Construction of an Embankment with a Fly and Bottom Ash

Mixture: Field Performance Study

Sungmin Yoon, Ph.D.1; Umashankar Balunaini2; Irem Z. Yildirim3; Monica Prezzi, Ph.D.4; and
Nayyar Z. Siddiki5
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Abstract: Fly ash and bottom ash are coal combustion by-products 共CCBPs兲 that are generated in large quantities throughout the world.
It is often economical to dispose ash as mixtures rather than separately; that notwithstanding, only a few studies have been performed to
investigate the behavior of fly and bottom ash mixtures, particularly those with high contents of fly ash. Also, there is very limited data
available in the literature on the field performance of structures constructed using ash mixtures. This paper describes the construction and
the instrumentation of a demonstration embankment built with an ash mixture 共60:40 by weight of fly ash:bottom ash兲 on State Road 641,
Terre Haute, Ind. Monitoring of the demonstration embankment was conducted for a period of 1 year from the start of construction of the
embankment. The settlement of the embankment stabilized approximately 5 months after the end of its construction. According to
horizontal inclinometer readings, the differential settlement at the top of the embankment is about 5 mm. Results from field quality control
tests performed during construction of the demonstration embankment and monitoring data from vertical and horizontal inclinometers and
settlement plates indicate that the ash mixture investigated can be considered an acceptable embankment construction material.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2009兲21:6共271兲
CE Database subject headings: Fly ash; Bottom ash; Embankment; Field tests; Quality control; Settlement.

Introduction bottom ash in high-volume construction projects, besides allevi-

According to the American Coal Ash Association 共ACAA兲, about
123 million t of coal combustion by-products 共CCBPs兲 were pro-
duced in 2005 共ACAA 2005兲. Of this total production, fly ash and
bottom ash accounted for nearly 71 and 18 million t, respectively;
about 72% of the total production of CCBPs. However, only 41%
of the total production of fly and bottom ash has been recycled.
Unused fly ash and bottom ash are disposed either in landfills or
in ponds. They are usually disposed either with the dry method or
the wet method 共Usmen et al. 1983兲. In the dry method, dry ash is
hauled, placed, and compacted at the disposal sites; whereas in
the wet method, ash is mixed with sufficient amounts of water,
and the ash slurry is then transported through pipelines to the
disposal ponds or lagoons. Fly ash and bottom ash are disposed
either separately or together in disposal ponds. Due to increasing
disposal costs, reduction of landfill space, and need for conserva-
tion of natural resources, it is essential to identify applications
that involve the use of large volumes of ash. Use of fly ash and
1
Research Associate, Louisiana Transportation Research Center,
Baton Rouge, LA 70808. E-mail: syoon@lsu.edu
2
Doctoral Student, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue Univ., West
Lafayette, IN 47907-1284. E-mail: ubalunai@purdue.edu
3
Doctoral Student, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue Univ., West
Lafayette, IN 47907-1284. E-mail: iyildiri@purdue.edu
4
Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue Univ.,
West Lafayette, IN 47907-1284. E-mail: mprezzi@ecn.purdue.edu
5
Division of Materials and Tests, Indiana Dept. of Transportation, In-
dianapolis, IN 46219-038. E-mail: NSIDDIKI@indot.IN.gov
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 27, 2007; ap-
proved on November 25, 2008; published online on May 15, 2009. Dis-
cussion period open until November 1, 2009; separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 6, June 1, 2009. ©ASCE,
ISSN 0899-1561/2009/6-271–278/$25.00.
ating the growing disposal problems, offers a promising way to
help preserve dwindling naturally available building materials.
Fly ash has been used extensively in embankment construc-
tion. Table 1 lists some of the high-volume embankments con-
structed throughout the United States using class-F fly ash
共Patelunas 1986; Srivastava and Collins 1989兲. There are also
some studies that indicate that bottom ash is an appropriate ma-
terial for embankment construction 共Seals et al. 1972; Moulton et
al. 1973; Huang 1990兲. Whenever fly ash and bottom ash are
codisposed, use of ash mixtures as embankment fill materials is
the preferred alternative. However, there is very limited informa-
tion in the literature on the behavior of fly and bottom ash mix-
tures, and even lesser information on the field performance of
structures constructed using ash mixtures 共Karim 1997; Kim
2003兲. This paper reports the monitoring data obtained during a
period of about 1 year 共from May 2005 to April 2006兲 for a dem-
onstration embankment constructed using a fly and bottom ash
mixture 共60:40 by weight of fly ash:bottom ash兲 and the results of
laboratory tests performed on samples collected from the con-
struction site.
Background
In the state of Indiana, more than 66% of the CCBPs produced are
disposed as class-F fly ash and bottom ash mixtures 共GAI/
USIFCAU 1993兲. According to the ACAA, fly ash and bottom
ash are typically produced and disposed in the ratio of 80:20 共fly
ash:bottom ash ratio by weight兲 共ACAA 2005兲. However, current
Indiana Department of Transportation 共INDOT兲 specifications for
coal ash utilization in highway construction allow only mixtures
with fly ash content less than 40%. Even though it is advanta-
geous to use the as-disposed ash mixtures in construction, there

