of age, Good sense of humor, Observation, Compassion for others, Vivid
imagination, Long attention span, Ability with numbers, concern with justice and
fairness, Sensitivity, and Wide range of interest. Another 80% of the parents of gifted of
puzzles, High energy Level, Perfectionism, Perseverance in interest, Questions authority,
Avid reader, Prefer old companions (National Association for Gifted Children, 2011)
Even gifted individuals are diverse, but still gifted individual shares common
traits. The traits includes; Unusual alertness, even in infancy, Rapid learner ; Puts
thougths together quickly, Excellent memory, Usually large vocabulary and complex
sentence structure for age, Advanced comprehension of words nuances, methapor and
abstract ideas, Enjoys solving problems, Especially with number and puzzle, often self-
taught reading and writing skills as preshooler, Deep, intense feeling and reaction, highly
sensitive, Thinking is abstract, complex, logical and slightful, Idealism and sense of
justice at early age, Concern with social and political issues and jsutices, Longer
attention span and intence concentration, Preoccupied with own thouths-dreamer , learn
basic skills and with little practice ,Ask probing questions, wide range of interest ( or
extreme focus in one area , Highly developed curiosity, Interest and experimenting and
doing thins differently, Puts idea or things together that are not typical, Keen and /or
usually sense of humor, Desire to organize people/thing throug games or complex
schems, Vivid imaginations (wbb, j.,Gore, j., Amend, E., DeVries, A., 2007).
 Characteristics of A typhical Gifted Students
(Bonner 2000; Hebert and Reis; Schwartz 1997)

Ability to manipulate a symbol system Ability to use stored knowledge to solve

problems
Think logically
Reason by analogy
Transfer knowledge to new circomtances
May possess creative and artistic abilities
Resilient; able to cope with trying family
Take on adult roles in the home
situations
Exhibit leadership ability and
Strong sense of pride and self-worth
indipendent thinking
Possess a strong desire to learn about and
Display a strong inner will, and May
understanding their culture
diplay a hightened sensitivity to others
and the world around them

IDETIFYING A GIFTED CHILD IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippine Association for the gifted , Inc. (PAG) estimate that about that
about two percent of the country’s population is gifted, meaning they “exhibit at least
above average general intellectual ability, and... (demonstrate) superior achievement
and/or special ability in any of the following areas: Verbal-Linguistic intelligence;
Logical/mathematical; Body Kinesthetic; Musical/Rhythmic; and Leadership’ (Fajardo,
2011).
 It is important to identify a filipino gifted child as soon as possible because he/she
is at risk in early years of school, trough misidentification, inappropriate grade-
placement, inadequate curriculum, an early awareness of being different and concequent
attempt to conceal their ability for peer acceptance. More often than not, intellectualy
gifted children are held back in their learning to conferm to the peace of other children in
their class. Research findings indicate that even in infancy, potentially gifted children
often proceed trough developmental milestones up to 30% faster than other infants.
Advanced development i the areas gross motor, fine motor and language skills has also
been observed in potentially gifted infant. Profoundly gifted infants and todlers ( Iqs of
167 to 230+) were reported to have higher energy leves, longer attention spans and higher
sensitivity to tactile sensation than their age mates. (Gomez, 2016)

Based on how far a Filipino gifted child is from the norm of 100:
 Mildly Gifted: 115 to 129
 Moderately Gifted: 130 to 144
 Highly Gifted: 145 to 159
 Exceptionally Gifted: 160 to 179
 Profoundly Gifted: 180

SCREENING AND DIAGNOSIS

Gifted student posses some common characteristics. Recognizing these general

trail and understanding how they may reveal themselves in the classroom is an important
step toward working effectively with this unique group of children (Teachers First, 2016).
Screening and diagnosis may include achievement tests that determine what the student
already have learned and if they are more advanced than their grade level peers. They
may be academic specific (i,e Math or Language Arts) or standardized tests (such as
SATs, ITBS, SRA, and MATs). These assessments should not have a celling so student
are able to show all of what the know (National Association for Gifted Children, n.d).

Newton Local Schoold (n.d) identifies the following assesment tools used in
identifying gifted and talented learners.

1. Otis-Lennos School Ability Test, 8th Edition

 OLSAT 8 measures cognitive abilities that relate to a student’s academic success in
school. By assessing a student’s verbal, nonverbal, and quantitative ability, OLSAT 8
supplies educators with valuable information to enhance the insights gained from
tradition achievement tests (National Association for Gifted Children, n.d).

2. Cognitive Abilities Test Form 6

The Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) From 6 measures students’ learned reasoning
abilities in the three areas most linked to academic success in school: Verbal,
Quatitative and Nonverbal. Althought its primary goal is to assess students’ reasoning
abilities, CogAT also provide predicted achievement scores when administered with
the Iowa Tests (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016).

3. Gifted and Talented Evaluated Scales-Second Edition (GATES-2)

The GATES-2 is an innovative, quick approach for identifying students 5
through 18 years of age who are gifted and talented.Based on the most current
federal definitions, the GATES-2 has 5 scales: General Intellectual Ability,
Academic Skills, Creativity, Leadership, and Artistic Talent. Each scale has 10
items (PRO-ED,2012).

4. Woodcock-Johnson-Third Edition(WJ-III)
As part of the Woodcock-Johnson – Third Edition (WJ-III), the WJ-III-ACH
provides a comprehensive measure of general achievement ability, as well as
measures of oral language ability and specific achievement skills. Its has been
conormed with the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-III-
COG), which allows for more accurate comparisons among an individual’s
achievement skills, oral language ability, and cognitive abilities than would the
use of different measures ( Springer Link, n.d).
Such assessment tools will help determine wheter a learner is gifted and
talented or not. Moreover, it whould be benifitial for both educators and
learners for the adjusment or modoficatoions of instruction.

PRVELANCE
WORLD WIDE
With no unversal defenition of giftedness, it is difficut to accuratenly estimate the
previlance of children who are gifted and talented. In general, giftedness is said to occur
in 2 to 5 percent of school-aged of population (winzse, 2010). In United satates, based on
National Association of Gifted Council (2016). Gifted and talented individual population
of United States.

PHILIPPINES

Best of Latest Department of Education (2000) report, out of 80million Filippinos.

50% of said populations are children of youth with special needs (0-24yrs. Old), 2% of
the 50% are gifted. Further more according to CSN 136,523 children with special needs
enrolled in schools: 69,888 (51.19%) were mentally gifted/ fast lerners and 66,635
(48.81%) had disabilities.

IQ Scores & Ratings

Lewis Terman (1816) as cited in wilderdom (2004) developed the original notion
of IQ and proposed this scale for classifying IQ scores:

 Over 140 – Genius or near genius

 120 – 140 – Very superior intelligence
 110 – 119 – Supperior intelligence
 90 – 109 – Normal or average intelligence
 80 – 89 – Dullness
 70 – 79 – Borderline deficiency
 Under 70 – Definite feeble-mindedness

Normal destribution & IQ scores

The properties of Normal destribution apply to IQ scores:

  50% of IQ scores fall between 90 and 110
 70% of IQ scores fall between 85 and 115
 95% of IQ scores fall between 70 and 130
 99.9% of IQ scores fall between 60 and 140

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%
Series 3
50%
Series 2
40% Series 1

30%

20%

10%

0%
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Low IQ & Mental Retardation

5% of people have an IQ under 70 and this is generally considered as the

benchmark for “mental retardation”, a condition of limited mental ability in that it
produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life.
Severity of mental retardation can be broken into 4 levels:
 50-70 – Mild mental retardation (85%)
 35-50 – Moderate mental retardation (10%)
 20-35 – Severe mental retardation (4%)
 IQ<20 – Profound mental retardation (1%)
High IQ & Genius IQ

Genuis IQ is generally considered to begin around 140 to 145, representing ~.25%

of the population (1 in 400). Here’s a rough guide:
 115-124 – Above average (e.g., university student)
 125-134 – Gifted (e.g., post-graduate student)
 135-144 – Highly gifted (e.g., intellectuals)
 145-154 – Genius (e.g., professors)
 155-164 – Genius (e.g., Nobel Prize winner)
 165-179 – High genius
 180-200 - Highest genius
 >200 – “Immeasurable genius”

CAUSES OF GIFTEDNESS AND TALENTED

Giftedness is commonly seen as a product of inborn high ability or Nativist

perspective the “Nativist theory develop by Chomsky, the theory states that it may simply
be a product of the peculiar nature of human intelligence, which makes use look out for
and be sensitive to the underlying rules which govern phenomena in the world. Another
perspective is that Giftedness is product of deliberate practice. Deliberate practices is also
seen as the reason of the high abilities of the Savants, due to thier obsessive working on
their area of ability (Winner 2000).

In a study conducted in New Zealand, it was reported that there is an increase of

about 18-20 point on the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, in a single generation,
because of this increase, researchers believe that it is too impossible that the increase of
test result is due to hereditary traits/Natural, and it must be due to environmental factors.
Also, Gifted and talented individuals have high fluid intelligence that is located in the
prefrontal cortex on the human brain. The study had shown that there is an expansion of
curriculum and stimulation of the brain to think, Though the deliberate practices
perspective is promising as areason behind giftedness and talented; inborn high ability
hasma vital role in being a gifted and talented. Studies have shown that while these
attributes can enable a person to obtain great success, exceptional achievement is not
possible without high ability. Therefore it is clear that in some instances giftedness
requires both perseverance and high ability (Winner 2000.)
 PROBLEMS, CHALLENGES, and STRUGGLES

