Chapter 7: The Nervous System
around nerve fibers in PNS
Nervous system – master control and communication system of the
body.
- It communicates with body cells using electrical impulses.
FUNCTION
1. SENSORY INPUT – uses sensory receptors to monitor
changes called stimuli.
2. INTEGRATION – process and interprets sensory input
and decide what should be done.
3. MOTOR OUTPUT – it causes a response or effect by
activating muscles or glands.
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Structural Classification
a. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)- [brain and spinal
cord] act as integrating and command centers of nervous
system. Interpret incoming sensory information.
b. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) – [Spinal and
Cranial Nerves] Serve as communication lines. Spinal nerves
carry impulses to and from spinal cord. Cranial Nerves carry
impulses to and from the brain.
 Functional Classification
- Concern in the PNS structure
a. Sensory / Afferent Division – consist of nerves that convey impulses
TO the CNS from sensory receptors. Sensory Division keeps the
CNS informed of the events going inside or outside the body.
- Somatic Sensory Fibers – deliver impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles and joints.
- Visceral Sensory Fibers – transmit impulses from the
visceral organs.
b.Motor / Efferent Division – Carry impulses FROM the CNS to
effector organs, muscles and glands.
(1) Somatic Nervous System – allows to consciously or
voluntarily control skeletal muscles. (Voluntary Nervous
System)
(2) Autonomic Nervous System – regulates events that are
automatic/involuntary. It has two parts: Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic. (Involuntary Nervous System)
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- Nervous Tissue types of cells: Supporting Cells and
Neurons
Supporting Cells
- Neuroglia (nerve glue)
- Support and protect delicate neurons
- Does not able to transmit nerve impulses
- Never lose their ability to divide
- Most brain Tumors (GLIOMAS) are formed by
NEUROGLIA
 ASTROCYTES: starshaped cells that account for
nearly half of neural tissue. Numerous projections
have swollen ends that cling to neurons, bracing and
anchor them to their nutrient supply lines.
: form living barrier between capillaries and neuron
: Help protect neurons from harmful substances that
might be in the blood.
: control chemical environment in the brain
 MICROGLIA: spiderlike phagocytes that monitor the
health of nearby neurons and dispose of debris (Dead
brain cells and Bacteria)
 EPENDYMAL CELLS : line the central cavities of
the brain and spinal cord. Beating of cilia helps to
circulate Cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities
and form a protective watery cushion around CNS
 OLIGODENDROCYTES: wrap their flat extensions
tightly around nerve fibers producing fatty insulating
covering (MYELIN SHEATHS)
 SCHWAAN CELLS: form the myelin sheaths
 SATELLITE CELLS: act as protective , cushioning
cells for peripheral neuron cell body
Neuron or Nerve Cells
- Highly specialized to transmit messages
Cell Body: metabolic center of neuron. The rough ER called
NEUROFIBRILS are abundant in cell body.
Processes: armlike processes
Dendrites – convey incoming messages toward cell body
Axons – generate nerve impulses away from cell body
Axon Hillock – conelike region of cell body
Neurotransmitter – chemical released
Synaptic Clef – tiny gap separating axon terminal
Synapse – impulse is transmitted from one neuron to
another
Myelin Sheath: protects and insulate the fibers and
increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses.
Neurilemma – part of Schwann cell external to myelin
sheath
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
Homeostatic Imbalance
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS) – destroys myelin sheath around CNS fibers
by converting to hardened sheaths called Scleroses. Affected
person may have visual or speech disturbances.
Terminology
- Ganglia – small collection of cell bodies found outside
CNS in the PNS
- Tracts – bundle of nerve fibers running through the CNS
- Nerves - bundle of nerve fibers running though the PNS
- White matter – refers to myelinated fibers
- Gray Matter – unmyelinated fibers
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
1. Sensory / Afferent Neuron – neurons carrying impulses from sensory
receptors to the CNS. Receptors are activated in the dendrite ending
of sensory neurons. ( Cutaneous Sense Organs – sensory receptor sin
the skin. Proprioceptors- sensory receptors in muscles and tendons)
2. Motor / Efferent Neuron – neurons carrying impulses from the CNS
to the viscera, muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons / association neurons – connect motor and sensory
neurons in neural pathways.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS ( based on
the number of processes)
1. Multipolar Neuron – several neurons ( motor and
association neurons)
2. Bipolar Neuron – neurons with two processes
3. Unipolar Neuron – single process emerging from the cell
body
Physiology : Nerve impulses
- Functional properties of neuron : IRRITABILITY –
ability to respond into the stimulus and convert it into a
nerve impulse. CONDUCTIVITY – ability to transmit the
impulse to the outer neurons , muscles or glands.
1. Resting membrane is polarized
2. Stimulus initiates local depolarization
3. Depolarization and generation of an action potential
4. Propagation of the action potential
5. Repolarization
6. Initial ionic condition restored
 Transmission of the signal at synapses - Epithalamus – houses pineal body

