Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259

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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compag

Original papers

Numerical simulation of spreading performance and distribution pattern of T

centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicator based on DEM software
⁎
Shi Yinyana, Chen Manb, Wang Xiaochana,c, , Morice Oluoch Odhiamboa, Ding Weimina,c
a
College of Engineering, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, China
b
Nanjing Research Institute for Agricultural Mechanization, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing 210014, China
c
Jiangsu Province Engineering Laboratory for Modern Facilities Agricultural Technology and Equipment, Nanjing 210031, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Farmers in China have been concerned with the efficiency and utilization rate of fertilizers, because of the
Variable-rate technology rigorous implementation of China’s “dual-reduction” plan, which calls for reducing fertilizer and pesticide usage.
Centrifugal fertilizer spreader This study was aimed to improve the spreading performance and fertilizer distribution uniformity of an in-
Spreading performance dependently developed centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicator. The spreading performance was evaluated
Field validation
by conducting discrete-element-simulation tests, and the relationship between the variations in the fertilizer
particle distribution and the working parameters of the fertilizer spreader was analyzed. The quality of the
particles was evaluated using a two-dimensional matrix, and the coefficient of variation of the transverse dis-
tribution of the fertilizer particles was determined. The results show that the shape of the distribution varies
irregularly with the increase in the vane pitch angle, and the coefficient of variation decreases with the increase
in the spreader disc height. Further, when the application flow rate is increased gradually, the coefficient of
variation decreases rapidly first but gradually thereafter. In addition, with an increase in the rotational speed of
the disc, the distribution gradually changes from a triangular shape to a W shape and ultimately to an M shape.
The average coefficient of variation was the lowest (14.39%) for a single-row application flow rate of 300 g/s, a
vane pitch angle of 15°, a spreader disc height of 95 cm, and a rotational speed of 600 r/min, with a good
spreading uniformity. Field validation tests show that the average coefficient of variation with respect to the
effective spreading swath width of the applicator was 16.74%. The relative error was 10.66% with respect to the
simulation results, thus validating the simulation model and confirming its accuracy. The results show that the
coefficient of variation for the developed variable-rate spreader is reduced, exhibiting a high spreading per-
formance. The results serve as a theoretical basis for farmers for altering their traditional empirical fertilization
techniques and should aid design and optimization of centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicators.

1. Introduction with high-efficiency centrifugal variable-rate spreaders. Hence, the

With the increasing demand for higher crop yields, reasonable and
effective use of fertilizers has become important for increasing crop
production and improving the efficiency (Chen and Guo, 2013; Roblin
and Barrow, 2000). Hence, variable-rate fertilization has been devel-
oped to alter the conventional balanced fertilization techniques. The
aim was to improve the operational efficiency and utilization rate of
fertilizers and accelerate the sustainable development of modern agri-
cultural practices, thereby obtaining crops with high yield and superior
quality in an environmentally friendly manner (Wang et al., 2009; Sui
et al., 2012). With the emergence of large-scale family farms, narrow-
width variable-rate applicators with groove wheels have been replaced
accuracy, uniformity, and consistency of centrifugal spreaders have
become the focus of extensive research worldwide (Liu, 2012).
In the early 1980s, several theoretical and experimental studies
were performed on spinner-disc granular spreaders, and the kinetic
characteristics of a granular fertilizer were evaluated using dynamic
simulation models (Dintwa et al., 2004; Olieslagers et al., 1996; Jones
et al., 2008; Aphale et al., 2003; Villette et al., 2005). Coetzee and
Lombard (2011) developed a motion trajectory and dynamic model of
granular fertilizers on the disc and through the air in 2011. The discrete
element method (DEM) has been applied to obtain a simulation model
of a spinner-disc variable-rate applicator, and the effects of the physical
properties of a granular fertilizer, such as the particle size, friction