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 Table 1. List of Projects Using Fly Ash for High-Volume Embankment Construction 共Patelunas 1986; Srivastava and Collins 1989兲
State Year Project description Estimated tonnage or volume
Arizona 1980 I-40, Joseph City 46,300 m3
Delaware 1987 I-495, Wilmington 6,110 m3
Illinois 1972 LR 437, Waukegan 188,700 m3
Massachusetts 1978 John Scott Blvd., Norton 3,820 m3
Minnesota 1979 SR 13, Eagan 267,400 m3
Minnesota 1975 High Bridge Plant, St. Paul 9,932 m3
Ohio 1981 I-480, Avon 30,000 t
Ohio 1983 US 35, Gallia County 27,000 t
145,160 m3
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Pennsylvania 1967 Culver Road, Hopewell Township

Virginia 1978 SR 665, Carbo 300 t
Wisconsin 1976–1977 Milwaukee 120,000 t
Wyoming 1976 US 60, Morgantown 40,000 t
Wyoming 1971 US 250, Fairmont 5,000 t

are very limited studies on the properties of fly and bottom ash order to better characterize the geotechnical properties of the
mixtures 共Kim et al. 2005兲, as most research studies have focused ashes used in the construction of the demonstration embankment,
on the engineering and environmental behavior of either Indiana the chemical composition of two different ash samples 共both fly
fly ash or bottom ash 共Diamond 1985; Diamond and Olek 1988; ash and bottom ash samples兲 was analyzed. The specific gravity,
Huang 1990; Ke 1990; Alleman et al. 1996兲. grain size distribution and compaction characteristics of the ash
In order to investigate the mechanical behavior of mixtures mixture 共60/ 40 by weight of fly ash:bottom ash兲 used in the con-
with various fly ash contents, a research study consisting of two struction of the embankment were determined.
phases was funded by INDOT. The first phase involved a com-
prehensive laboratory testing program to characterize the behav-
ior of fly and bottom ash mixtures. The second phase of the Chemical Composition
research focused on the construction, instrumentation, and moni- The chemical composition of ash depends on the characteristics
toring of the field performance of a demonstration embankment and composition of the coal burned in power plants. Table 2
constructed using a fly and bottom ash mixture. Kim et al. 共2005兲 shows the oxide composition of the fly ash and bottom ash used
presented the results of the laboratory testing program performed in the construction of the demonstration embankment. The major
on three different ash mixtures 共with fly ash contents of 50, 75, constituents of these ashes are SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3. These
and 100% by weight兲. The laboratory study indicated that fly and three oxides combined constitute about 86 and 70% 共by mass兲 of
bottom ash mixtures exhibit relatively higher peak-friction angle the fly ash and bottom ash, respectively.
共␾peak values ranging from 30 to 47°兲 and lower dry unit weight
共ranging from 14.1 to 17.7 kN/ m3兲 than typical fill materials of
comparable particle size 共Kim et al. 2005兲. In addition, the hy- Specific Gravity
draulic conductivity of fly and bottom ash mixtures is similar to
The specific gravity Gs of fly ash and bottom ash varies with the
that of a fine sandy silt or silt 共ranging from 2 ⫻ 10−6 to 1
chemical composition of the coal burned in power plants. Higher
⫻ 10−5 cm/ s兲. These laboratory test results showed that fly and
iron contents in the ash lead to higher specific gravity values.
bottom ash mixtures can perform satisfactorily when used as fill
Typical values of Gs range from 2.1 to 2.9 for Class-F fly ash
materials in the construction of embankments and retaining struc-
共McLaren and DiGioia 1987兲 and, from 2.0 to 2.6 for bottom ash
tures 共Kim 2003兲.
共Seals et al. 1972; Moulton 1973; Anderson et al. 1976; Majidza-
Based on the laboratory test results, a demonstration embank-
deh et al. 1977兲. The specific gravity of the fly and bottom ash
ment was designed and constructed in the state of Indiana. The
mixture 共60/ 40 by weight of fly ash:bottom ash兲 that was used in
construction sequence, instrumentation, and performance evalua-
tion of the ash-mixture 共60:40 by weight of fly ash:bottom ash兲
embankment are reported in this paper. The ashes used were gen-
erated at the Wabash River Power Plant located in Central Indiana
and owned by Cinergy Co. 共now known as Duke Energy兲. The
power plant burns bituminous coal using pulverized coal-burning
units. Class-F fly ash and bottom ash generated by the Wabash
River Power Plant are codisposed in a nearby disposal pond using
the wet method 共see Fig. 1兲. The fly and bottom ash mixture
reclaimed from the disposal pond was stored and drained to reach
a moisture content close to its optimum moisture content as de-
termined from laboratory compaction tests.

