Endocrine system

Histologically the endocrine system includes all structures and organs that have endocrine
secretory cells and secrete hormones.

Hormone:

Components (cells, structures, organs) of the endocrine system

1. Endocrine organs

a. Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

b. Pineal gland

c. Thyroid gland

d. Parathyroid gland

e. Adrenal gland

2. Endocrine cells within organs of other systems

a. Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas

b.Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells in the kidney

c. Leydig/interstitial cells in the testis

d. Granulosa, thecal, and interstitial cells in the ovary

e. Solitary endocrine (or neuroendocrine) cells in the walls of digestive and respiratory organs
and the heart.
 Pituitary gland or hypophysis
Location: The hypophysis (hypo means under +physis means growth) or Pituitary gland is a
small, unpaired gland located just ventral to the hypothalamus, in the hypophysal fossa of
basisphenoid bone (sella turcica).The gland is covered with part of dura matter called
diaphragma sellae. The gland is attached to the hypothalamus by means of pituitary stalks
(infundibulum).

Development

Pituitary gland or hypophysis consists of two parts-

Adenohypohysis: It develops from the dorsal outgrowth of the root of the pharynx

Neurohypophysis: it develops from the ventral outgrowth of the diencephalon (part of brain) on
hypothalamus.
Structure:

Pituitary gland or hypophysis consists of two parts-

1. Adenohypohysis
2. Neurohypophysis

Adenohypohysis: Adenohypohysis includes-

a. Pars distalis (anterior lobe)

b. Pars tuberalis
c. Pars intermedia (intermediate lobe)

1. Adenohypohysis
a. Pars distalis: About 70% of the hypophysis is pars distalis. It consist of cluster of and
cords of cells. In close apposition to dense network separated by sinusoidal capillaries.
Few fibroblast that are present to produce reticular fibers which support the words and
clusters of hormone secreting cells.

There are two types of cells in pars distalis-

  Chromaphil cells (chromo means color +phils means to love)

This cells have affinity toward some stains or color.

 Chromaphobs cells( chromo means color and phobs means fear)

This cells have a weak on no affinity towards the stains.

Chromophils cells:

According to the staining affinity the chromophils are classified into two types:

 Acidophilis (alpha cells)

 Basophils(beta cells)

Acidophilis (alpha cells)

These cells are polygonal in shape with round nuclei.The secretory granules of these cells take
acid fuchsin such as eosin,acid fuchsin etc.

Subtypes of acidophils are –

Somatotrophs /growth hormone secreting cells

Secrete somatotrophin/growth hormone

Function:This hormone stimulate the growth of long bone by promoting the proliferation of
cartilage cells in the epiphysis.

Lactotroph/prolactin cells/luteotrophs

These cells produce lactogenic hormone /prolactin/luteotrophic hormone (LTH)

Function: Prolactin initiate the secretion of milk from mammary gland after parturition. Prolactin
also initiate and maintain the secretion of progesterone.

Basophils (Beta cells)

The cells are polyhedral or irregular in shape and to be located centrally in the gland. The
secretory granules of these cells take basis dyes such as aniline blue. They are excellent stained
in periodic acid Schiff (PAS) techniques.

The subtypes of basophils are-

Thyrotrophs

These cells produce thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Function: Stimulate the secretion of thyroid hormone synthesis,

Gonadotrophs (specially testis and ovary)

These cells secrete –

 Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH)

 Interstitial cell stimulating hormone(ICSH) in male
 Luteinizing hormone(LH) in female

Function: FSH: FSH stimulates growth of follicles in the ovaries and spermatogonia in the testis.

 In male ICSH stimulate the interstitial cells of testis to secrete testosterone.

 In female Luteinizing hormone (LH) helps in maturation of ovarian follicles, ovulation
and formation of corpus luteum.

Corticotrophs

These cells secrete adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

Function: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH) stimulate the secretion of adrenal cortex

hormones

Chromophobes cell

This cells have a weak affinity towards the stains. They are three types-

Temporary degenerated chromaphils: Most chromaphobes contain a few specific granules and
are characterized to be temporary degenerated chromaphils which later converted to
chromaphils.

Follicular cells-They are lined in follicles.

Stellate cells- interposed between the other cells.

b. Pars tuberalis:

It is a funnel shaped region surrounding the infundibulum of neuron hypophysis.it consists of

cluster of epithelial cells often forming follicles separated by blood vessels. Most of the cells of
pars tuberalis secretes gonadotrophins.

c. Pars intermedia:

It is located in between the pars distalis and pars nervosa, and is widely separated from pars
distalis by hypophyseal cleft. The cells of pars intermedia are irregular in shape contain
basophilic granules and arranges in colloid filled follicles separated by poorly developed blood
vessles.