A. People with Special Learning Needs

There are many challenges facing the gifted learner, as well as their educators. The
core issue is that gifted student are different from their non-gifted peers, and need to be
treated and taugh using separate, often accelerated, methodology and pedagogy. Kesner
(2005) suggest that for the educator ‘developing a secure relationship with gifted children
is cristical and at the same time more difficult than doing so with their non-gifted
counterpart.’ Teacher of gifted and talented student need to not only create a social
relationship, but also a quasi-professinal academic relationship with their student. As
Kesner notes: “Children are dependent upon their teacher for... provision of appropriate
academic challenges [in the classroom]. Gifted students, by virtue of their advanced
intellectual capabilities may be even more dependent upon the teacher to provide for their
specific academic needs.” (Kesner, 2005) Berger (1989) report that there are many
options available to gifted students to explore social interaction with both age and
intellectual peers, as well as possibly finding mentors. She states that the broad specturm
of intellectual, academic and social experience required by the gifted student can only be
achieved through the coordinated effort of the family, the school, and supplemental
(gifted and talented) programs.
A study which is entitled “Current research on the social and emotional development
of gifted and talented student: Good news and future possibilities”. Revealed that
generally gifted and talented student are well adjusted in society, however, the study also
shows that some gifted and talented students are confronted with personal and
environmental struggle (Reiss, S & Renzulli, J. (2004). These struggle include, rigidity
and need for schedule, gifted student view the worlf as black and white ; some gifted
individuals tend to worry too much about the things that they could not control, the gifted
student have a strong sence of social justice, they worry social problems and try to
address the problems; strong dislike for school due to unmet needs, and overtimulation to
sound and being Perfectionlist they may feel anxiety when they lose, this attitude may
lead to fear fo trying new things and fear of failure (Nicpom, 2014).
B. Family
According to Renati, Bonfiglio and Pfeiffer (2016) remarks that in the specific case of
parenting a gifted child, it is important to underline that from birth the child present
challenges for their parents. From the beginning of their life, many intellectually
precocious children are very active and require many stimuli. Moreover, parents may
have to deal with asynchronous development, intense behavioal reactions, academic
underachievement, and school difficulties. Also many parents of gifted children lack deep
knowledge about developmental issues related to their gifted child or suitable and
adaptive strategies to promote their successful adjustment and well-being (Pfeiffer,
2013b; Pfeiffer and Stocking, 2000). Many parents of the gifted are not well-prepared to
deal with their special child’s needs and come to feel alone and without support from
others-other families or professionals in the community (Alsop, 1997; Feldman and
Piirto, 1995). This sense of intense loneliness and frustration can and often does lead to
parental stress. Parental stress has been defined as: “the averse psychological reaction to
the demands of being a parent” (Deater Deckard, 1998: 315). Although a maderate
amount of stress is considering normal (Crnic and Greenberg, 1990), and parents who
experience high levels of, or chronic, stress can be expected to suuffer emotionally, and
be lss responsive to their child’s needs. Parenting stress has been shown to impact the
quality of the parenting (Abidin, 1992; Belsky, 1984; Rodgers, 1998), and adversely
affect the parent-child relationship. From a risk and resilience viewpoint (Black and
Lobo, 2008), stress related to parenting is a risk factor that can have a deleterious effect
on a child’s well-being in sutuations where there are multiple risk factors, parental stress
can adversely impact the child’s developmental trajectory and lead to negative outcomes,
such as behavioral problems in the classroom, diminished social competence, and
feelings of rejection, low self-esteem, and social withdrawal (Anthony et al.,2005; Crnic
et al., 2005; Hart and Kelley,2006; Mckenry and Price, 2005; Rodriguez, 2011). The
objective assessment of risk and protective factors is not easy, and clinicians should adopt
a binocular perspective, with one lens focused on the child and the second lens observing
the environment and proximal sociarelational context of the child and family. This
multidimensional perspective enables the practitioner to conceptualize and design
systemic intervention that take into account multiple, interacting factors (Roisman, 2005;
Rutter, 1993). The presence of one or more protective or prophylactic factors does not
automatically lead to an adaptive response (Pfeiffer and Reddy, 2001); of the number or
potency or risk factors exceeds the impact of the protective factors, the probability to
activate a resilient process generating an adaptive reaction within the family decreases
(Johnson and Wiechelt, 2004).

C. Teachers
Post (2014) in his article, “Why some teacher don’t “get it” about gifted eduction”,
states that teachers are increasingly burdened with meeting administrative, state and
federal standards. Meeting these requirement, teaching to the, and ensuring that
struggling students don’t fall behind are paramount. Many are faced with large,
heterogeneous classrooms, asked to differentiate instruction an often impossible
expectation. With time constraints and competing demands, it is understandable that
teaching to the middle saves time and energy. It also makes sense that children with more
significant learning needs get most of their attention. The 2011 Fordham Institute (as
cited in Post, 2014) report affirms this; when teachers were asked where they would
direct their energy if they had time available for andividuaized attention , 80% claimed
that they would attend to their struggling students, whereas only 5% stated that their
advanced learners would receive attention. In a hectic classroom with limited time and
resources, gifted education is less likely to be a priority.
Many teachers have little training in gifted education. The national center for
Gifted Education and Talent Development (as cited in Post, 2014) study of 3rd and 4th
grade teachers found that 61% had not received any staff develoment or training in gifted
education. Without adquate training, a teacher may try to find some enrichment to
enhance a child learning, but the plan may be arbitrary and not necessarily tailored to the
child’s academic needs. If the school district lacks a formalized gifted program, there
may be even less structure or oversight available. Teachers often have little
understanding of the social; and emotional needs of the gifted, and may make
assumptions based on stereotypes. For example, one study1 reported that teachers
believed acceleration was a beneficial option for academic reasons. However, they
assumed that it would have a negative emotional effect, so failed to consistently
recommend it as an option for the gifted students (Post, 2014)

Marotta-garcia (2011) in her article entitled “Teachers Use of a Differentiated

Curriculum for Gifted Students” explained that teachers have the responsibility to
educate a diverse group of students in hererogeneous classes. She added that on in which
teachers meet this challenges is to differentiate the curriculum to meet the need, interests,
and abilies of each student, one particular group of students.America’s gifted students.
Their fullest capabilities (Dixon et al. 2004, as cited in Marotta –Garcia, 2011). The
perpectives: concerns pertaining to teachers’ ability to connect theory into practice and
concerns pertaining to accountability. It is evident, due to the current era of on
underachieving students. The quality of general education and gifted curriculum is at risk
due to primary concerns with minimal competency (Hockett, 2009, as cited in Marotta-
Garcia, 2011). Education researches and professional developers need to understand the
dilemmas and choices teachers have to make when applying what they have learned. Into
practice (Battey, D. & Franke M., 2008 as cited in Marotta-Garcia 2011).
In the study of Koa of Koa,2012 which is entitled “ The Education Predicament
Confronting Taiwan’s Gifted Programs: An Evaluations of Current Practices and Future
Challengers” examined the current problems affecting Taiwan’s gifted eduication
through large-scale gifted program evaluation.Fifty-one gifted education elementary
schools and 62 gifted classes at 18 junior high schools were evaluated. Major themes
uncovered by this study included exam-oriented instruction, lack of quality affective
education, heavy burdens for teacher’s, enormous pressure for community. These
problems could further be consolidated into an overarching theme, overemphasis on
exam performance. Discussions and implications addressing these problems are provided
in the hope that Taiwan’s and other countries’ gifted education can benefit from them
(Kao, 2012).
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
The following case analysis questions were adapted from The Praxis Study
Companion on Gifted Education (www.ets.org/praxis).

Case Analysis. Each of the questions or statements below is followed by four suggested
answers or completions. Select the one that is best in each case.

1. Eight-year-old Sarah is working on advanced algebra, reading at a twelfth-grade

leve, and experimenting with a chemistry set at home. Her parents meet with her
teacher and request testing for the program for gifted and talented students.
Although the teacher does agree that Sarah is reading well above grade level, the
teacher is hesitant to refer Sarah for the program because she is often off task,
rarely finishes class assignments, and has a tendency to cry when frustrated. The
teacher would benefit from training to better recognize

(A) Emotional dysfunction

(B)Self-efficacy
(C)Cognitive processes
(D) Asynchronous development

2. Which of the following avtivities would encourage divergent thinking in a young,

intelllectually gifted elementary student?

(A) Classifying pictures of leaves using a teacher-prepared guide

(B)Reading an encyclopedia article on leaves and trees
(C)Collecting leaves and deciding on multiple ways to organize them
(D) Drawing pictures of leaves found in the neighborhood

3. A teacher of gifted students wants to provide students with an engaging format

and a highlyres ponsive learning community where reflection is commonplace.
Which of the following approaches taken by the teacher will best help achieve the
goal?
 (A) Assigning a group research project and adapting the depth of the task
(B)Including the use of online discussion forums and others learning media in
tasks
(C)Requiring that students present their products to their general education peers
for feedback
(D) Integrating the students into a highly competitive learning group

4. Which of the following teaching approaches is most likely to enhance the

creativity of gifted students?

(A) Emphasizing concrete, real-life applications of topics rather than abstract

concept
(B)Structuring assignments in ways that encourage divergent thinking
(C)Accelerating coverage of required content to allow time for creative activities
(D) Encouraging students to choose their own educational goals and to seek out
their own resources

5. Which of the following is most likely to be a primary consideration in the

selection of a curriculum model for gifted students?

(A) The model should be focusd primarily on content that is appropriate for
gifted students, leaving process-related decisions up to the individual teacher.
(B)The model should be feasible adjunct to the regular curriculum.
(C)The model should maximize oppurtunities for the integration of gifted and
regular students in instructional activities.
(D) The model should provide multiple paths to reach specified goals.
 Hearing
Impairment
“Blindness seperates people from things but Deafness seperates us
from people”

- Helen Keller
 DEFINITION

Hearing impairment when there is a problem with or damage to one or more parts
of the ear (Nemour Foundation n. d.). It is a loss that prevents a person from totally
receiving sounds (Kentucky’s office for the Americans with Disabilities Act 2016). This
including specifically the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear hearing (acoustic nerve, and
auditory system (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2015).

However, in a more strict sense, hearing impairment is defined as a loss of sixty

decibels or more in the better ear in the conversational range of frequencies (The persons
with disabilities act of 1995, n. d). Educationally, it means impairment in hearing,
whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s (Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act 2004, as cited in National Dissemination Center for Children
with Disability 2012). Generally. The various definitions of hearing impairment indicate
that it is a generic term covering all degrees and types of hearing loss and refers to the
reduced function in hearing and understanding speech and language that result from
auditory disorder (Dahl, 1994; Stach, 2010 as cited in El-Zraigat, 2012).

Hearing impairment can be categorized by which part of the auditory system is

damage. There are three basic types of hearing loss: conductive hearing loss,
sensorineural hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss (American-Speech-Language-Hearing
Association, 2016). Conductive hearing loss is caused by any condition or disease that
impedes the conveyance of sound in its mechanical form through the middle ear cavity to
the inner ear (Better Hearing Institute, 2016). Conductive hearing losses are usually mild
or moderate in degree, ranging from 25 to 65 decibels (MEDEL, 2016), Sensorineural
hearing loss occurs from damage to the inner ear, the nerve the runs from the ear to the
brain (auditory nerve), or brain (MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, 2016) Some causes
of sensorineural loss may be age, noise and diseases (Hear-it,1999). Mixed hearing loss is
a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss, which means there is
damage in both the outer or middle ear and in the inner ear (Cochlear Ltd, 2016).
 Hearing loss may very dependent on its degree or severity. A decibel ranging
from-10 to 15 may be classified as normal, 16 to 25 dB as mild 41 to 55 dB as
moderately severe, 71 to 90 as severe and 91+dB as profound (Clark, 1981 as cited in
American-Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2016).