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanjing Agricultural University, Box 96, 40 Dianjiangtai Road, Pukou, Nanjing, China.
E-mail addresses: 2015212011@njau.edu.cn (S. Yinyan), 2013112034@njau.edu.cn (C. Man), wangxiaochan@njau.edu.cn (W. Xiaochan), 1203367199@qq.com (M.O. Odhiambo),
1610512181@qq.com (D. Weimin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.12.015
Received 11 September 2017; Received in revised form 2 December 2017; Accepted 11 December 2017
0168-1699/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Yinyan et al.
coefficient, and recovery coefficient, on the particle distribution have
been analyzed. In addition, validation tests have been performed to
confirm the feasibility and accuracy of the simulated model (van et al.,
2009; Liedekerke et al., 2006). Grift et al. developed a feed gate control
method based on an optical feedback sensor to eliminate the variability
in uniformity. Simulations showed that the feed gate method is capable
of producing high-quality patterns for any given application rate
(Kweon et al., 2009; Grift, 2000; Grift and Crespi, 2008). Campbell
et al. (2010) compared a centrifugal variable-rate spreader using dif-
ferent control systems (open-loop and closed-loop) and investigated the
effects of the applied flow rate and device structures on the coefficient
of variation of the fertilizer distribution and the effective swath width
(Fulton et al., 2005).
Recently, several studies have systematically analyzed a variable-
rate fertilizer applicator with a spinner disc (Qi et al., 2016; Hu et al.,
2016; Dong et al., 2013; Cool et al., 2014). Chen et al. developed a high
ground-clearance variable-rate spreader with double discs and de-
termined the primary structural parameters as well as an appropriate
transmission device and a control system for the machine (Chen et al.,
2012). Zhang et al. proposed a variable-rate fertilizer applicator with a
chain conveyor. They established forced motion equations for a gran-
ular fertilizer and determined an appropriate hydraulic control system
and structural parameters for the spreader (Zhang et al., 2012). Lv et al.
modeled a fertilizer spreader with a cone disc by kinematically ana-
lyzing the fertilizer granules on the disc and in the air. Further, they
conducted laboratory tests to verify the spreading uniformity of the
particles (Lv et al., 2016).
In most studies on centrifugal spreaders, the focus was on the the-
oretical analysis of the particle trajectory, the structural design of the
spreader, and the optimization of the control system. However, studies
on centrifugal variable-rate applicators in terms of fertilizer distribution
pattern and performance verification are lacking. With reference to the
variable-rate fertilizer applicator based on the crop canopy spectral
reflectance of winter wheat that was developed by our research group
(Shi et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2017), we investigated
issues related to spreading fertilizers over large areas, low utilization,
and uneven particle distribution with the objective of elucidating the
relationships between the fertilizer distribution variations and working
parameters of the applicator. A DEM simulation model of the cen-
trifugal spreader was simulated. Field tests were performed to validate
the model and to improve the spreading performance of the spreader.
Fig. 1. Structural diagram of centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer spreader.
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
2. Structure and working principle of the applicator
2.1. Applicator structure
Fig. 1 shows the overall structure of the developed real-time vari-
able-rate spreader, which is based on spectrum technology. The
spreader comprises a spectral sensor, a vehicle-mounted control term-
inal (central processing unit (CPU)), a field guide system, a spreader
device, and a control system, along with other minor parts.
2.2. Kinematic analysis of fertilizaer particle
2.2.1. Design parameters of the spreader disc
The previously developed variable-rate fertilizer applicator has a
length, width, and height of 2300 mm, 1450 mm, and 1200 mm, re-
spectively, providing an effective spreading swath width of 25 m or
more. The spreader is attached to the tractor by a three-point suspen-
sion system. The centrifugal spreader developed in this study, shown in
Fig. 2(a), basically consists of a conical spreader disc, spreading vanes,
and a centrifugal distribution cover. The diameter of the spreader disc is
620 mm; the angle of the cone walls, α, ranges from 0 to 20°, and is
used to increase the effective width of the spreading swath. The double
spreading vanes are oriented at 180° from each other; the pitch angle of
the vane, β, relative to the action of a center-alignment generatrix
through with an adjustable of 0–40°, can be set by an adjustment screw.
The centrifugal distribution cover is a cylinder located between the two
pitch vanes with a diameter of 240 mm, a height of 80 mm, and a
thickness of 5 mm, and has an open bottom with a 45-mm high dis-
charge opening between vanes over the disc. The fertilizer particles,
under the action of the centrifugal force, flow out from the discharge
opening of the rotating distribution cover, and are scattered by the
turning of the pitch vane, evenly distributing the fertilizer out over the
edges of the disc. The fertilizer discharge adjustment and control device
is shown in Fig. 2(b). According to the target rate, the rack and gear
mechanism is driven by the stepper motor to adjust the location of the
hole in the moving plate relative to the hole in the fixed plate, changing
the size of feed gate opening, thereby adjusting the flow rate in the
range of 0–450 g/s, which then controls the distribution rate of the
fertilizer.
2.2.2. Passive kinetic characteristic analysis of fertilizer granules
The kinetic characteristic analysis of fertilizer granules is mainly
divided into two types of behavior during the spreading process of a
centrifugal fertilizer spreader: the relative and absolute motion of the
fertilizer particles on the centrifugal disc, which is rotating at high
speed (passive motion), and the projectile motion of the fertilizer
S. Yinyan et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259