Fly and Bottom Ash Mixture Characterization

The geotechnical properties of ash mixtures vary considerably Fig. 1. Disposal pond of fly and bottom ash mixture generated at
based on their source, chemical composition, and gradation. In Wabash River Power Plant

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 Table 2. Chemical Composition of Fly and Bottom Ash Produced by the
Wabash River Plant
% by mass

Constituent Fly ash Bottom ash

SiO2 51.13 39.64
Al2O3 22.91 15.08
Fe2O3 12.18 15.02
TiO2 1.01 0.70
CaO 1.54 2.04
MgO 0.73 0.79
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K 2O 2.55 1.79
Na2O 0.38 0.27
SO3 0.07 0.21
Fig. 3. Compaction curve for the fly and bottom ash mixture
P 2O 5 0.14 0.13
SrO 0.05 0.04
Mn3O4 0.04 0.03
Design and Construction of the Demonstration Ash
Embankment

In order for the embankment to perform satisfactorily, the ash fill

the construction of the demonstration embankment, determined
by Method A: ASTM D 854 共2000a兲, was found to be equal to
2.54.
Grain-Size Distribution
Grain-size analysis was performed on fly and bottom ash samples
collected from the construction site in accordance with ASTM
D422-63 共2002兲. As can be seen in Fig. 2, 60% of the ash mixture
by weight passed the No. 200 sieve 共0.075 mm兲. The ash mixture
used in the project, which exhibits nonplastic behavior, is classi-
fied as sandy silt 共ML兲 according to the Unified Soil Classifica-
tion System 共USCS兲.
Compaction Characteristics
Standard compaction tests were performed on the fly and bottom
ash mixture in accordance with ASTM D698 共2000c兲. As shown
in Fig. 3, the maximum dry unit weight ␥d,max is 15.0 kN/ m3, and
the optimum moisture content wopt is 19%. The zero-air-voids line
for the ash mixture is also shown in Fig. 3.
must satisfy two criteria: 共1兲 it must have adequate strength to
support safely its self weight and that of the traffic loads and 共2兲
it must be sufficiently stiff to prevent excessive settlement during
the service life of the pavement. Slope stability and settlement
analyses need to be performed to determine the best way to meet
these design requirements.
Design of the Embankment
Embankments may become unstable due to excess pore pressure
development in the foundation soil. Because of the low hydraulic
conductivity of a clay loam layer 共about 0.8 m in thickness兲 found
at the embankment site location, generation of excessive pore
pressure in this layer was a concern. The clay loam classified as
an A-7-6 according to the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials classification system. The pore pres-
sure developed in the foundation soil due to the applied embank-
ment load must not exceed critical pore pressure values that could
lead to instability. The critical pore pressures were calculated in
the center of the clay loam layer during various stages of the
embankment construction by assuming that the change in pore
pressure was equal to the stress increment due to the applied
embankment load. When the pore pressure generated in the foun-
dation soil approached these critical values, the embankment con-
struction was stopped until the excess pore pressure dissipated.
The overall stability of the ash embankment was performed using
slope stability analysis software 共STABL兲. A safety factor of 1.3
was used in design of embankment.