The cells of pars intermedia are-

Melanotrophs: These are the principal cells of pars intermedia which secrete two hormones-

Melanocyte stimulating hormone-control melanin pigmentation in the skin.

Beta-lipotrophic hormone: Unknown function.

Follicular cells: Arranged in follicles

Cuboidal cells: line the hypophyseal cleft

ACTH cells: Secrete ACTH

2. Neurohypophysis: Neurohypophysis consists of –

a. Pars nervosa
b. Infundibulum
c. Median eminence

a. Pars nervosa

The pars nervosa consists of some unmyelinated axons of secratory neurons whose nerve cell
bodies are situated in the supra optic and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus .The
neurosecretory granules form the nerve cell bodies are transported along the axons of
hypothalamus. Here they form the structures called herrings bodies (the accumulation of
nerosecratory granules are called herrings bodies). Two hormones ADH and oxytocin are
released from the granules, enter into the sinusoidal capillaries and then distributed in the general
circulation. In addition to the hypothalamic axons about 25% of volume of pars nervosa consists
of specific branched glial cells called pituicyte. They give support the axon, they also act as
macrophage.

Function

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is produced from the supra optic nuclei of hypothalamus.

 This hormone increase the water permeability of collecting ducts of kidney and promotes
the vascular smooth muscle contraction.

Oxytocin is produced from the paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus. This hormone cause-

 Contraction of uterine smooth muscle during parturition and contraction of

myoepithelial cells of mammary gland resulting ejection of milk.
 Thyroid gland

Thyroid gland located in the cervical region , anterior to the larynx ,consists of two lobes united
by isthmus .The gland is surrounded by a thin connective tissue capsule from which connective
tissue septa extends into the parenchyma ,subdividing it into lobules .This lobule consists of:-

 Thyroid follicles
 Para follicular cells
 Fine interstitial loose connective tissue and
 Dense network of sinusoidal capillaries

The thyroid follicles are the structural and functional unit of the thyroid gland, which are lined
by follicular cells and usually filled with colloid .The morphologic appearance of thyroid
follicles varies according to the physiologic condition. When resting condition, the follicular
cells become simple cuboidal or even squamous and the follicles are filled with colloid that
appear dense and uniformly stained. In active condition, the follicular cells become simple
columnar; the quantity of colloid decrease and the colloid is not uniformly stained. The colloid
mass is the thyroglobulin. These follicular cells of thyroid follicles produce thyroxin hormone.

Synthesis and accumulation of thyroxin hormone produced by follicular cells take place in
four stages:

 Synthesis of thyroglobulin by follicular cell.

 Uptake of circulating iodide in the follicles.
 Activation of iodide by oxidization.
 Iodination of thyroglobulin to form thyroxin hormone.

Between the follicles there present interfollicular connective tissue. Adjacent to the follicles, in
the interfollicular connective tissue, there present one type of cell, singly or in small groups
known as para-follicular cells. These parafollicular cells produce calcitonin hormone.

Function of thyroid gland

 The thyroxin hormone plays on important role in various physiologic and metabolic
functions.
 The calcitonin hormone lowers the blood calcium level by decreasing the bone
resorption.

N.B: Bone resorption means withdrawn of the calcium from the bone
 Parathyroid gland
The Parathyroid gland located beside the thyroid gland, actually 1 cm cranial to the thyroid
gland. It is flat, disc, globular structure. The parenchyma consists of cords and cluster of the
cells. In parenchyma there are found 3 types of cells-

Principal or chief cells: It contains two types of cells:

Light cells: These cells are inactive, somewhat larger and the cytoplasm looks light in color.

Dark cells: These cells are active, smaller and cytoplasm looks darker in color.

In resting condition, the light or inactive cells are temporary; which converted into active cells/
dark cells in active condition.

Syncytial cells

Oxyphilic cells

Function: Principal cells secrete parathormone hormone which increases the blood calcium level
through bone resorption by means of osteoclastic activity. This hormone also elevates blood
calcium level by increasing calcium reabsorption through distal convoluted tubule and collecting
duct of kidney.