Fig. 2. Structural diagram of subject centrifugal spreader disc and fertilizer flow regulating device.

particles under the centrifugal inertial force after leaving the disc (ac-
tive motion).
When the fertilizer particles are under passive motion, influenced by
the kinematic action of the conical spreading disc, each fertilizer
granule is taken as an independent particle, subject to the combined
action of the Coriolis force (Fcor), the centrifugal force (Fce), the force of
gravity (FG), and the friction force (Ff) of the particle on the disc and
vane (Dintwa et al., 2004). The applied forces on a fertilizer particle are
shown in Fig. 3.
According to the force analysis, the resultant force F on a single
fertilizer particle travelling on the cone along the direction of the pitch
vane is given by:
Fce cosα cosβ = F + Ff + FG sinα cosβ
According to Newton's second law,
d 2r
F = ma = m 2 cosβ
dt
The set of force equations is:
m is the particle mass, kg; ω is the rotational angular velocity of disc,
rad/s; v is the relative speed of the particle motion, m/s; a is the relative
acceleration of the particle motion, m/s2; g is the gravitational accel-
eration of the particle, m/s2; r is the distance from the particle to the
center of rotation in, m; μv is the coefficient of friction between the
pitch vane and the particle; and μd is the coefficient of friction between
the disc and the particle.
Using Newton's first law and solving the simultaneous equations
above, the equation describing the kinematic properties of a fertilizer
particle in an eccentric conical spreader disc is
d 2r dr
m ⎡ 2 cosβ + 2μ v ω cosβ−ω2r (cosα cosβ + μ v sinβ−μd sinα )
⎢
⎣ dt dt
(1)
+ g (sinα cosβ + μd cosα + μ v sinα sinβ )⎤ = 0
⎥
⎦ (4)
On the basis of above formula, if α = β = 0, that is, for a spreader
(2) with a flat disc and no eccentricity, then the motion equation for the
particle is

2 d 2r dr
⎧ F = ma = m d 2r cosβ m ⎛ 2 + 2μ v ω −ω2r + μd g ⎞ = 0
⎜ ⎟

⎪ dt ⎝ dt dt ⎠ (5)
⎪ F = mg
⎪ G
F = mω2r
⎨ ce 2.2.3. Active kinetic characteristic analysis of fertilizer particle
⎪ Ff = μ v (Fcor cosβ−FG sinα sinβ−Fce sinβ ) + μd (Fce sinα + FG cosα )
⎪ dr Due to the effect of the centrifugal inertia force, after the fertilizer
⎪ Fcor = 2mωv cosα = 2mω dt (3) particle leaves the conical disc and the angled pitch vane, it is subject to
⎩
the effects of gravity and air resistance, among other factors, causing it
where α is the conical angle of the disc, °; β is the pitch angle of vane, °;
to follow a helically-curved trajectory through the air, as shown in
Fig. 4. From the mechanical analysis of forces, it can be see that the
conditions necessary for fertilizer granules to leave the fertilizer
spreading disc are that the applied centrifugal force must be greater
than sliding friction resistance, as follows
30 μg
mr0 ω2 > μmg ⇒ n >
π r0 (6)

where m is the particle mass, kg; r0 is the distance from the original
position of the particle to the center of rotation, m; μ is the coefficient of
friction between the spreading disc and particle; and ω is the rotational
angular velocity of the disc, rad/s, such that
2πn
ω=
60 (7)

It can be seen from Fig. 4 that the kinematic velocity of the particle
in the horizontal direction (xp) and vertical (y) can be described by
dx p 1 dy 1
v0 = · = ·
Fig. 3. Mechanical analysis of forces acting upon a fertilizer particle on the centrifugal dt cosα dt sinα (8)
spreader disc.
According to the principles of aerodynamics, the air resistance Fw

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Fig. 4. Kinematic analysis of the trajectory of a moving

fertilizer particle through the air.