Test Pad Construction

Fig. 2. Grain-size distribution of the fly and bottom ash mixture used
in the construction of the demonstration embankment
Before the construction of the demonstration embankment was
started, a test pad was constructed to establish the specifications
for compaction quality control in the field. The approximate
height, length and width of the test pad were 0.6, 50, and 25 m,
respectively. Nuclear gauge and microwave-oven tests were per-
formed to determine the in situ density and water content of the
compacted ash according to ASTM D2922 共2004兲 and ASTM D
4643 共2000b兲, respectively. Based on the test pad results, the dy-
namic cone penetration test 共DCPT兲 was also selected to be used
to ensure the compaction quality control at every stage of the
embankment construction. DCPT results are discussed next.

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Fig. 5. Schematic cross section of the test embankment at Station

6 + 250

mation of the ash mixture 共there were only minor imprints of the
wheels left behind on the surface of the mixture兲. Fig. 6 shows the
placement and compaction of the fly and bottom ash mixture used
for the embankment construction.

Quality Control
Quality control 共QC兲 of the compacted ash was done for every lift
共150 mm兲 at 15-m intervals along the embankment length. QC
Fig. 4. Location of the settlement plates and piezometers was done in two ways: 共1兲 using the nuclear gauge and
microwave-oven heating tests to determine the in situ density and
in situ water content of the compacted ash mixture; and 共2兲 using
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test the DCPT.
Fig. 7 illustrates the relationship between the DCPT blow
The DCPT consists of upper and lower shafts. The upper shaft, count per 150-mm penetration and the in situ dry unit weight of
which has a 0.078-kN hammer with a 575-mm-drop height, is
attached to the lower shaft through the anvil. The lower shaft
consists of an anvil and a cone attached at its end. The cone has a
60°-apex angle. DCPTs were performed in accordance with
ASTM D 6951 共2003兲 at the same locations in the test pad as the
nuclear gauge and microwave oven tests. The DCPT results on
the compacted ash indicated consistently that 5–7 blow counts
were required for the dynamic cone to penetrate a thickness of
one lift 共150 mm兲. Based on these results, a DCPT blow count of
more than 6 per 150-mm penetration into the compacted ash was
expected to indicate 95% relative compaction or better.

Construction of the Demonstration Embankment

The height, length, and width of the test embankment are equal to
7.6, 60, and 100 m, respectively. Fig. 4 shows a plan view of the
demonstration embankment with the location of the settlement
plates, piezometers, and horizontal and vertical inclinometers.
Stations 6 + 220 and 6 + 280 bound the length of the ash embank-
ment. Fig. 5 shows the cross section of the embankment at Loca-
tion 6 + 250.

Embankment Compaction
Based on the evaluation of the test pad results, a 150-mm-lift
thickness and three vibratory roller passes per lift using a D-10
vibratory roller manufactured by Caterpillar Inc. 共CAT CS-563D
with 266 kN centrifugal force兲 were recommended in order to
achieve 95% relative compaction. Each layer of ash was uni-
formly placed across the length of the roadway cross section. A
steel track bulldozer 共CAT D7 50兲 was then used to spread out the Fig. 6. Construction of the embankment: 共a兲 placement of fly and
fill material and to provide additional compaction. Passage of the bottom ash-mixture; 共b兲 compaction of fly and bottom ash mixture
heavy construction equipment did not cause any significant defor- layer