In terms of effective communication, a slight hearing loss may not experience

difficulty in speech understanding however, when the decibel range gets higher, effective
communication maybe affected. A mild hearing loss may experience reduced speech
understanding especially in noisy environment, moderate may have a noticeable
difficulty conversation, moderately severe may need speech that is louder than usual and
may have difficulties in group conversation with occur and severe may perceive regular
speech is inaudible, has difficulties even with loud speech and comprehension is often
only possible through shouting or amplification (NoiseHelp, 2010). Lastly, profound loss
may have difficulties in understanding even in amplified speech (Siemens, 2016).

In term of the sounds a person hear every day, a dB sound is equivalent to a very
faint, rustling leaves sound, 20 dB is equal to a whisper, 50 dB is to rainfall, 60 dB
traffic, 90 dB is to the sound of hair dryer 110 dB is to a leaf blower, concert or chainsaw,
120 dB is to an ambulance or jack hammer, 130 dB is to a sounds of a jet plane from 100
feet, 140 dB is equal to the sound of fireworks or gunshot, and 166 dB is equal to a 12-
gauge shotgun ( kim, 2015).

In a short sense, a person who cannot hear within the range of degrees stated
above, may probably not hear the everyday sounds provided.

HISTORY

Worldview
Based from the Foreign Deaf History (2010), hearing impairment started on:

1000 BC
Hebrew law provides that the Deaf limited right to property and marriage.
335 BC
Aristotle says

“Those who are born deaf all become senseless and incapable of reason.”

360 BC

Socrates mentions the use of signs by the deaf Plato’s Cratylus. Socrates discusses innate
intelligence, and claims that Deaf people are incapable of language and ideas.

354-430 AD

St Augustine believed that comes be hearing and that deafness is a hindrance to faith.
However, he believed that Deaf people can learn and thus are able to receive faith and
salvation. Augustine refers to bodily movements, signs and gestures, and believed that
these modes were capable of transmitting thought and belief. He implies that it is equal to
spoken language.

1521
Rudolf Agricola, a Dutch humanist, believed that the Deaf could communicate via
writing. He advocated the theory that the ability of speech was separate from the ability to
thought.

1501-1576
Girolamo Cardano was the first physician to recognize the ability of the Deaf to reason
and the

First to challenge Aristotle’s belief that hearing was a requirement for understanding

1591
Alberti, a German physician, published the first book of any kind specifically regarding
deafness: Discourse on Deafness and speechlessness. He stated that hearing and speech
were separate functions. Alberti believed that Deaf people were rational, capable f
thought, even though they lacked speech. He showed that the Deaf can read lips,
understand speech, and read, without the ability to hear.

1614-1684
John Bulwer was a British physician who studied gestures published Philocopus, also
known as the Deaf and Dumbe Man’s Friend in 1548 and Chirologia, also known as the
Natural Language of the Hand in 1644. These were the first English books on deaf
education and language.

1620
Earliest records of Deaf Education occur in Spain. Melchor de Yebra and Juan Pablo de
Bonet are prominent during this era. De Yebra was familiar with the hand alphabet used
by monks sworn to vows of silence. He published those handshapes and publicized its
use for religious purposes among deaf people to promote understanding of spiritual
matters. Bonet supported oralism but used finger spelling to teach speech and literacy. He
used this methodology so the deaf could be integrated with hearing society.

1680
George Dalgarno, a Scottish Tutor, taught students to lip-read, speak, and fingerspell. He
published conclusions about the education of the deaf in Didascalocophus, also known as
the Deaf and Dumb Man’s Tutor which supported the use of finger spelling and gestures
in the education of Deaf people.

1755
Samuel Heinicke establishes the first oral school for the deaf in Germany.

1760
Abbe Charles Michel de l’Epee (1712-1789) establishes the Royal Institution of Deaf and
Mutes in Paris. L’Epee supported the school at his own expense until his death. After his
death, the government began to support the school. His successor was the Abbe
RochConcurrou (Curcurran) Sicard (1742-1822).’ It was Sicard who brought Laurent
Clerc and Jean Massieu to London where they met Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet.

1831
Dr. Samuel Howe is the first director for the school for the blind in the United States
which later became known as the Perkins School for the Blind.

1846
American Annals of the Deaf begins publication in Hartford at American School for the
Deaf.

1856
Amos Kendall donates 2 acres of land and a house of found a school for the deaf, dumb,
and the blind.

1865
The Empire State Association of the Deaf is formed. It is the first state association of the
Deaf.

1873
George Wallis published his book; “Language of Touch – a narrative illustrating the
instruction of the Blind and Deaf mute” based on a deafblind woman called Mary
Bradley.

1875
The Deaf Mutes’ Journal is established. It continues operation as a popular newspaper of
the Deaf until 1951. DMJ is renamed the New York Journal in the 1930s.

1876
Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone. He also uses his influence to implement
the practice of oralism, thus restricting communication for deaf people.

1880
The National Association of the Deaf is established in Cincinnati, Ohio.
1880
International Congress of Educator of the Deaf meets for the Milan Conference. James
Denison is the only deaf person there out of 16 attendees. The conference
overwhelmingly supports moralism.
1883
Bell reads Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race at the
American Acamedy of Sciences in New Haven, CT and to the Conference of Principals
of American Schools for the Deaf in 1884, Bell is concerned about intermarriage amongst
the deaf and states the they shouldn’t marry because this would isolate the deaf from
hearing society and encourage births of deaf children. This sparked debate for prohibition
of marriage amongst the deaf.

1886
William Dummy Hoy begins his 15 year career in professional baseball. He is widely
attributed to for developing the hand count for umpires in baseball.

1887
Alexander G. Bell establishes the Volta Bureau.

1890
British Deaf Association is founded.

1893
Agatha Tiegel Hanson is the first woman to graduate with a four year degree, a Bachelor
of Arts.

1894
The National Deaf Mute College was renamed to Gallaudet College in honor of Thomas
H. Gallaudet.

1912
Juliette Gordin Low, a late deafened woman founded the Girl Scouts of America in
Savannah, Georgia.

1914
Edwin Nies is the first deaf person to earn a Doctor of Dental Sciences. He earns the
degree from the University of Pennsylvania.
1921
Earl C. Hanson patents the first vacuum-tube hearing aid.

1924
The International Committee of Silent Sports (CISS) is founded on August 16 by E.
Rubens Alcais of France and Antonie Dresse of Belgium following the first international
Games for the Deaf which were held in Pershing Stadium in Paris.

1928
Nellie Zabel Willhite, believed to be the first deaf pilot in the world, soloed.

1945
The American Athletic Association of the Deaf is established in Akron, Ohio.

1950
Behind the ear hearing aid becomes available.

1954
Andrew Foster is the first African American graduate of Gallaudet College. He went on
to found 31 schools and 2 centers for the Deaf in Africa.

1960
Stokoe publishes his findings about sign language as a legit language. His publiscation
did not attract much attention until it is republished in 1965 with Casterline and
Croneberg as Dictionary of ASL on Linguistic Principles.

1960
The Junior National Association of the Deaf is established for deaf youths.
1964
Robert Weitbrecht, a deaf invertor, invents the acoustic coupler which is similar to the
American text phone. The coupler allows people to use typewriter to send messages over
the telephone.

1965
The establishment of a National Technical Institute for the Deaf. NTID, a federally
funded institution located on the campus of the Rochester Institute of Technology, is the
first technology college for deaf students in the world.

1976
The first Deaf women’s conference is held on Washington, DC at Gallaudet College.

1977
The Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf is established. The Alliance is for Deaf Gays and
Lesbians.

1979
The American Association of Deaf and Blind, Inc. forms.

1984
The Cochlear implant pioneers.

1988
On March 7, Deaf President Now protestors barricaded the school. The protestors sought
to overturn a March 6 decision of the Board of Trustees to appoint Elisabeth Ann Zinser
as president of Gallaudet University. The protestors demanded a Deaf president, the
resignation of Jane B. Spilman as chair of the Board of Trustees, a majority of Deaf
people on the Board, and no reprisals against students who participated in the protest. The
protest included a march to the Capitol. On March 10, Zinser resigned and Spilman’s
resignation followed on the 13th. Phil Bravin took over as chair of the Board and I. King
Jordan was appointed the president of Gallaudet.
1997
The World Federation for the Deaf and Blind is founded.
Philippines

Likewise, the Philippines also have its own history of Hearing Impairment. Form
the researches of Filipino Deaf from the Eyes of a Hearing Person (2008), Hearing
Impairment started here in the Philippines on:

1907 where Philippines School for the Deaf is build and the formation of Philippines
Association of the Deaf in October 17, 1926 by Pedro M. Santos, the first and only deaf
pensionado to the United States.

Founding of Bible Institute for the Deaf (1962) by Rev. Wayne Shaneyfelt, a missionary
of the Philippines General Council of the Assemblies of God and which was succeeded
by Rev. Elena Castilo.

Establishment of Deaf Evangelistic Alliance Foundation (1969) by Rev. Aimee Ada

Coryell, a Christian missionary, as the first school that offers all-year level programs for
the deaf including the BS in Elementary Education (Laguna Christian College for the
Deaf).

Philippines Association of the Deaf Coffee shop started its operations at Rizal Park in
June 1, 1969 based on assistance from the then famous columnist Teodoro F. Valencia.

Construction of the Philippines Association of the Deaf Demontration School (1972)

building in Makati City under the generous support from former First Lady Imelda
Marcos with their property leased from the Ayala Group;

Establishment of Southeast Asian Institute for the Deaf (1977), as the first school for the
deaf that uses total communication approach.

Founding of Philippines Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (1977) in Manila for the
purpose of providing translating and/or interpreting services for deaf clients,
Setting up of Philippines affiliate of US based International Deaf Education Association
(1985), by Mr. George Dennis Drake located in Bohol providing vocational training and
employment to the deaf.

Establishment of Welcome Home Foundation for the Deaf (1986) in Bacolod City as a
residential home and center for the deaf in the province of Negros Occidental; Opening of
Maria Lena Buhay Foundation (1987) by Mrs. Leticia Buhay, the country’s first oral
school for the deaf.

International recognition for Teatro Silentcio Filipinas of Deaf Theater Philippines

(1989), an all-deaf group of performing artists. It has earned several awards and citations
for exemplary performances on stage, television and movie.

Setting up of the Catholic Ministry to Deaf People (1989) to provide religious formation
by offering Ctechism to deaf schools, to assist in formal and non-formal training, to offer
counseling, rehabilitation and human services and to advocate for and promote the rights,
culture and development of the deaf.