acting on the fertilizer particle moving in the air is 2.3. Working principle

1 The developed applicator has suspension traction and exhibits a

Fw = ·ρ CSv 2
2 a (9)
high degree of automation and uniform spreading distribution. These
where C is the coefficient of air resistance; ρa is the air density, kg/m3; S factors help in improving the fertilizer utilization rate and therefore the
is the windward area of particle, m2; and v is the relative velocity of the production efficiency, making the applicator suitable for large-scale
particle with respect to the air, m/s. modernized agriculture. During the fertilization, the normalized dif-
According to Newton's second law, the force equilibrium equations ference vegetation index (NDVI) values of the crop canopy are acquired
for particle movement in the xp and y directions, respectively are in real time using a GreenSeeker™ spectrum detection system. The NDVI
values are then transmitted to the vehicle-mounted control terminal
2 through a wireless serial interface module. The target fertilizer rate is
⎧ m d x2p = −Fw cosα
dt determined in real time using a variable-rate fertilization expert deci-
⎨ m d2y = −F sinα−mg sion system (installed on the CPU), which is based on the optimization
w
⎩ dt2 (10) of the Raun model (Raun et al., 2005). The feedback information such
as the current walking speed, rotational speed of the disc, and the
where
opening feed gate of the fertilizer can (particle flow rate) is integrated
π πd 2 into the system. A core controller (STM32 microcontroller) is in-
m= ρp d3, S = corporated in the decision-making system to drive a stepper motor and
6 4 (11)
adjust the opening of the feed gate of the fertilizer can. Accordingly, a
This is substituted into the simultaneous equations to yield real-time online crop fertilizer applicator and a relatively precise vari-
able-rate fertilization are achieved.
⎧ d2xp = −k dxp dxp 2 dy 2
⎪ dt2 dt ( ) +( )
dt dt
3. Materials and methods
⎨ d2y dxp 2 dy 2

⎩
dy
⎪ dt2 = −g−k dt ( ) +( )
dt dt
(12) 3.1. DEM model for simulating the spreader

where
The applicator model was built using the parametric three-dimen-
3 Cρ sional (3D) modeling tool Pro/E, which was integrated with the DEM
k= · a software, EDEM (extended distinct element method). In addition, a
4 dρp (13)
virtual driver and a constraint assembly were included. The model in

Fig. 5. Assembly and simulation drawing of cen-

trifugal spreader.

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Table 1 Table 2
Material properties of particles. Test conditions for each parameter setting.