The function of both syncytial cells and oxyphilic cells are unknown.
 Adrenal gland

The word adrenal means near or close to the kidney. The adrenal glands are paired organs that lie
near the superior poles of kidney, embedded in adipose tissue. The gland is surrounded by a thin
capsule of dense irregular connective tissue that contains occasionally smooth muscle fibers.
Thin trabeculae originate from the capsule and penetrate the cortex. The gland consists of two
zones:

 Outer cortex
 Inner medulla
Outer Cortex: The adrenal cortex is subdivided into three distinct zones-

 The outermost zone /zona glomerulosa

 The middle zone/ zona fasciculata
 Innermost zone/zona reticularis

The outermost zone /zona glomerulosa

In ruminants the zona glomerulosa consists of irregular cluster and cords of spherical cells. In
donkeys and carnivores, horse and pig this zone is called zona arcuata. Because the cells are
arranged in arcs with their convexity directed toward the periphery. Zona itermedia found in the
horse, dog, cat and lesser degree in cow, sheep and goat. This is a small zone with undifferential
cells found between zone glomerulosa and zona fasciculata.

The middle zone/ zona fasciculata

The zona fasciculata consists of radially arranged cords of cuboidal or columnar cell usually one
cell layer in thickness. The cells have a large number of lipid droplets in their cytoplasm. In the
routine tissue processing, the droplets are dissolved and the resulting vacuoles give the foamy
appearance of the cells. Therefore the cells are called spongiocytes and the layer is also called
spongiosa.

Innermost zone/zona reticularis

The zona reticularis consists of an irregular network of anastomosing cords of polyhedral cell.
The cells have morphologic feature similar to the zona fasciculata but contain fewer lipid
droplets and more lipofuscin.

Inner medulla

The adrenal medulla is comprised of polyhedral cells arranged in cords and clusters, separated by
dense network of sinusoidal capillaries. These endocrine cells of adrenal medulla are modified
post ganglionic neurons whose secretory activity is regulated by ganglionic sympathetic
innervations. They have lost their axons and dendrites during embryonic development. When
treated with fixatives containing chromium salt, the cells stain dark brown and consequently they
are referred to as chromaffin cells. These cells produce epinephrine and nor epinephrine
(Catecholamines) hormones.

Function

 The cells of zona glomerulosa produce mineralocorticoides, deoxycorticosterone and

aldosteron which maintain the electrolytic level in extracellular body fluids by controlling
the retention and excretion of sodium and potassium by the kidney tubules.
  The cells of zona fasciculata produce glucocorticoids such as 11-deoxycorticosterone,
corticosterone and cortisol which participate in protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism.
 The zona reticularis produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).
 The cells of adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine hormones that play
an important role in homeostasis. This hormone are called catacholamines.

Pineal gland

The pineal gland is an outgrowth from the roof of the diencephalon and is surrounded (except at
its attachment to the roof of the brain) by pia mater. The pineal contains 2 cell types:

a. Pinealocytes (about 95% of cells) are the larger cells with slightly basophilic cytoplasm,
rounded nuclei and processes which end as bulbous endings near capillaries. These appear to be
neurosecretory neurons, but are much smaller than most neurons and their neuronal nature is not
apparent in light micrographs. This cell produces melatonin hormone which regulates the
reproductivity in seasonal breeding animals.

b. Interstitial cells are fairly typical astrocytes in terms of shape and nature of processes, but are
smaller than many CNS astrocytes.
****** THE FOLLOWING IS OF NO NEED FOR HISTOLOGY*****

Role of melatonin in regulating reproductive activity

Seasonal variations in photoperiod are perceived by the photoreceptors of the mammalian eye
sending signals to the SCN. The SCN then drives the nocturnal melatonin rhythm [1]. Long days
have more daylight which in turn has less hours of darkness. There by the secretion of melatonin is
reduced in season with less hours of darkness. Melatonin regulates the circannual rhythms in
reproductive processes. Melatonin reaching the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus inhibits
the frequency and magnitude of the pulsatile secretion of hypothalamic and gonadotrophic hormones
thereby inhibiting the release of pituitary hormones essential for initiation of reproductive activity.
This pattern of neuro endocrine modulation which is influenced by the external light and via the
pineal gland which causes the different effects through the secretion of melatonin is the key behind
the initiation of reproductive activities in seasonal breeders.

Amount of melatonin level secreted depends on the length of the night. Amount of light detected by supra
chiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is inversely proportional to the amount of melatonin produced. Melatonin levels
production inhibited by light exposure, secretion decreases during the day, increases at night. Melatonin
suppresses libido by inhibiting secretion of GnRH and the gonadotropins (LH & FSH). Animals with
breeding seasons in the spring/summer (long days, short nights) will have reproduction suppressed by
melatonin (e.g. horse). Animals who breed during fall/winter (short days, long nights) will have increased
frequency of mating with increased melatonin (e.g. sheep)
.