CHARACTERISTICS

People with Hearing Impairment may generally manifest the following

characteristics (Hearing Impairment ADE Education, n.d):
A. Intellectual
Hearing loss of deafness does not affect a person’s intellectual capacity or ability to
learn. However, children who are either hard of hearing or deaf generally require some
form of special education services in order to receive an adequate education (NICHCY,
2010 as cite in University of Texas at Austin, n.d)
B. Academic
Children with Hearing Impairment may also have trouble of difficulty in school
related activities such as (Hearing Impairment ADE Education, n.d):
a. Has poor reading comprehension skills
b. Has poor word attack skills
c. Has difficulty with abstract concepts ( may be able to think in abstract terms, but
unable to ecpress the concept)
 C. Behavior
Deaf and hearing-impaired children can develop a variety of behavioral symptoms.
They may also have these following characteristics (Russo, 2016):
a. Frequently uses “neutral response,” “smiling,” saying “yes” and periodically
nodding in situations where he/she lacks understanding
b. Has difficulty following verbal directions or does not respond
c. Frequently asks to have statements repeated
d. Inattentive in group activities
e. Appears to be confused, especially in noisy situations
f. Gives inappropriate answers to simple questions
g. May isolate himself or be isolated by his peer group
h. Has complete or partial misunderstanding of conversation
i. Is overly dependent on visual cues
j. May have a low frustration tolerance
k. Often speaks too loudly or too softly

D. Communicative Abilities
A student/child with deafness or hard-of-hearing disabilities has deficits in language
and speech development due to a diminished or lack of auditory response to sound
(Watson 2016).

Some of these characteristics include (McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2009):

a. Spoken language may be delayed.
b. Can attain intelligible and age-appropriate speech
c. May have language delays
d. ASL may be the child’s natural language and may best prepare child for later
learning of English language skills

E. Physical/Medical
Children with Hearing Impairment may also manifest some physical of medical
characteristics like (Hearing Impairment ADE Education, n.d):
a. History of frequent earaches of ear discharge, or has nasal obstruction with
associated mouth breathing or other nasal symptoms
b. Frequent colds, sneezing earaches, allergies, history of viral infections, high fever,
etc.
c. Family history of hearing loss and/or ear disease
d. History of dizziness and balance problems
e. Deformity of the outer ear
f. Deformity of oral facial structures (i.e., cleft palate)
 Student with Hearing Impairment in the Classroom
(Cole & Flexer, 20070

Severity
Hearing/Classroom Difficulties

 Distinguishing soft/distant speech

Minimal or
 Responding to subtle cues in converstion
Slight Hearing
 Rapid-paced information/transitions
Loss
 Distinguishing grammatical markers (possessive, plural, verb tense
forms, etc.)
(15-25- dB HL)
 Fatigues more easily; present with immature behavior
 Compared to peers with normal hearing-10xs greater risk for
academic failure
Unilateral
Hearing Loss
 Localizing source of sound and filtering speech in noise
 Distinguishing and understanding speech in classroom environment
(even when presented in the “good ear”)
 Distractible/less attentive and easily frustrated
 Not as confident and more dependent on others as compared to peers
with normal hearing
 Can possibly miss 25-40% of speech signal without use of audio
logic management
 Cannot “overhear” other’ conversations therefore misses passive
learning opportunities
 35-40 dB HL: can miss 50% of classroom discussion
Mild Hearing
Loss
 Cannot hear soft/distant voices and described as “ Daydreaming” or
“not trying”
(25-40 dB HL)
 Fatigues more easily due to effort taken to hear
 Unmanaged hearing loss can result in lagging behind at least 1 grade
level
 50-75% of information missed in classroom situations
 Articulation and syntax deficits as well as limited receptive and
expressive vocabulary
Moderate
Hearing Loss
 Demonstrate immature behavior
 Deficits in communication and social skills
(40-55 dB HL)
 If untreated by 4th grade these student are at least 2 grade below level
 Unamplified-100% of classroom information is missed, cannot
detect sound, cannot localize sound, cannot distinguish between
environmental and speech sounds
Moderately-
Severe Hearing
Loss
 Academic deficits
 Language delays (including syntax deficits
 Poor speech intelligibility
(55-70 dB HL)
 Deficits in social skills

With amplification, can detect speech and environmental sounds

 Requires technology to hear conversational speech

 Significant academic, language and social skill deficits
Severe Hearing
Loss
 Appears inattentive as looks to peers often to model what should be
doing
(90+dB HL)
 Requires auditory language intervention to learn to communicate
with others
 Cannot detect speech vs. environmental sounds without
amplification
 Verbal expression will not develop without the use technology
Profound
Hearing Loss
 Without use of technology or alternative models of communication,
child will not use a functional communication system to successfully
communicate, primitive gestures will remain as primary mode of
communication and learning will not occur
(90+dB HL)
SCREENING AND DIAGNOSIS
Hearing impairment may be detected by using various screening and diagnosis tests. It
may be of medical diagnosis for the detection and proper treatment of the child or
Educational Assessments for academic purposes.

A. MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS

Based on the researchers of Health line (2014) and Web Md (2005), some medical
procedures that can detect Hearing Impairment are:

1. NEW BORN SCREENING

 Automated auditory brain response

It evaluated how well the sounds travel along the auditory pathways to a particular
part of the brain called the brainstem. Electrodes are pasted and taped to the scalp and
earlobes and soft foam tips are inserted into the ear canals. Clicking sounds then are
delivered through the ear tips at a comfortable-to-fairly-loud level. The audiologist then
measures the responses to determine if they are normal or abnormal. (Audiological
Consultants, 2016)

 Otoacoustic emissions

An otoacoustic emission (OAE) is a low-level sound emitted by the cochlea either

spontaneously or evoked by an auditory stimulus. Specifically, OAEs provide
information related to the function of the outer hair cells (OHC) (Stach, 2003 as cited in
Cunningham, 2011).

OAE recordings are made via an ear canal (kemp, 2002)

2. PHYSICAL EXAM

Otoscopy is an examination that involves looking into the ear with an instrument called
an otoscope (or auriscope). The examination is performed by gently pulling the outer part
of the ear upwards and backwards. This action straightens the external auditory canal,
which has a natural curve, and makes it easier to see the eardrum. (Pillinger, 2013).

3. RINNE AND WEBER TEST

  Rinne Test
Rinne’s test is done to compare the auditory acuity of each ear to bone and
air conduction. The tuning fork is struck gently so as not to produce overtones and
dysharmonica. It can be struck against a rubber pad or any bony prominence of the
examiner. The vibrating tuning fork is held about 1 inch away from the ear, such
that the prongs are parallel to the external auditory canal (Juvekar, 2012)

 Weber Test

Used for the determination of a conductive vs. a sensorineural hearing loss.

Used by the striking of tuning fork placing base in the center of the forehead or the
top of the head. Afterwards, ask if the tone is louder in the left ear, the right ear or
equally loud in both ears. (Fitzakerley, 2015)

4. WHISPERED SPEECH TEST

The examiner stands arm’s length (0.6 m or other distance) behind the seated
patient (to prevent lip reading0 and whispers a combination of numbers and letters
(for example, 4-K-2 and then asks the patient to repeat the sequence (Staab, 2013).

5. PURE TONE AUDIOMETRY

6.
A pure-tone air conduction hearing test determines the faintest tones a person
can hear at selected pitches (frequencies), from low to high. During this test earphone
are worn so that information can be obtained for each ear (American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association, 2016).

7. SPEECH AUDIOMETRY

Speech audiometry is used to measure the ability of a patient to perceive

speech signals. Speech materials (pre-recorded or read by examiner) are presented;
 the patient repeats the speech materials to determine how well it was perceived (Zyl,
n.d).

8. TRANSTYMPANIC ELECTROCOCHLEOGRAPHY (ECOG)

Electrocochleography (ECOG) is a specialized test which measure the electric
potential or signal generated in the inner ear in response to sound. Transtympanic ECOG
is performed with a recording electrode placed as closed to the inner ear as possible. This
is done by passing the electrode through the eardrum and positioning it next to the inner
ear (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2007).
B. EDUCATIONAL ASSEMENTS
Assessment Tools for Students who are Deaf of Hard of Hearing (n.d) explained some of
the Educational Assessments used by people with Hearing Impairment. This includes:
1. Meaningful Auditory Integration Scale (MAIS)/Infant-Toddler: Meaningful
Auditory Integration Scale (IT-MAIS)
It is a structured interview schedule designed to assess the child’s spontaneous
responses to sound in his/her everyday environment. The assessment is based upon
information provided by the child’s parent(s) in response to 10 probes. These assess three
main areas: 1) vocalization behavior; 2) alerting to sounds; and 3) deriving meaning from
sound. Specific scoring criteria have been developed for each of the 10 probes. (Philips,
Osberger & Robbins, 2015)
2. Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language-3 (TACL-3) (Carrow-
Woolfolk, E.)
The TACL-3 is a receptive language test that assesses a student’s ability to understand
spoken language (Ann Arbor Publishers, 2016).
Three subtests assess:
(1) Word classes, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives;
(2) Grammatik morphemes in simple sentences, such as prepositions, suffixes, and
noun-verb agreement; and
(3) Elaborate sentence constructions. Norms are based on a standardization sample of
1,102 children.

3. Spoken Communication for Student Who are Deaf or Hard Hearing: A

Multidisciplinary
 This curriculum includes a Student Speech Record (SSR) which is used to evaluate
the following non-verbal communication (attention, turn taking, eye contact, and breath
support) and suprasegmentally, vowels and diphthongs, and consonants at the phonetic,
phonologic, and pragmatic levels. The SSR also includes an oral peripheral examination
form. Assessment Tools for Student who are Deaf of Hard of Hearing (n.d)
4. The Central Institute for the Deaf (CID) Picture Speech Intelligibility
Evaluation (SPINE)
The SPINE uses colorful picture to evaluate speech intelligibility in children as
young as 6 years of age. The assessment package includes 300 full-color picture
cards, a tests manual, and 25 response forms. It also measure speech intelligibility for
severely and profoundly hearing impaired children and adolescents (Heavner, 2009)
5. Checklist of Emerging ASL Skills Available in: Easterbrook’s, S & Baker, S.
Language Learning in Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing:
Multiple Pathways. (2001) Allyn and Bascon, Boston, Mass.
This checklist provides a series of indicators to judge whether a deaf child has
components of ASL in his or her communication system. The evaluator should not
judge a child’s skills based on English ability. The focus should be an ASl the
checklist should be filled out by at least three different evaluators who are familiar
with the child and who are proficient in ASL (Schlao & Holst, n.d).
Screening and Diagnosis for the Detection of Hearing Impairment may it be
Medical or Educational will help the child cope up with the difficulties associated
with Hearing Impairment.