Parameter Particle Ground Steel Parameter Pitch Flow rate q Disc height h Rotational Intervals
angle β speed ω
Poisson's ratio 0.24 0.51 0.3
Shear modulus/MPa 10.76 1.1 × 102 7 × 104 Variable −30° to 300 g/s 95 cm 600 rpm 15°
Density/(kg m−3) 1.38 × 103 1.25 × 103 7.8 × 103 angle 30°
Variable 15° 100–500 g/s 95 cm 600 rpm 100 g/s
Contact mechanical Elastic recovery Particle to 0.27
rate
parameters coefficient particle
Variable 15° 300 g/s 50–110 cm 600 rpm 15 cm
Ground to 0.06
height
particle
Variable 15° 300 g/s 95 cm 300–900 rpm 150 rpm
Steel to particle 0.29
speed
Friction coefficient Particle to 0.26
particle
Ground to 1.20
particle repeated thrice. The coefficient of variation is given as follows:
Steel to particle 0.59
Static friction Particle to 0.34 SD
⎧CV = X × 100%
coefficient particle
⎪ 1
Ground to 1.13 ⎪ n 2
particle ⎪ SD = ⎧∑ [(X −X )2]/(n−1) ⎫
i
Steel to particle 0.48
⎨ ⎨ i=1 ⎬
⎩ ⎭
Average diameter of particle/mm 4.02 ⎪ n
⎪ X = 1 ∑ Xi (i = 1,2,3,…,n)
⎪ n
⎩ i=1 (14)
the .igs format was imported into the EDEM solving environment. Fig. 5
shows the assembly components. where Cv is the coefficient of variation of the particle distribution, SD is
the standard deviation reflecting the quality of the fertilizer, X is the
average quality of the fertilizer particles, and Xi is the quality of the
3.2. Fertilizer characterization
fertilizer particles in the ith collection pan, and n is the total number of
collecting pans.
A potassium chloride (KCl)-based fertilizer was used for the tests in
this study. For convenience, it was assumed that the fertilizer particles
were spherical (Hu et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2013). The particles were
3.4. Field test method
sampled randomly and their physical properties were determined, such
as the average length (4.16 mm), the average width (4.09 mm), the
Field tests were carried out at the test station in the Yancheng
average thickness (3.84 mm), the equivalent diameter (4.02 mm), and
Yanhai Tractor Manufacturing Co., LTD, in Jiangsu, on April 2017, to
the sphericity (96.8%). Table 1 lists the related contact mechanical
verify the accuracy of the simulation model and the rationality of the
characteristic parameters between the spreader disc (vane), the ferti-
virtual structure optimization. The weather was clear, the temperature
lizer particles, and the ground. The default Hertz–Mindlin contact
was in the range of 15–25 °C, the wind speed was below 2.0 m/s (in
model without sliding, which is available in the EDEM software, was
conformance with the test wind speed stated in ASAE standard), and the
used for the simulation analysis. The particle factory was set up for
ground was relatively flat. The testing area was 450 m2, the relative
20 kg of particles generated statically. The rotational speed of the
humidity of the air was 42%, and the absolute moisture content of the
centrifugal spreader disc was in the range of 300–900 rpm, the fertilizer
soil was 21%. The test methods and indices were in compliance with
outlet-flow rate was in the range of 100–500 g/s, and the simulation
the standards GB/T 5262-2008 (General Rules for the Determination of
time was 10 s. These values were consistent with actual movement in
Agricultural Mechanical Test Conditions), ISO 5690, and ASAE S341.2.
the field and were chosen to improve the accuracy of the simulations.
Fig. 6 shows some images taken during the spreader field experiment.
A plastic film was laid on the test area (30 m × 14 m) to reduce
3.3. Simulation design fertilizer wastage, and soft cotton cloths were placed on each collection
pan to reduce the error due to bouncing effect of the fertilizer. A total of
The DEM model of the developed fertilizer applicator was imported 150 collection pans (each with dimensions of
into the simulation calculation module of the EDEM software (v2.2). 50.6 cm × 40.8 cm × 10.2 cm) were placed in a 15 row × 10 column
The important parameters affecting the particle trajectory, such as the arrangement, at intervals of 1.5 m along the columns and 0.8 m along
pitch angle of the vane, rotating speed of the disc, opening size of the the rows. The quality of the fertilizer granules (labeled and then saved
can (spread flow rate), and disc height (the distance between the in bags) in each collection pan was evaluated to characterize the fer-
spreader disc and the ground), were selected to investigate the effects of tilizer transverse distribution. The amount of fertilizer was then ad-
different parameter values on the fertilizer distribution uniformity on justed such that it filled half the can and the spreader was calibrated on
the basis of the kinematic and dynamic theoretical analyses of the the basis of the conditions of each test. After running smoothly in the
spreading particles. In compliance with the test method specified in ISO stable region, the spreader was made to run on the measurement area
5690 and ASAE 341.2 for centrifugal spreaders (ISO 5690-2, 1984; (area with the collection pans). The spreader was halted at the end of a
ASAE S341.2), 2100 collection pans (35 rows × 60 columns), each with row to ensure the accuracy of the test in determining region. The values
a size of 50.8 cm × 40.6 cm × 10.2 cm, were produced in the virtual of the parameters (such as the pitch angle of the vane, rotational speed
test area (30 m × 14 m) as the ground; the ground speed of the spreader of the disc, distributing flow rate, and the spreading height) were ad-
was maintained at 1.2 m/s walking through the center of the arranged justed during the trial. A model of the fertilizer particle distribution was
pans. Further, the particles in the collection pans, which were used to then built in consideration of the effective swath width and was used to
represent the single-line fertilizer distribution, were evaluated. The determine the coefficient of variation in each case. The obtained results
particle transverse distribution coefficient of variation was calculated to were compared with the simulation results. Fig. 7 shows the walking
assess the spreading performance of the applicator and Table 2 presents track and an array of collection pans.
the test conditions for each parameter setting. Each experiment was