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Fig. 7. DCPT blow count versus field dry unit weight of the ash
mixture
the compacted ash. The blow count increases as the dry density
increases. An empirical correlation for the DCPT blow count
共BC兲, derived in terms of the in situ dry unit weight 共for water
contents ranging from 20.4 to 23.8%兲, is as follows:
BC = 3␥d − 40.5 共1兲
where BC= blow count per 150-mm penetration and ␥d = dry unit
weight 共kN/ m3兲 as obtained from the nuclear gauge tests. Due to
scatter of the data points observed in Fig. 7, caution should be
exercised when using the above-mentioned correlation in prac-
tice. Note that Eq. 共1兲 relates the DCPT blow count to a single
soil property. Other parameters 共such as the soil water content and
stiffness兲 affect the DCPT blow count as well. As these param-
eters were not accounted for in the previous correlation, it can
only be considered as a general reference for quality control of
compacted densities of ash mixtures. One should also consider
specific site conditions and characteristics of the materials com-
pacted in the field when establishing quality control procedures.
Environmental Considerations
Leaching of trace metals from fly and bottom ash is the main
environmental concern when these materials are used in embank-
ment construction. Migration of metals from ash into groundwater
has been studied in a number of high-volume ash projects 共Srivas-
tava and Collins 1989; Rehage and Schrab 1995; Alleman et al.
1996兲. According to these studies, groundwater contamination
due to coal ash usage was minimal. Longer term studies are nec-
essary for more definite conclusions on the environmental impact
of ash embankment construction.
Field Instrumentation Program
The performance of the embankment was monitored using settle-
ment plates, piezometers, and horizontal and vertical inclinom-
eters installed during construction. The results are presented in the
following sections.
Settlement Plates
A total of ten settlement plates were installed along the midsec-
tion of the embankment 共Section 6 + 250兲. These settlement plates
were installed at three different depths 共bottom, midheight, and
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(6): 271-278
top of the embankment兲. As shown in Fig. 5, eight settlement
plates were installed at the bottom and midheight of the embank-
ment at four different locations 共7.8 and 17.7 m from the center-
line along the southeast and northwest sides of the embankment兲.
The remaining two plates were placed on the top of the ash em-
bankment. Settlement plates were monitored for a period of
1 year from the start of the embankment construction using sur-
veying techniques. The ash fill settled during its construction be-
cause of the load due to the embankment self-weight and the
traffic of construction equipment on top of it. The settlement data
obtained from the settlement plates placed at the bottom and mid-
height of the embankment at various locations along the 6 + 250
section are shown in Fig. 8. The settlement data obtained from the
bottom plates at locations 7.8 and 17.7 m on the southeast side of
the embankment are not shown for the entire 1 year period be-
cause these settlement plates were damaged during construction.
The maximum settlement, which was more or less the same
for the two bottom plates, was equal to about 80 mm, and it
stabilized about 8 months after the start of construction. The
settlement at the midheight of the embankment stabilized to a
maximum value of about 70 mm about 7 months after the instal-
lation of the plates. A total settlement of 20 mm was recorded at
the top of the ash embankment approximately 4 months after the
installation of the settlement plates.
Piezometers
Piezometric elevations were monitored during the construction of
the embankment to meet the design requirements for staged con-
struction. Two piezometers were installed along Section 6 + 250
within the foundation soil. They are located 9 m from the center-
line of the embankment on both its sides. The piezometric data
collected during construction of the embankment are shown in
Table 3. The piezometric levels were maintained below the criti-
cal pore water pressure values at all times.
Horizontal Inclinometers
The horizontal inclinometer monitoring system consists of an in-
clinometer casing 共outer diameter= 70 mm兲, a portable horizontal
inclinometer probe and control cable, and an inclinometer readout
unit. The horizontal inclinometer was installed on top of the ash
embankment along Section 6 + 260 in order to monitor differential
settlement 共see Fig. 4兲. Monitoring started about three months
after the installation of the horizontal inclinometer due to inac-
cessible site conditions. The horizontal inclinometer data are
shown in Fig. 9. A maximum differential settlement of 5 mm was
observed in the middle of the embankment after approximately
5 months of monitoring of the horizontal inclinometer. These re-
sults show that the differential settlements in the embankment
were minimal.
Vertical Inclinometers
As shown in Fig. 5, two vertical inclinometer casings were in-
stalled: one on the shoulder and one on the toe of the embank-
ment. The vertical inclinometer on the shoulder can detect lateral
movement of the slope, and the one on the toe, the movement of
the original ground. The vertical inclinometers were installed
after completion of the embankment construction. The lateral
movement of the test embankment was monitored after the end of
embankment construction. Fig. 10 shows the lateral movement
recorded at the shoulder and toe of embankment. A maximum
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Fig. 8. Settlement versus number of days after start of construction: 共a兲 7.8 m northwest side; 共b兲 17.7 m northwest side; 共c兲 7.8 m southeast side;
and 共d兲 17.7 m southeast side