PREVALENCE
WORLDWIDE
In the world population, these are 360 million persons in the world with disabling
hearing loss (5.3% of the world’s population). 328 million (91%) of these are adults (183
million males, 145 million females.) 32(9%) millions of these are children. The
prevalence of disabling hearing loss in children is greatest in South Asia, Asia Pacific and
Sub-Saharan Africa. Approximately one-third of persons over 65 years are affected by
disabling hearing loss in adults over 65 years is highest in South Asia, Asia Pacific and
sub-Saharan Africa. These regions are as identified by the Institute of Health Matrix and
Evaluation’s 2010 GBD estimates study. (World Health Organization 2012)
PHILIPPINES
 In a nationwide survey on hearing disability and ear disorders conducted by Better
Hearing Philippines, Inc. (Martinez et.al., 2005), the prevalence of hearing disability was
established at 8.8% of the general population with wax problem, otitis media and non-
infectious conditions as the leading cause. Further, hearing impairment, including mild
forms of hearing loss was at 28%. (Better Hearing Philippines, Inc., 2008).
Furthermore, it is estimated that there are 27,792 or 0.63% person who are deaf
(DSWD Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino 2011, as cited in Garcia, 2014). In the early
enrolment of SPED in the elementary level (SY 2012-2013), there is an estimated 6.217
children who are deaf from all regions. While as to for the public secondary level in SY
2011-2012, there are an estimated 1,148 children and teens who suffer from hearing
impairment (Department of Education, n.d. as cite in Garcia, 2014).

CAUSE

In a study conducted by Duthey B. (2013), there are many possible cause of Hearing
Impairment. Some of which are:
1. Ear infection
A bacterial infection of the middle ear can:
 Injure the eardrum
 Disrupt the middle-ear bones
 Cause fluid buildup

2. Congenital hearing loss

Loss of hearing present at birth or loss that may develop later but is due to
genetic cause or other influence that affected the fetus while it was in utero (in the
womb) (Medicine Net Inc.,2016)

3. Injury/trauma
Hearing loss can sometimes occur with traumatic brain injury (TBI). This can
be the result of damage to the tiny bones in the middle ear or a fracture of the inner
ear of cochlea. Even if the hearing in ear itself is not damaged, a person with TBI
can have a loss in hearing that is caused by the way is processed in the brain.
(Brown, 2015)
 4. Aging
Age is the biggest single cause of hearing loss. Hearing loss that develops as a
result of getting older is often known as age-related hearing loss presbysusis.
(NHS Choices, 2015)

5. Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL)

This is hearing loss due to exposure to either a sudden, loud noise or exposure to
loud noises for a period of time. A dangerous sound is anything that is 85 dB (sound
pressure level – SPL) or higher. (Dangerous Decibel, 2016)
6. Medication and other chemical that are toxic to the ear
Substantial number of medications and common industrial chemical can also cause
hearing loss themselves or exacerbate the effect of noise. These chemical are said to
be ototoxic (Oto = ear, toxic = poisonous). They may damage the cochlea in the inner
ear and/or the auditory neurological pathway leading to hearing loss, tinnitus a d
vertigo (Government of Western Australia, n.d).
7. Nutritional Deficiency Causes
Nutrient Deficiencies are often overlooked as causes of contributing factors in many
diseases, and they are also overlooked factory in hearing loss, some of the vitamins
that can prevent hearing loss are: Vitamin D Magnesium, Vitamin C, Lipoic Acid,
Vitamin E, glutathione, Vitamin B-12, folic acid and zinc.(Knox, 2016)

PROBLEMS, CHALLENGES, and STRUGGLERS

Hearing Impairment also entails problems and challenges not only to the Hearing
impaired learners but also to their families and teachers.

A. People with Special Learning Needs

Based on the study conducted by cannon and Kirby (2015) entitled “Grammar
Structures and Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students: A review of Past Performance and
a Report of New finding”, some deaf and hard of hearing students struggle to acquire
the grammatical structures of English. After presenting a review of Literature
exploring particular lexical and morphosyntactic areas om twenty six participants,
results showed that many participants struggled with their regular noun singular
/plural; accusative first- and second –person singular; noun/verb agreement copular
:be”: accusative third person number/gender; locative pronominal; auxiliary
“be”/regular past “-ed”, and pronominal determiners plural.
In addition, according to Lutes (1988) on his study, “The struggles of Being Hard
of Hearing”, common experiences of Japanese children and adults with Hearing loss
are enhancing socialization, self-concept, self-acceptance, public attitudes, education,
employment, hearing aids, and society values and services.

Lastly, based on the journal article written by Olivia (2007) on “Looking Back …
Longing for a Group of Peers”, the author reflected on her struggles during the
adolescent years. It was noted that the author and struggles searching for a sense of
belonging and identity as a hard of hearing youth. Moreover, she stressed that deaf
and hard of hearing children, like all other children and solitaries, need a critical mass
of peers, friends, and companions to whom they can reach out to year round.

Therefore, learners with Hearing Impairment based on various researches has

problems or struggles in grammar structures, enhancement of socialization, self-
concept, self-acceptance, public attitudes, education, employment, hearing aids and
society values and services. Also learners with Hearing impairment have also
problems in searching for their sense of belonging and identity. However, there are no
Philippine-based researches about the struggles of learners with Hearing Impairment.

B. Family

Based on a journal article authored by Lutherman (2009) entitled “Counseling

Families of Children with Hearing Loss and Special Needs”, parents of the child with
multiple disabilities struggle with feeling of isolation and alienation from mainstream
programs for children who are deaf or hard of hearing. They also have the additional
burden of trying find suitable program and dealing with large array of professionals.
Also, parents of a child with hearing loss and additional special needs tend to remain
in denial longer.

Furthermore, another research conducted by Freeman, Dieterich, and Rak (2002)

entitled “The struggle for language: perspective and practices of urban parents with
children who are deaf or hard of hearing” revealed that parents struggle, systemic
barriers, and the urban environment are the greatest challenges facing families, The
said research was conducted within a 6 month period of ethnographic approach that
enabled documentation of parents’ daily routines, daily activities, thoughts
(perceptions), and behaviors (practices), in depth interviews and observations.

Finally, based on the research of Zaidman- Zait, Most, Tarrasch, Haddad-eid, and
Brand (2016) on the “Impact of Childhood Hearing Loss on the Family: Mothers’ and
Fathers’ Stress and Coping Resources”, parenting children who are deaf or hard of
hearing presents unique long term challenges that can place the parents at a greater
risk for elevated levels of parenting stress. The said study examined differences in
parenting stress and personal and social coping resources between mothers and fathers
of children who are dead or hard of hearing in the Arab sector in Israel. Finding
revealed that there is no significant difference between mothers and fathers regarding
parenting stress, child acceptance or parental support systems. Families with children
or family members who are hearing impaired struggle with feeling of isolation,
alienation from mainstream programs for children who are deaf or hard of hearing,
burden of trying to find suitable program, dealing with large array of professionals
and tend to remain in denial longer. Also, parents in urban areas persists greater
challenge possibly because greater chances of discrimination lies on urban areas.
However, there is no significant diffidence between mothers and fathers in parenting
stress in handling children with hearing loss or hard of hearing.

C. Teachers
The research study of Verte, Hebbrecht, and Roeyers (2006) on “Parents, Teachers
and Peers with Normal Hearing” exposed that 81adolescents with hearing
impairment, 31 teachers, and 30 peers found adolescents who wore hearing aids were
reported to have communication difficulties more than half of the time when listening
unaided challenging listening environments. Teachers and peers perceived the
adolescents less communication difficulty than reported by the adolescents.

Moreover, in a journal entitled “Helping Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

Succeed”, the U.S. Department of Education (2009) as cited in Luckner, Slice and
Johnson (2012), reported that about 87% of students who are deaf or hard of hearing
spend a portion of the school day in general education classrooms. The challenge for
both general and special education teachers who have not received specialized
training to work with students who are deaf or hard hearing is in knowing how to
provide quantity and quality of services needed to access the academic content and
social interactions of the general education setting.
The study of Bedoin (2011) on “English Teachers of Deaf and hard-of Hearing
Students in French Schools: Needs, Barriers and strategies’, revealed that sign
languages are distinct from spoken languages and differ from country to country:
there is no universal sign language. English teachers of the deaf are mostly hearing
people. They work either in mainstream or special schools. Most of them have no
specific qualifications. In this context, they are faced with the tremendous challenge
of how to adjust their teaching to their students’ impairment and at the same time
develop the latter’s knowledge and skills in English. As a result, different teaching
strategies are used on order to make English lessons accessible to D/HH students:
teachers have to adapt their teaching language and also use written and visual
supports to accommodate D/HH students. Thus, teachers training needs to be
improved, provide quantity and quality of services needed to access the academic
content and social interactions and adjustment of teaching and development of
knowledge and skills of people with D/HH
 Theories and Definitions of Intelligence
1. The Binet-Simon Scale (1890s)
The modern approach to understand the concept of intelligence began with the
work of Alfred Binet, a French psychologist (1857-1911) and his colleague, Theodore
Simon (1873-1961). Binet was hired by the Paris school system to develop tests that
would identify children who were not learning and would not benefit from further
education. Together, Binet and Simon developed and co-authored a test to roughly
measure the intellectual development of young children between the ages of three to
twelve. They wanted to find a way to measure the ability of children to think and
reason. Binet developed a test that asked children to follow commands, copy patterns,
copy patterns, name objects and put things in order or arrange them properly. From
binet’s work, the term “intelligence quotient” or IG evolved. The IQ is the ratio of
“mental age” to chronological age with 100 as the average. So, an 8-year-old who
passes the test for 8-year-olds has IQ of 100 which is the average for his or her
chronological age. Meanwhile, an 8-year-olds who passes the test for 10-year-olds has
an IQ of 10/8 x100 or 125. This child’s IQ is above the average for his or her
chronological age. He or she is brighter or more superior to other children his or her
age. Binet’s and Simon’s work influenced the growth of the intelligence testing
movement.
2. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (1904)
Charles Spearman, a British psychologist (1863-1945), advanced the two-factor
theory of intelligence “g” and “s”. This , “the performance of any intelligence act
requires some combination of “g” or general factor which is available to the same
individual to the same degree for all intellectual acts, and of “s.” or specific factor
which are specific to that act and which varies in strength from one act to another
The theory explains that if one knows how person performs on one task that is
highly saturated with “g,” one can safely predict a similar level of performance for
another highly “g” saturated task. Prediction of performance on tasks with high “s”
factors is less accurate. Nevertheless, since “g” pervades all tasks, prediction will be
significantly better than chance. Thus, the most important information to have about a
person’s intellectual ability is an estimate of his “g.”