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Fig. 6. Test of spreading fertilizer in field.
4. Results and analysis
4.1. Transverse distribution shape and calibration of flow rate
Based on the operation characteristics of the spreader, the trans-
verse distribution of the applied fertilizer particles is symmetric about
the axis of the fertilizer applicator. Moreover, because of the differences
in the particle physical properties, spreader working parameters, and
operating environment, the shapes of the distributions are largely
Gaussian, triangular, M type, and W type, as shown in Fig. 8(a). The
optimal distribution is Gaussian because the Cv in the effective swath
width (excluding steep distribution in edge) is minimum under this
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
condition. The Cv values for the W and M type distributions within the
effective swath width are relatively high.
The feed flow rate of the two fertilizer cans need to be calibrated for
accurately determining the different characteristics of fertilizer appli-
cation. A commonly used compound fertilizer was selected for the test,
and feed flow rates were determined for different feed opening angles
(calibration) such as 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30°. The collection bags were
covered in each feed gate during the fertilizer trials, and each test was
conducted for 10 s. The distributed flow rate was calculated indirectly
by evaluating the fertilizer quality in a single test bag, repeated three
times for each test. Fig. 8(b) shows the calibration test results, wherein
the test deviation is 12.14% or lower. Further, it shows that the flow
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of collection pan matrix.
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Fig. 8. Transverse distribution shape of spreading particle and calibration of particle flow rate.
rate has a quadratic polynomial positive correlation with the increase in
the opening feed gate angle, because of the tendency of the fertilizer
particles to readily distribute.
4.2. Test results and analysis
4.2.1. Effects of pitch angle of vane
For a fertilizer rate of 225 kg/hm2, the effect of different pitch an-
gles of the vane on the spreader performance was investigated. Fig. 9(a)
shows the test results. With the increase in the pitch angle of the vane,
the transverse distribution shape of the fertilizer particles varies ran-
domly. When β = −30°, the shape of the particle distribution is largely
M type (low fertilizer rate at the center), the application standard de-
viation is 16.54, and the Cv in the effective swath width is the max-
imum, i.e., 24.33%. When β = 15°, the particle distribution shape is
somewhat W type (high fertilizer rate at the center), the standard de-
viation for the applied fertilizer rate is 9.36, and Cv is minimum, i.e.,
12.23%. Fig. 9(b) clearly shows that when β increases from − 30° to
15°, Cv gradually decreases; however, when β increases from 15° to 30°,
Cv gradually increases. Therefore, when β = 15°, Cv is minimum and a
better spreading consistency is obtained.
4.2.2. Effects of disc height
The effects of different spreader disc heights on the spreader per-
formance were investigated. Fig. 10(a) shows the test results. The
variation in the particle distribution shape is irregular with respect to
Fig. 9. Effect of pitch angle of vane on spreading performance. Note: Here the long axis represents the pitch angle of vane, the broad axis represents the transverse distribution distance
and the high axis represents the application rate.
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
the disc height of the spreader. The coefficient of particle distribution
decreases with the increase in the disc height. When h = 110 cm, the
standard deviation for the applied fertilizer rate was 7.91, and Cv in the
effective swath width is minimum, i.e., 14.81%. When h = 60 cm, the
standard deviation for the applied fertilizer rate was 14.98, and Cv is
maximum, i.e., 24.88%. Further analysis of the 3D model, shown in
Fig. 10(b), shows that the effective swath width of the fertilizer particle
distribution improves with the increase in the spreading disc height;
this may be because the kinematic velocity of the particles increases
with a higher disc height, thus increasing the effective swath width.
However, under this condition, the rate at which the fertilizer is applied
to concentrated area is lower. Therefore, to ensure an effective site-
specific fertilizer rate and an effective swath width, a spreader disc
height of 95 cm was employed, thus obtaining a Cv of 16.71% and
achieving better uniformity of the spreader.
4.2.3. Effects of flow rate
The effects of different fertilizer flow rates on the spreader perfor-
mance were investigated. Fig. 11(a) shows the test results. The shape of
the fertilizer particle distribution varies significantly with the change in
the flow rate. Cv first decreases rapidly and subsequently in a gradual
manner; however, the change in Cv was insignificant with the increase
in the fertilizer application rate. When q = 100 g/s, the shape of the
particle distribution is triangular, the standard deviation for the ap-
plication rate was 8.71, and Cv in the effective swath width was the
highest, i.e., 42.51%. However, when q = 300 g/s, the shape of the
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Fig. 10. Effect of disc height on spreading performance. Note: Here the long axis represents the disc height, the broad axis represents the transverse distribution distance and the high axis