 Neurotransmitter chemical crosses the synapse to C. BRAIN STEM

transmit the signal from one neuron to the next or to - Attaches to the spinal cord
the target cell Parts of Brain stem
1.When the action potential reaches axon terminal, electrical change - Midbrain – mostly composed of tract of nerve fibers
opens calcium channels. Calcium ions causes tiny vesicle
- Pons – bulging center of the brain stem
containing neurotransmitter to fuse with axonal membrane
- Medulla Oblongata – merges to spinal cord. Includes
2.Porelike openings form, releasing neurotransmitter into synaptic clef
important fiber tracts. Heart rate control, breathing,
3.Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s membrane
swallowing and vomiting
4.Ion channels open
5.Ion channel closes
D. CEREBELLUM
Physiology: REFLEXES - Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

REFLEXES – rapid, predictable and involuntary response to stimuli.

REFLEX ARC – reflexes occur over neural pathways MENINGES

 Somatic Reflexes – all reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscle - Protects the CNS structures
 Autonomic reflexes – regulate activity of smooth muscles, - Dura mater- leathery, outermost layer meaning “tough or
heart and glands hard mother”.
o Periosteum (periosteal layer) – inner surface of
Elements of reflex arc the skull.
o Meningeal Layer – outermost covering of the
1. Receptor – reacts to stimulus
brain.
2. Effector – muscle or gland eventually stimulated
- Dural venous sinuses- collect venous blood
3. Sensory and Motor neurons – connect receptor and
effector - Two folds: (separate cerebellum from cerebrum)
4. Synapse or interneuron – central integration center o Falx cerebri
o Tentorium cerebelli
 Flexor or withdrawal – three neuron reflex arc in - Arachnoid layer – the weblike, middle meningeal layer. it
which the limb is withdrawn from a painful stimulus means, “spider”.
o Subarachnoid space – threadlike extensions;
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
- Arachnoid granulations – specialized projections of the
- Regions of the brain: Cerebral Hemisphere , Diencephalon ,
arachnoid membrane.
brain stem , and cerebellum
- Pia mater – innermost membrane meaning “gentle
mother”.

A. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
- Cerebrum – paired cerebral hemisphere
- Most superior part of brain
- GYRI – elevated ridges of tissue exhibits in the entire
surface of cerebrum
- SULCI – shallow grooves separating gyri
- Fissures – separate large portion of brain
- SURFACE LOBES: frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital
lobe
Specialized Area of Cerebrum
1. Somatic sensory area - receives impulses
2. Primary motor area – send impulses to
skeletal muscles
3. Broca’s area – involved the ability to speak
MENINGITIS
- Inflammation of the meninges
- Encephalitis – condition of the brain inflammation
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
- Watery “broth” similar to blood plasma
- Choroid plexus – forms a watery cushion that protects the
fragile nervous tissues. It produces CFS.
- Lumbar (spinal) puncture – a procedure that obtains sample
of CSF for testing.
- Hydrocephalus – “water on the brain”; causes the head to
enlarge as the brain increases in size.

Cerebral Areas involved in special senses BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

 Gustatory Area (Taste) - Composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole
 Visual Area body.
 Auditory area - Useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble
 Olfactory Area molecules.

Layers of Cerebrum TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES (TBI)