3. Terman’s Stanford Binet Individual Intelligence test (1906)

Lewis Madison Terman, an American cognitive psychologist (1877-1956),
published a revised and perfected Binet - Simon scale for American populations in
1906 while he was at Stanford University. In 1916 he adopted William Stern’s
suggestion that the ratio between mental and chronological age be taken as unity
measure f intelligence multiplied by 100 to get rid of the decimal. The resulting
intelligence quotient became known as the IQ. The classic formula for the IQ is:
IQ=mental age divided by chronological age x 100. By far, the Terman’s Stanford
Binet Individual Intelligence Test is considered as the best available individual ability
test of intelligence
4. Thorndike’s Stimulus Response Theory (1920s)
Edward L. Thorndike, an American psychologist (1874-1949), and his students
used objective measurements of intelligence on human subjects as early as 1903. In
1920s he developed a multifactored test of intelligence that consisted of completion,
arithmetic, vocabulary and direction tests (CAVD). The logic behind the CAVD tests
eventually became the foundation of modern intelligence tests.
Thorndike drew an important distinction among three broad classes of intellectual
functioning: abstract intelligence that is measured by the standard intelligence tests,
mechanical intelligence which is the ability to visualize relationship among object and
understand how the physical world works and social intelligence which ability to
function successfully in interpersonal situations.
He proposed the abstract intelligence has four dimensions, namely, altitude of the
complexity of difficulty of tasks one can perform, with or the variety of tasks of a
given difficulty, area which is the function of width and altitude, and speed which is
the number of tasks one can complete in a given time.
Thorndike is sited on his work on what he considered as the two most basic
intelligences: trial and error and stimulus response association his proposition stated
that stimulus response association. His proposition stated that stimulus response
connections that are repeated are strengthened while those that are not used are
weakened
5. L.L Thurston’s Multiple Factors Theory of Intelligence (1938)
Louise L. Turnstone was a American psychometrician (1887-1955) who studied
intelligence tests and tests of perception through factor analysis. His theory stated that
intelligence is made up of several primary mental abilities rather than a general factors
and several specific factors. His multiple factor Theory of Intelligence identified the
seven primary mental abilities as verbal comprehension, word fluency, number
facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning.
He developed the Test of Primary mental Abilities in 1938. Thurstone was among the
first to propose and demonstrate that there are numerous ways in which a person can
be intelligent. His multiple factor theory has been used in the development of
intelligence test that yields a profile of the person’s performance in each of the seven
primary mental abilities.
6. Cattell’s Theory on Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Raymond B. Cattell, a British-American psychologist (1905-1998), theorized that
there are two types of intelligence
Fluid intelligence is essentially nonverbal and relatively culture free fluid
intelligence involves adaptive and new learning capabilities, related to mental
operations and processes on capacity, decay, selection and storage of information.
This types of intelligence is more dependent on the physiological structures or parts of
the brain that are responsible for intelligence behavior. It increases until adolescence,
then goes through a plateau and begins to gradually decline with the degeneration of
the brain’s physiological structures.
Crystallized intelligence develops through the exercise of fluid intelligence. It is
the product of the acquisition of knowledge and skills that are strongly dependent
upon exposure to culture. It is related to mental products and achievement and highly
influenced by formal and informal education factor throughout middle adulthood.
7. Guilford’s theory on the structure of the intellect (1967)
J.P. Guilford, an American psychologist, advanced a general theory of human
intelligence. Whose major application or use is for educational research, personnel
selection and placement and the education of gifted and talented children. The theory
on the structure of the intellect (SOI) advance that human intelligence is composed of
180 separate mental abilities ( the initial count was 120) that have been identified
through factor analysis
The mental abilities are composites of three separate dimensions namely.
Contents, operations and products
The four types of contents are
1. Figural or the properties of stimuli experienced through the senses-visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory and kinesthetic. Example are shape and forms,
sizes, colors, sounds, tastes, temperature, intensity, volume;
2. Symbolic or letters, numbers, symbols, designs;
3. Semantic or words and ideas;
4. Behavioral or actions and expressions of thoughts and ideas

The five kinds of operations are;

1. Cognition or the ability to gain, recognize and discover knowledge;

2. Memory or the ability to retain, store, retrieve and recall the contents of
thoughts;
3. Divergent production or the ability to produce a variety of ideas or solutions’
4. Convergent production or the ability to produce a single best solution to a
problem; and
5. Evaluation or the ability to render judgment and decide whether the
intellectual contents are correct or wrong, good or bad.

The six kinds of products are:

1. Units that come in single number, letter or word;
2. Classes or a higher order concept, for example, men and = people;
3. Relations or connections between and among classes and concepts;
4. Systems or the process of ordering or classification of relations;
5. Transformation or the process of altering or restricting of intellectual
content; and
6. Implication or the process making inferences from separate pieces of
information.
 Guilford developed a wide variety of psychometric tests to measure the specific
mental abilities predicted by the theory. The tests provided the operational definitions of
the mental abilities proposed by the theory.
The following examples illustrate three closely related abilities that differ in terms
of operation, content and product.
1. Evaluation of semantic units or EMU is measured by the ideational fluency
test in which respondents are asked to make judgments about concepts. For
example: “Which of the following objects best satisfies the criteria hard and
round: an iron, a button, a tennis ball, or a light bulb?”
2. Divergent production of semantic units or DMU would require the respondent
to list all the items he or she can think of that are hard and round.
3. Divergent production of symbolic units or DPU involves a different content
category. For example: List all the words that end in tion.

8. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (1982)

Robert Sternberg of Yale University theorized that intelligence is a fixed capacity
of a person. Hence, with higher intellectual capabilities, as in the case with children
and youth who are gifted and talented, almost every task can be achieved at a high
level of performance. The capabilities that underlie intelligence will enable a highly
intelligent child at any age, to do better than his peers or age mates. Intellectual
abilities must increase with age, given the supportive environment and effective
teaching learning conditions.
The triarchic theory of intelligence seeks to explain in an integrative way of
relationship between:
1. Intelligence and the internal world of the individual, or the mental mechanisms
that underlie intelligent behavior;
2. Intelligence and external world of the individual, or the use of these mental
mechanisms in everyday life in order to attain an intelligent fit to the
environment; and
3. Intelligence and experience, or the mediating role of one’s passage through life
between the internal and external worlds of the individual.
Stenberg’s calls his theory triarchic because intelligence has three main
parts or dimensions: a contextual part, an experiential part, and a componential
part.
Contextual intelligence emphasizes intelligence in its sociocultural contexts.
Thus, intelligence for a child requires adaptive behavior (children’s basic cognitive
skills according to Gesell) that is not required of an older person. Similarly, it may
be stated that intelligence for a Filipino child, especially those who are deprived of
the basic needs, requires adaptive behavior that is not required of an American
child. Intelligence for children in rural areas requires adaptive behavior not
required of children who lived in urban areas. Persons who are high on the
contextual dimension of intelligence quickly recognize what factors influence
success on various tasks. They are adept at both adapting to and shaping their
environment so that they can accomplish their goals.
Experiential intelligence emphasizes insight and the ability to formulate new
ideas and combine seemingly unrelated facts or information. Sternberg emphasizes
the role of experience. He says that the habitual, highly practiced ways of dealing
with the environment are not the true indicators of intelligence. Rather, it is the
way a person responds to an event that is new, novel and even unexpected that
shows how smart he or she is.
Componential intelligence emphasizes the effectiveness of information
processing. Stenberg defines component as the underlying cognitive mechanisms
that carry out the adaptive behavior to novel situations. The cognitive mechanisms
are equivalent to the skills, knowledge and competences that a person would have
acquired mainly through education and experience. There are two kinds of
components: performance components and metacomponents.
Performance components are used in the actual execution of the tasks.
They include encoding, comparing, chunking and triggering actions and speech.
The metacomponents are the higher order executive processes used in planning,
monitoring and evaluating one’s working memory program.
 Stenberg has identified six significant metacomponents. As he
emphasized time and again, “metacomponents form the basis for developmental
changes in intelligence”. All activation and feedback are filtered through these
elements, and if they do not perform their function well, then it will not matter
very much what the other kinds of components do.
1. Recognition of what has to be done; understanding the task at hand;
2. Selecting performance components and encoding important features of a
task;
3. Selecting an appropriate mental representation visually or verbally;
4. Organizing and sequencing the steps or procedures in the process;
5. Deciding how to allocate attention and resources; and
6. Monitoring one’s performance.
Persons who are high in componential intelligence do very well in abstract
thinking and are able to process information effectively. They think analytically,
critically and creatively.
9. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (9183)
Howard Gardener is a psychologist and professor at Harvard University
Graduate School of Education and director of Project Zero. Based on his studies of
many people from different walks of life in everyday circumstances and
professions, he developed his breakthrough theory of multiple intelligences or MI.
He did a massive synthesis of a lot of research including brain research,
evolutionary research and genetic research. He did brain research on stroke
victims, prodigies, people with autism and even idiot “savants,” He had authored
20 books and hundreds of articles on MI. Gardner was in Manila in April,2005 for
the first Philippine convention on MI with the theme “Changing Minds: Teaching
and Parenting for the 21’st Century.”