represents the application rate.
particle distribution is M type, the standard deviation for the applica-
tion rate is 11.92, and Cv is minimum, i.e., 14.25%. The 3D model, in
Fig. 11(b), shows that with the increase in the fertilizer flow rate, the
effective swath width of the fertilizer particle distribution increases.
The shape of the particle distribution changes from M type (low ap-
plication rate) to W type (high application rate). Moreover, the change
in Cv for a flow rate in the range of 300–500 g/s is insignificant. This is
because the lower the fertilizer application rate, the more irregular and
disordered is the particle distribution and higher is the distribution
coefficient of variation. With the gradual increase in the fertilizer ap-
plication rate, the number of interactions between the particles in-
creases, thereby increasing the effective distribution swath width.
However, when the fertilizer application rate reaches a specific value,
some of the fertilizer accumulates near the center of the double
spreader discs, thus changing the shape of the fertilizer distribution to a
W type. On the basis of the applied fertilizer rate (225 kg/hm2), the
particle flow rate was determined to be 300 g/s.
4.2.4. Effects of disc rotation speed
The effects of different disc rotation speeds on the spreader per-
formance were investigated. Fig. 12(a) shows the test result. With the
increase in the disc rotation speed, the shape of the fertilizer particle
distribution gradually changes from triangular to W type and ultimately
to M type and the effective swath width of the particle distribution
Fig. 11. Effect of flow rate on spreading performance. Note: Here the long axis represents the spreading flow rate, the broad axis represents the transverse distribution distance and the
high axis represents the application rate.
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
gradually increases. When ω = 300 rpm, the standard deviation for the
fertilizer application rate is 40.02, and Cv in the spreading effective
swath width is maximum, i.e., 56.14%. When ω = 900 r/min, the
standard deviation for the fertilizer application rate is 6.60, and Cv is
minimum, i.e., 12.74%. Fig. 12(b) shows that Cv decreases with the
increase in ω; however, the spreader effective swath width increases
with the increase in ω. This could be explained by the fact that the
lower the rotational speed, the lower is the centrifugal stress acting on
the particles, and the lower the kinematic velocity, the smaller is the
effective swath width. Therefore, granular fertilizers easily accumulate
near the spreader disc, resulting in an uneven distribution and an in-
crease in Cv. With the increase in the rotational speed, the centrifugal
force on the particle increases, thereby increasing the swath width and
resulting in a relatively uniform fertilizer distribution. Under the con-
dition of a constant feed-gate flow rate, the rate of fertilizer applied to
the concentration area would be lower. For rotational speeds above
600 rpm, the particle distribution transformation law is unclear and the
variation in Cv for values lower than 15% is largely constant. Therefore,
a rotational speed of 600 r/min was considered the critical speed, at
which the variation in the particle distribution curve is minimum and
the spreader exhibits a good fertilizer uniformity.
S. Yinyan et al.
Fig. 12. Effect of disc speed on spreading performance. Note: Here the long axis represents the disc speed, the broad axis represents the transverse distribution distance and the high axis
represents the application rate.
4.3. Validation test for optimal parameters
A better set of spreader working parameters were determined for
the field validation tests by conducting the above analysis, including
q = 300 g/s, β = 15°, h = 95 cm, and ω = 600 r/min. Each test was
repeated three times for the mean parameters, with the aim intent of
verifying the rationality and the accuracy of the simulation model and
confirming the spreader performance under the set of parameters.
Three random field tests are shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13 and Table 3 present the longitudinal test results. A few ir-
regular sharp points are seen in the figures because of the good liquidity
of the fertilizer granules and their dynamic shear stress. For the optimal
working parameter combination, the average effective swath width,
average fertilizer application rate, average Cv in the effective swath
width, and maximum test deviation were approximately 25.2 m, 79.6 g
per unit area, 16.74%, and 4.75%, respectively. These values comply
with the operating requirements of general centrifugal fertilizer
spreaders and the industrial standard given in “Technical Specification
of Quality Evaluation for Fertilizing Machinery” (Cv ≤ 20%)
(NYT1003-2006). The field test result has a relative mean error of
10.66% relative to the simulation results. Therefore, the accuracy and
validity of the simulation model is verified, demonstrating that the si-
mulation tests are capable of simulating the field spreader model of the
centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicator and reducing labor work.
5. Discussion
The study results show that the established simulation model can be
used to simulate the field-spreading performance of the developed
Fig. 13. Transverse distribution of field test by optimized working parameters. Note: Here the long axis represents the longitudinal distance, the broad axis represents the transverse