1. Gary matter - outer layer composed mostly of neuron 1. Concussion

cell bodies - Brain injury is slight
2. White matter – fiber tracts inside the gray matter - Patient may be dizzy, “see stars”, or lose consciousness
2. Contusion
- Severe brain injury
B. DIENCEPHALON - Results from marked tissue destruction
- Sits on the top of brain stem 3. Cerebral edema
- Enclosed by cerebral hemisphere - Swelling of the brain due to inflammatory response to
injury
Three parts of Diencephalon 4. Intracranial hemorrhage
- Bleeding from ruptured vessels
- Thalamus – relay station for sensory impulses
- Hypothalamus – regulate body temperature, control water
balance and regulate metabolism. Important part of limbic
system CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS (CVA)
 - Strokes
- Occurs when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked
CRANIAL NERVES
- Hemiplegia – one-sided paralysis
- Aphasias – damage to the left cerebral hemisphere - 12 pairs that serve the head and neck
o Motor aphasia – damage of Broca’s area and - They are all mixed nerves except for optic, olfactory and
loss of ability to speak vestibulocochlear nerves (acoustic nerve) – purely
o Sensory aphasia – person loses the ability to sensory
understand written or spoken language - Oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet at home
- Transient ischemic attack (TIA) – temporary brain - 12 CRANIAL NERVES:
ischemia or restricted blood flow 1. Olfactory
2. Optic
THE TERRIBLE THREE
3. Oculomotor
1. Alzheimer’s disease 4. Trochlear
2. Parkinson’s disease 5. Trigeminal
3. Huntington’s disease 6. Abducens
7. Facial
SPINAL CORD 8. Vestibulocochlear
9. Glossopharyngeal
- Two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain, and it 10. Vagus
is a major reflex center 11. Accessory
- Carry both sensory and motor impulses 12. Hypoglossal
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise form the cord and exit from
the vertebral column. SPINAL NERVES
- Cauda equina – collection of spinal nerves at the inferior
- 31 pairs formed by the combination of the ventral and
end of the vertebral canal
dorsal roots
- Gray matter – looks like a butterfly of letter H in cross
- Named for the region of the cord from which they arise
section; surrounds the central canal (contains CSF)
- TWO POSTERIOR PROJECTIONS: - Divides into:
o Dorsal horns – contain interneurons o Dorsal ramus
 Dorsal root is found in the enlarged o Ventral ramus
area called dorsal root ganglion. - Plexus – serve the motor and sensory needs of the limbs
o Posterior Horns - FOUR NERVE PLEXUSES:
- TWO ANTERIOR PROJECTIONS: o Cervical
o Ventral horns – contain motor neurons of the o Brachial
somatic nervous system o Lumbar
 Ventral root o Sacral
 Flaccid Paralysis – damage
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
to the ventral root
 Spinal nerves – dorsal and ventral - The motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body
roots fuse to form activities automatically.
o Anterior horns - Also called as, involuntary nervous system
- White matter – composed of myelinated fiber tracts; three - Has a chain of two motor neurons:
regions: o Preganglionic neuron
o Dorsal column  First motor neuron
o Lateral column  Brain & spinal cord
o Ventral column  Axon- preganglionic axon
- Sensory/Afferent Tracts – tracts conducting sensory o Postganglionic neuron
impulses to the brain  Second motor neuron
- Motor/Efferent Tracts – tracts carrying impulses from the  Ganglion
brain to skeletal muscles  Axon- postganglionic axon
- Spastic paralysis – spinal cord is transected (cut - TWO DIVISIONS:
crosswise) or crushed; lack of mobility o Sympathetic division
o Quadriplegic – four limbs are affected  Mobilizes the body during extreme
o Paraplegic – only legs are paralyzed situations
o Parasympathetic division
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 “Unwind” and conserve energy
- Group of neuronal cell bodies outside the CNS PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- Consists of nerves and ganglia
- Dorsal root ganglion – one type of ganglion - Most active when the body is at rest
- Rest-and-digest system
NERVE - Promotes normal digestion
- Bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS - “Housekeeping” system of the body
- Endoneurium – fiber is surrounded by delicate connective - Also called as, craniosacral division
tissue sheath - Terminal ganglion – synapse with the ganglionic motor
- Perineurium – fibers are bound by a coarser connective neuron
tissue wrapping to form fiber bundles (fascicles)
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- Epineurium – fascicles are bound together by a tough
fibrous sheath - “Fight-or-flight” system
- CLASSIFICATIONS: - Increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose
o Sensory (afferent) nerves – carry impulses levels.
toward CNS - Also called as, thoracic columbar division
o Motor (efferent) nerves – carry motor fibers - Ramus communicans – small communicating branch to
o Mixed nerves – carry both sensory and motor enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion
fibers; spinal nerves (ex)
 - Sympathetic trunk or sympathetic chain – lies alongside
the vertebral column on each side

CHOLINERGIC FIBERS

- Parasympathetic fibers
- Releases acetylcholine

ADRENERGIC FIBERS

- Sympathetic postganglionic fibers

- Releases norepinephrine

ROLES OF THE TWO ANS DIVISIONS:

1. D (Digestion, defecation, diuresis/urination) –

parasympathetic division
2. E (Exercise, excitement, emergency, embarrassment) –
sympathetic division

CEREBRAL PALSY

- Lack of oxygen
- Neuromuscular disability in which the voluntary muscles
are poorly controlled and spastic because of brain damage

ANENCEPHALY

- Birth defect in which the cerebrum fails to develop

SPINA BIFIDA

- “Forked spine”
- Vertebrae form incompletely

ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION

- Type of blood pressure resulting from changes in body

position as described.

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

- Decreased elasticity of the arteries, high blood pressure,

and reduce supply of oxygen to brain neurons.