lateral movement of about 3 mm was observed at the shoulder of
the embankment after about 4 months of monitoring. A lateral
movement of less than 1 mm was observed at the toe of the em-
bankment after about 4 months of monitoring, indicating that
there was basically no movement in the foundation soil. The em-
bankment is stable considering the minimal lateral movements
recorded.
Summary and Conclusions
The following summarizes the work done and the results of the
laboratory testing and field instrumentation program:
1. A high-volume ash-mixture demonstration embankment was
constructed at State Rd. 641, in Terre Haute, Ind. The fill
material consists of a mixture of Class F-fly ash and bottom
ash 共60:40 by weight兲. The ash mixture was classified as
sandy silt 共ML兲 according to the USCS. The height, length
and width of the test embankment are equal to 7.6, 60, and
100 m, respectively.
2. The maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture
content of the ash mixture were found to be equal to
15.0 kN/ m3 and 19%, respectively. The ash mixture is
lighter than typical fill materials used in highway construc-
tion.
3. Compaction procedures for the demonstration embankment
were determined based on test pad results. Based on the test
pad results, it was concluded that a DCPT blow count of
more than 6 per 150-mm penetration into the compacted ash
would guarantee that 95% of the laboratory ␥d,max would be
achieved in the field. Nuclear gauge, microwave oven, and
DCPT tests were used for compaction quality control.
4. A preliminary empirical correlation between the DCPT blow
count and ␥d,max was proposed based on the data available.

Table 3. Piezometer Data Collected during Construction of the Embankment

Northwest 共Station 6 + 250兲 Southeast 共Station 6 + 250兲

Days from Fill Critical Fill Critical

start of height Piezometric piezometric height Piezometeric piezometric
construction 共m兲 head 共m兲 head 共m兲 共m兲 head 共m兲 head 共m兲
12 0.26 166.84 167.56 0.165 166.57 166.72
30 1.70 167.09 169.83 1.567 166.51 168.93
50 2.52 167.16 171.12 2.452 166.55 170.33
69 4.66 167.40 174.49 4.542 166.64 173.62

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Fig. 9. Horizontal inclinometer measurements
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5. Monitoring of the demonstration embankment was done for a
period of 1 year from the start of construction of the em-
bankment. The instrumentation program included settlement
plates, and vertical and horizontal inclinometers.
6. A maximum settlement of 80 mm was observed at the bot-
tom of the embankment; the settlement stabilized approxi-
mately 5 months after the end of construction of the
embankment.
7. A differential settlement of about 5 mm was observed at the
top of the ash embankment according to the horizontal incli-
nometer readings obtained after approximately 5 months of
monitoring.
8. Vertical inclinometer monitoring was performed for
4 months after the end of construction of the embankment.
Negligible lateral movements were observed at the shoulder
and toe of the embankment.
Fig. 10. Vertical inclinometer measurements monitored after the end
of embankment construction: 共a兲 at the shoulder of the embankment;
共b兲 at the toe of the embankment
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2009, 21(6): 271-278
9. The laboratory and field test results show that the fly and
bottom ash mixture used in the construction of the demon-
stration embankment is a viable alternative to conventional
fill materials.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Joint Transportation Research
Program administered by the Indiana Department of Transporta-
tion and Purdue University, Cinergy Co., Vectren Co., and the
Indiana Department of Commerce. The contents of this paper
reflect the views of the writers, who are responsible for the facts
and the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents nei-
ther necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the Federal
Highway Administration and the Indiana Department of Transpor-
tation, nor do the contents constitute a standard, specification, or
regulation. The writers are thankful to Howard Lewis for his sup-
port during this project. The writers appreciate the help of John
Carpenter and Nelson Brown of INDOT with the field monitoring
work.
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