distribution distance and the high axis represents the application rate.
257
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicator, evaluate the spreader
consistency, provide a reference value for field walking track of cen-
trifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicators, and improve or modify
conventional empirical fertilization application methods.
This investigation was conducted to assess the accuracy of a cen-
trifugal variable-rate applicator and determine the relationship be-
tween the fertilizer particle transverse distribution and working para-
meters (Shi et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2017; Villette et al.,
2017). The parameterized modeling software Pro/E 5.0 and software
EDEM were integrated to set up a model of the developed centrifugal
variable-rate fertilizer applicator based on spectral technology
(Liedekerke et al., 2009). The spreader performance study was con-
ducted by setting the corresponding material properties and working
parameters. The shape of the particle transverse distribution varies
significantly with the increase in the pitch angle of the vane. In parti-
cular, when the pitch angle is 15°, the distribution was slightly W
shaped and the coefficient of variation was minimum, i.e., 12.23%. The
coefficient of variation decreases with the increase in the spreader disc
height. In particular, when the height is 110 cm, the coefficient of
variation in the effective swath width is minimum, i.e., 14.81%. The
coefficient of variation first decreases rapidly and subsequently in a
gradual manner whereas the feed-gate flow rate increases gradually.
When the flow rate is 300 g/s, the distribution is M shaped, and the
coefficient of variation is minimum, i.e., 14.25%. With the increase in
the rotational speed of the disc, the shape of the fertilizer particle dis-
tribution gradually changes from triangular to W and finally to M type
(Fulton et al., 2001). For a rotational speed of 600 rpm (critical speed),
the variation in the particle distribution curve is negligible and the
applicator exhibits a good spreading uniformity.
S. Yinyan et al.
Table 3
Test result of field comparison test.
Test Spreader width (m) Application rate (g/m2) Variable coefficient (%)
1 2
Simulation 22.5–26.7 66.7–84.1 12.23
Field 23.1–27.4 72.6–86.5 14.18
With the optimization of the working parameters, i.e., single feed-
gate flow rate of 300 g/s, vane pitch angle of 15°, spreader disc height
of 95 cm, and the disc rotation speed of 600 rpm, the field-validation
test results show that the average coefficient of variation of the particle
distribution in the effective swath width was 16.74%, which complies
with the mechanical requirements of relevant standards pertaining to
centrifugal spreaders (Zubimendi, 2015). In addition, the relative error
of the field-validation test was 10.66% with respect to the simulation
results; this verified the accuracy and validity of the simulation models.
6. Conclusions
A model was developed reflecting the relationships between the
variation pattern of the fertilizer particle distribution and working
parameters in this study. The field verification tests conducted by em-
ploying the optimum parameters helped in verifying the accuracy and
validity of the simulation model. In addition, the spreader consistency
was evaluated, contributing to reducing considerable manual work and
test costs associated with time and area usage. The spreader effective
swath width and mean fertilizer application rate per unit area obtained
in this study could provide necessary technical reference for de-
termining the route for an efficient fertilization route and facilitating
conventional empirical fertilization based on variable-rate fertilizer
applicators.
The results of this study indicate that the established simulation
model can be used to simulate the field spreading performance of the
developed centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicator, evaluate the
uniformity and consistency of fertilizer spreading, reduce the workload
amount of scientific research required, provide reference values for the
of centrifugal variable-rate fertilizer applicators, and improve or modify
conventional empirical fertilization application methods. In the future,
the authors plan to determine accurate fertilizer application rate for
centrifugal variable-rate applicators in consideration of the complex
operation environment unique to agricultural machinery and varying
demand for crop fertilizers.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the
National Key Project of Research and Development Program (Grant No.
2016YFD0200602-4) and The Scientific Research Innovation Projects of
Ordinary University Graduate Students in Jiangsu Province (Grant No.
KYLX16_1017). The authors would like to thank the teacher’s and su-
pervisor’s technical support. We also appreciate the assistance provided
by brothers and sisters during the tests, and we would like to thank
Editage for providing English language editing. We are also grateful to
the editor and anonymous reviewers for providing helpful suggestions
to improve the quality of the present paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.12.015.
258
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 144 (2018) 249–259
Largest deviation Relative error (%)
3
16.71 14.25 4.48 10.66
18.93 17.12 4.75
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