The Multiple Intelligences

The MI theory advances that in teaching, a parent or teacher can draw on a
child’s many intelligences which are linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-
kinesthetic, spatial, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. The
theory rejects the idea of central intelligence, rather, as the author says, it
subscribes to “each his own learning style.”
Gardener emphasizes that MI is originally not an educational theory. It is a
theory on how the mind is organized and developed. As opposed to general
intelligence which implies that there is one “computer” in the brain that
determines whether a person will be competent or incompetent at everything, he
describes the mind as having 7, 8, 9 or even a dozen different “computers.” Some
people have better computers than others because of who their parents are, where
they live and how they were trained.
1. Linguistic Intelligence
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to use language to excite, please,
convince, stimulate, or convey information. The indicators of linguistic
intelligence are manifested by persons who:
 Ask a lot of questions, particularly “why” and “what if” questions
 Have a good vocabulary, enjoy talking, can spell easily
 Pick up new language easily, bilingual, trilingual, etc.
 Enjoy playing with words, word games, word puzzles, rhymes
 Enjoy reading love stories, jokes, riddles
 Like to write
 Can talk about language skills
Linguistic intelligence can be developed through the use of the following
activities: reading fiction and nonfiction, literary work, newspapers, magazines,
reports, biographies, bibliographies, the Internet; engaging in storytelling, debates,
plays, listening to audiotapes, watching films; writing reports, stories, speeches.
Practitioners who have high linguistic intelligence include novelists, poets,
journalists, storytellers, actors, orators, comedians, politicians.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to explore patter, categories
and relationships by manipulating objects or symbols and to experiment in
controlled, orderly ways. The indicators of logical-mathematical intelligence are
manifested by persons who:
 Want to know how things work
 Are interested in “if….then” logic
 Oriented towards rule-based activities
 Play with numbers, enjoy solving problems
 Love to collect and classify objects
Logical-mathematical intelligence can be enhanced with the use of the
following activities: mazes, puzzles, outlines, matrices, sequences, codes, patterns,
logic, analogies, timelines, equations, games, formulas, theorems, calculations,
computations, syllogisms, probabilities.
 Persons who excel in the following professions have high logical-
mathematical intelligence: mathematicians, scientists, computer engineers and
programmers, doctors, astronomers, inventors, accountants, lawyers, economists,
detectives, trivia champions.
3. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence refers to the ability to use fine and gross
motor skills in sports, the performing arts, or arts and crafts production. The
indicators of this component of the multiple intelligences are observed among
persons who:
 Have a good sense of balance, good eye-hand coordination
 Have sense of rhythm, graceful in movement
 Communicate ideas through gestures, body movements and
facial expressions “read” body language
 Have early ease in manipulating objects and toys
 Solve problems through “doing”
The following activities develop bodily kinesthetic intelligence: role-
playing, dramatization, skits, mimes, body language, gestures, facial expressions,
dancing, sports, games, experiments, laboratory work.
Persons who are successful in the following professions have high bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence: ballet and folk dancers, choreographers, sculptors,
professional athletes, gymnasts, surgeons, calligraphers, jewelers, watchmakers,
carpenters, circus performers
4. Spatial Intelligence
Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive and mentally manipulate a
form or object, perceive, and create tension, balance, and composition in a visual
or spatial display.
Some indicators of this aspect of MI are manifested by persons who:
 Like to draw, doodle, sketch,
 Have a keen eye for detail
 Like to take things apart, like to build things
 Have a good sense of relating parts to the whole
 Enjoy orienteering, mechanically adept
 Some of the activities that enhance spatial intelligence are: illustrations,
constructions, maps, paintings drawings, mosaics, sketches, cartoons, sculptures,
storyboards, videotapes.
Persons who are successful in the following professions have high spatial
intelligence: urban planners, architects, engineers, surveyors, explorers,
navigators, mechanics, curators, map designers, fashion designers, florists, interior
designers, visual artists, muralists, photographers, movie directors, set designers,
chess players, cartoonists.
5. Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence is the ability to enjoy, perform or compose a musical
piece. The indicators of musical intelligence are shown by persons who:
 Have sensitivity to sound patterns, hum or move rhythmically
 Capture the essence of a beat and adjust movement patterns
according to changes
 Have a good sense of pitch
 Hum tunes, can discriminate among sounds
 Play with sounds, remember tunes and sound patterns

Persons who succeed in the following occupations have high musical

intelligence: composers, musicians, conductors, critics, opera artists, singers,
rappers, instrument makers and players, sound recording artists.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and get along with
others. The indicators of this component of the multiple intelligences are observed
in persons who:
 Demonstrate empathy towards others, feel so much for others
 Are sensitive to the feelings of others
 Acts as mediator or counselor to others
 Relate well to peers and adults alike, like to be with other people
 Are admired by peers, make friends easily
 Display skills of leadership
 Work cooperatively and group activities
 Enjoy cooperative with others
 The types of activities that will develop interpersonal intelligence
include group projects and charts, communication, social interaction, dialogs,
conversation, debates, arguments, consensus building, group work on murals and
mosaics, round robins, games, challenges and sports.
People who succeed in the fields of endeavor have high interpersonal
intelligence: teachers, social workers, doctors and nurses, anthropologies
counselors, priests/ministers, nuns, entrepreneurs, ombudsmen, managers,
politicians, salespersons, tour guides.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to gain access to understand one’s
inner feelings, dreams and ideas. These indicators of this element of multiple
intelligences are evidenced by people who:
 Are goal-oriented, develop plans carefully
 Are aware of their strengths and weaknesses, confident of their own
abilities and accept their limitations
 Are self-regulating and self-directing, do not need to be told what to
do
 Motivate themselves to engage in projects
 Work towards the achievement of one’s goals
 Express preferences for particular activities
 Communicate their feelings
 Engage in creative thinking, novel and original ideas
Keep hobbies, productive pursuits, diaries

The activities that will enhance intrapersonal intelligence include

insight and intuition building, creative and critical thinking, goal setting, reflection
and self-meditation, self-assessment, affirmation, keeping journals, logs and
reflectionnaires, “I” statements, discussion, interpretation and creative expression
of values, philosophical thoughts and ideas, quotations.
8. Naturalist Intelligence
Naturalist intelligence is the most recent addition to original lists of seven
multiple intelligences. Naturalist intelligence refers to the person’s ability to
identify and classify patterns in nature. In prehistoric times was used to sort what
animals and plants were edible or not. At present, a person uses his or her
naturalist intelligence in the ways he or she relates to the environment. A person
who has naturalist intelligence abilities is likely to be sensitive to changes in flora
and fauna, weather patterns and similar environmental factors.

Laying the Groundwork for a Lifetime of Intelligence

There are essential concepts on brain development “in utero” or in the

mother’s womb that every special education student must understand (Healy,
1996).

 Life begins in the mother’s uterus eighteen to twenty-four hours

after fertilization – the process where the spermatozoa or sperm cell
from the father and the ovum or egg cell from the mother unite to
form the father and the ovum or egg cell from the mother unite to
form the zygote, the one-celled organism that will develop for the
next nine months into the embryo, the fetus, and finally will be born
as the infant.
 The zygote undergoes meiosis or cell division from two, four,
sixteen, until there are millions of human cells, clusters of which are
predetermined to develop into the central nervous system, the
skeletal system.
 The brain cells begin to form as early as three weeks after
fertilization had taken place.
 The pregnant mother’s condition and the uterine environment exert
tremendous influences in brain development. Studies show that the
growing brain development. Studies show that the growing brain is
highly susceptible to changes in the developing organism. There are
pieces of evidence that specific academic abilities such as reading or
mathematics may be affected by hormones secreted during
pregnancy. Poor maternal nutrition and lack of protein retard brain
growth. A pregnant woman’s heavy use of alcohol, prohibited drugs,
even common drugs for headaches, heartburn, diarrhea without the
doctor’s prescription can affect brain development.
 The natural pattern of brain development shows that the brain is
organized in systems of connections that do increasingly complex
functions as they mature mainly from inside to outside and from
back to front.
 The neurons or brain cells begin to form as early as three weeks after
fertilization, multiplying more rapidly than the other cells of the
body. A thin layer of neurons in the developing embryo folds inward
and rises to a fluid-filled cylinder known as the neural tube. The
cells produced in the neural tube will migrate to other locations and
accurately lay down the connections to link one part of the brain to
another. In addition, the embryonic brain must construct a variety of
temporary structures, including the neural tube that will eventually
disappear. The instructions programmed into the genes guide the
neurons in their long migration to become specific parts of the body
later on.
 Starting at the top of the spinal cord, the fetal develops brain stem
structures for reflexes and basic motor coordination. Rocking
movements help develop part of this complex. As the mother moves
about, the fetus is rocked and the movements add to the stimulation.
The cerebellum and the vestibular system which is linked to the
balance mechanism of the ear undergird the later development of
higher cognitive skills.
 Development of much of the brain’s physical structure called “hard
wiring” starts at this time directed by a complex genetic program
(Time Magazine, 1998). Neurons, the future thinking cells, are
produced in abundance. Many neurons migrate to particular sections
of the brain to form part of the subsystems that will later control
reflexes, voluntary body movements, perception, language and
thinking. Some neurons fail to attach themselves to any area and
disintegrate or disappear. No one yet understands how these neurons
know where to go, or why some disintegrate. What is known is that
the process of cell differentiation and migration determines the
future structure of the brain.
 Ten to twelve weeks after conception during the first trimester or
three months of pregnancy, the neurons that carry electrical
messages through the nervous system and brain send pulsing
staccato bursts of electricity. The distinctive coordinated waves of
neural activity change the shape of the brain and carve mental
circuits into patterns that over time will enable the newborn infant to
perceive a father’s voice, a mother’s touch, a colorful mobile
moving over the crib. Of all the discoveries in neuroscience recently,
the most breathtaking is the finding that the electrical activity of
brain cells changes the physical structure of the brain. For the
rhythmic firing of neurons is no longer assumed to be a by-product
 of building the brain but it is an essential process that takes place in
utero.
 The growth spurts in the formation of the neurons or brain cells lasts
from the second trimester of pregnancy (4th to the 6th month) until the
age of two. Meanwhile, glial cells begin to form and nourish the
neurons and hold them together.

The cell systems are the raw materials for the normal development of the
brain. Any disturbance in the process may cause cranial malformation, a learning
disability of mental retardation.
Studies on the impact of the mother’s state on brain development suggest
that pregnancies marked by excessive fear, anger or stress may produce irritable
infants. Intense feelings release chemicals that are passed from the mother’s
bloodstream into the infant’s circulatory system. Children of depressed mothers
have slightly altered patterns of brain activity that may put the infant at risk for
depression. Later on, these children may exhibit difficult disposition, impulsivity
and learning difficulties. Fortunately, the brain is malleable to experience and
much can be done after birth to prevent the occurrence of the problems.
Modern technology makes it possible to study the “seat” of intelligence, the
human brain, directly. Neurology or brain investigations that are noninvasive or
harmless are done with the aid of computerized scanners and techniques for
measuring the intensity of electrical impulses or chemical changes. The television
screen shows detailed views of the brain in minute cross-sections. The brain at
work or the child’s thinking in motion while reading, working on mathematics and
science, and emoting on stage can be viewed on the TV screen. At present, there is
a large body of information about the structure of the brain and how it functions.
Future neurological research promises to revolutionize the knowledge on how
learning takes place.
Neurological studies show that conducive home environments correlate
positively with school achievement. Early childhood education influences better
intellectual growth. Likewise, research findings indicate that children need
different types of learning at different ages. Early age-appropriate experiences
provide little children with a strong base for the acquisition of later skills.
The old debate on whether heredity/nature or environment/nature play the
major role in cognitive development had long been laid to rest. Experts agree that
the infant does not come to the world as a product of heredity or a blank slate at
the mercy of the environment. Rather, the focus of neurological research centers
 on the ways in which genetics and environment should interact for intelligence to
develop to the highest possible level.
Studies show that the interaction between genetic traits and experiences is
constant from the time of conception. Every baby inherits a physical brain
structure as well as certain chemical and electrical response patterns that strongly
influence the ways in which the brain responds to environmental stimuli while in
the mother’s womb and after birth. A current study shows that a child’s personal
tempo – the natural pace of responding and the speed of carrying out activities –
seems to be genetically determined.

Definitions of Giftedness and Talent

Through the years, the concept on intellectual giftedness had changed as

shown in the following figure (Heward, 2003).
Old Concepts Emerging Paradigm
Giftedness is high IQ Many Types of Giftedness
Trait-Based Qualities-Based
Subgroup Elitism Individual Excellence
Innate, “ In There “ Based on Context
Test-Driven Achievement-Driven, “ What You Do”
Is Gifted
Authoritarian, “ You Are or Not Gifted” Collaborative, Determined by Consultation
School-Oriented Field-and-Domain Oriented
Ethnocentric Diverse
Figure34. Changing Concepts on Intellectual Giftedness

Federal or American Government’s Definitions

The first federal definition of the gifted and the talented was contained in the 1972
Marland Report. Gifted and talented children are capable of high performance and
demonstrate potential ability in any of the following six areas:
  General intellectual ability
 Specific academic aptitude
 Creative or productive thinking
 Leadership ability
 Ability in the visual or performing arts
 Psychomotor ability

The Gifted and Talented Children’s Act of 1978 defined gifted and talented
children as those “possessing demonstrated or potential abilities that give evidence of
high performance capability in such areas as intellectual, creative, specific, academic or
leadership ability, or in the performing or visual arts, and who, by reason thereof require
services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school,”. The definition encompasses
almost all of the areas where a person can demonstrate outstanding performance. Almost
all of the states have built their programs for gifted and talented learners around the
federal definition.
The 1991 “Report on National Excellence: A Case for Developing America’s
Talent” deleted the term gifted and used outstanding talent and exceptional talent instead.
The definition stated that talent occurs in all groups across all cultures and is not
necessarily revealed in test scores but in a person’s “high performance capability” in the
intellectual, creative, and artistic realms. Giftedness is said to connote “a mature power
rather than a developing ability.”

Key Contemporary and Related Definitions

Renzulli’s Three-Trait Definition. Renzulli’s 1978 three-trait definition of
giftedness continues to be cited in special education literature. The definition states that
giftedness results from the interaction of: (1) above-average general abilities; (2) a high
level of task commitment; and (3) creativity. Gifted and talented children are those:
possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any
potentially valuable area of human performance. Children who manifest or are capable of
developing an interaction among the three clusters require a wide variety of educational
opportunities and services that are not ordinarily provided through regular instructional
programs.
General Performance Areas
Mathematics • Visual Arts • Physical Sciences •
Philosophy • Social Sciences • Law • Religion •
Above Task Language Arts • Music
average ability Commitment Brought to Life Sciences • Movement Arts
bear upon Specific Performance Areas
Cartooning • Astronomy • Public Opinion Polling •
Creativity Jewelry Design • Map Making • Choreography •
Biography • Film Making • Statistics • Local
History • Electronics • Musical Composition •
 Figure 35. Renzulli’s Three-Trait Definition of Giftedness

Piirto’s Pyramid Model of Talent Development

Piirto’s 1999 definition states that the gifted are “those individuals who, by way of
having certain learning characteristics such as superior memory, observational powers,
curiosity, creativity and the ability to learn school-related subject matters rapidly and
accurately with a minimum of drill and repetition, have a right to an education that is
differentiated according to those characteristics” Piirto makers of novelty, special
education should train them to become adults who will produce knowledge or make a
new artistic and social products.
As shown in Figure 37, Piirto’s pyramid model is composed of: (1) a foundation
of genetic endowment; (2) personality attributes such as drive, resilience, intuition, and
the like; (3) the minimum intelligence level necessary for function in the domain in which
the talent is demonstrated; (4) talent in specific domain such as mathematics, writing,
visual arts, music, science, or athletics and; (5) the environment influences of five suns:
the sun of home, community and culture, school, chance and gender. Which talent is
developed depends on the “thorn” of passion, calling or sense of vocation.
 Figure 37. Piirto Pyramid Model of Talent Development
Maker’s Problem-Solving perspective. Another definition of giftedness and
talent advanced by Maker in 1996 incorporates high intelligence, high creativity, and
excellent problem-solving skills. He enumerates the following characteristics of a gifted
person: a problem solver- one who enjoys the challenge of complexity and persists until
the problem is solved in a satisfying way. Such an individual is capable of (a) creating a
new or more clear definition of an existing problem, (b) devising a new and more
efficient or effective methods, and (c) reaching solutions that may be different from the
usual, but are recognized as being effective than previous solutions.

Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Children and Youth

The previous discussions clearly indicate that giftedness and talent are a complex
condition that covers condition that covers a wide range of human abilities and traits.
That is why it must be clearly understood that giftedness and talent vary according to
special talents in arts. On the other hand students who show outstanding talent in sports
and athletics, visual and performing arts or those with leadership abilities may show only
average or above average performance in academic subjects.
Highly gifted students, according to Silverman’s studies (1995) have IQ scores
standard deviations or greater above the mean. The IQ score is greater than 145 or 35 to
55 points more or even higher than the average IQ scores of 90 to 110. Among American
children, there is only 1 child in 1,000 or 1 child in 10,000. Silverman found the
following characteristics among these highly gifted individuals:
 Intense intellectual curiosity
 Fascination with words and ideas
 Perfectionism
 Need for precision
 Learning in great intuitive leaps
 Intense need for mental stimulation
 Difficulty conforming to the thinking of others
 Early moral and existential concern
 Tendency toward introversion
There are times when the characteristic of gifted and talented children as follows:
 Exceptional learner in the acquisition and retention of knowledge:
a. exceptional memory
b. learns quickly and easily
c. Advanced understanding/meaning of area
 Exceptional use of knowledge in the application and comprehension of
knowledge
a. exceptional use of knowledge
b. advanced use of symbol systems – expressive and complex
c. demands a reason for unexplained events
d. reasons well in problem- solving- draws from previous knowledge and
transfers it to other areas
 Exceptional generator of knowledge – individual and creative attribute
a. highly creative behavior in areas of interest and talent
b. does not conform to typical ways of thinking, perceiving
c. enjoys self-expression of ideas, feelings or beliefs
d. keen sense of humor that reflects advanced, unusual comprehension of
relationships and meaning
e. highly developed curiosity about cause, future, the unknown
Exceptional motivation - individual motivational attributes
 Exceptional motivation – individual motivational attributes
 a. perfectionism: striving to achieve high standards, especially in areas of
talent and interest
b. shows initiative, self- directed
c. high level of inquiry and reflection
d. long attention span when motivated
e. leadership – desire and the ability to lead
f. intense desire to know

Figure 36. Gifted and Talented Children as Generators of Knowledge

Creativity as Highest Expression of Giftedness

Creativity ability as central to the definition of giftedness. Clark (1986) refers to
creativity as the highest expression of giftedness. Stenberg (1988) suggest that creative,
insightful individuals are those who make discoveries and devise the inventions that
ultimately change society.
There is no accepted definition of creativity. In his studies on creativity, Guilford
(1988) enumerates the following dimensions of creative behavior:
 Fluency – the creative person is capable of producing many ideas per unit of
time.
 Flexibility – a wide variety of ideas, unusual ideas, and alternative solutions are
offered.
 Novelty/originality – low probability, unique words, and responses are used;
the creative person has novel ideas.
  Elaboration – the ability to provide to provide details is evidenced.
 Synthesizing ability – the person has the ability to put unlikely ideas together.
 Analyzing ability – the person has the ability to organize ideas into larger,
inclusive patterns. Symbolic structures must often be broken down before that
can be reformed into new ones.
 Ability to recognize or redefine existing ideas – the ability to transform an
existing object into one of different design, function, or use is evident.
 Complexity – the ability to manipulate many interrelated ideas at the same time
is shown.
A foremost authority on creative thinking and author of psychological tests on
creativity, Torrance (1993) found in a 30-year longitudinal study that high-ability adults
who were judged to have achieved far beyond their peers in creative endeavors possess
the following ten most common characteristics:
1. Delight in deep thinking
2. Tolerance of mistakes
3. Love of one’s work
4. Clear purpose
5. Enjoyment in one’s work
6. Feeling comfortable as a minority of one
7. Being different
8. Not being well-rounded
9. A sense of mission
10. The courage to be creative

Assessment of Gifted and Talented Children

Similar to the screening and identification and assessment of exceptional children,
the following processes are employed:
1. pre-referral intervention
Exceptional children are identified as early as possible. Teachers are asked to
nominate students who may possess the characteristics of giftedness and talent
through the use of a Teacher Nomination Form.
2. multifactored evaluation
Information are gathered from a variety of sources using the following
materials:
 Group and individual intelligence tests
 Performance in the school-based achievement tests
  Permanent records, performance in previous grades, awards received
 Portfolios of student work
 Parent, peer, self-nomination

Differentiated Curriculum and Instructional Systems

The skills in the Basic Elementary Curriculum of the Department of Education are
intended for average learners and lack the competences that match the learning
characteristics of high-ability students. A study of American gifted and talented students
found that 60% of all grade four students in a school district have already mastered much
of the content of the curriculum. Majority of the students scored 80% in a pretest in
mathematics even before the school year began. A differentiated curriculum that is
modified in depth and pace is used in special education programs for gifted programs for
gifted and talented students.
Curriculum compacting is the method of modifying the regular curriculum for
certain grade levels by compressing the content and skills that high-ability students are
capable of learning in a shorter period of time. At the Silahis Special Education Centers
of Manila City Schools, high-ability students study the fourth,fifth and sixth grades in a
span of two years.
Enrichment of the regular curriculum allows the students to study the content at a
greater depth both in the horizontal and vertical directions employing higher order
thinking skills. The differentiated curriculum goes beyond the so-called “basic learning
competences” or BLC and allows the students access to advanced topics of interest to
them. Meanwhile, acceleration modifiesthe pace or lenght of time at which the students
gain the skills and competencies in the regular curriculum to accomodate the enrichment
process.
Horizontal enrichment adds more content and increases the learning areas not
found in the regular curriculum for the grade level. The students go beyond the grade
requirements and move on to study the subjects in the higher partly included in the
regular curriculum, or, advanced subjects like Trigonometry and Calculus may be
included in the differentiated curriculum. Science, English and Filipino are enriched by
expanding the content covered the same manner.
Vertical enrichment allows the students to engage in independent study,
experimentation and investigation of topics that interest them. Social Studies and
Makabayan subjects lend themselves well to vertical enrichment activities that will give
the high-ability students opportunities to share their ideas in solving related problems at
home, the school and the community.
Most of the special education classes in the different regions of the country utilize
the self-contained class. High-ability students are enrolled in a special class that is taught
by a trained special education teacher. Mainstreaming activities are arranged so that the
students can socialize with their peers, share their knowledge and assist in peer mentoring
the slow learners.