1(c)

We learn typically from thermodynamics is that A branch of physics, thermodynamics is

the study of the relationship between properties of heat, temperature, energy, and
work.Central to that relationship and to the laws of thermodynamics are the concepts of
entropy and the Internal Energy Formula.The Internal Energy Formula, or the First Law
of Thermodynamics, states that energy can be converted from one form to another with
the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but cannot be created or
destroyed.Entropy in thermodynamics describes the measure of a system’s thermal
energy per unit of temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work.The field of
thermodynamics grew out of the drive in the 19th century to improve on the efficiency of
the steam engine. With roots in mechanical engineering, basic thermodynamics is
taught in most engineering degree programs. TD applications are as follows:
Refrigeration and air conditioning, Power plants, Industrial processes, IC and EC
engines, Heat pumps, Heat engines, combustion in (aircrafts, jets, marine enginesand
every combustion unit be it a furnace, or engine). Thermodynamic cycles are used in
each definite and vast areas. For ex: Otto cycle for petrol engine, Rankine cycle for
steam power plant, brayton cycle for gas turbines, Bell colemen cycle for refrigerator,
diesel cycle for diesel engine, and the fanous Carnot cycle as a standard for all the
above cycles. The application of thermodynamics translates across engineering
specialties to include chemical thermodynamics, thermodynamics physics, and fluid
mechanics, among others.As a result of its wide applicability, thermodynamics
engineers can find employment in several industries, including thermodynamics
chemistry and chemical manufacturing, aerospace, and mechanical parts, engines,
electronics and electrical engineering fields. With implications for many areas of physics
and engineering, a career in thermodynamics can prepare you for a wide variety of
roles. In-depth knowledge of the production and redistribution of energy is crucial and
coveted in industrial fields and science in our constantly changing and technologically
advancing world.
3(c)

Scientists are currently working on the world’s first molecular transistor, made from a
single benzene molecule. This type of transistor doesn’t create nearly as much wasted
heat as our present day silicon transistors.We’re also attempting to replace silicon with
graphene, which can transfer electrons much quicker than silicon. The only hangup?
We still can’t figure out how to reliably manufacture graphene. If we can get it working at
a reasonable cost, graphene will make our computer processors 1,000 times faster than
silicon. Let’s bring things back to the present to understand how transistors have
completely changed computers in two areas – logic and memory. By putting many
transistors together, you can make something called a logic gate. This allows you to
compare incoming currents, and send out different outputs depending on your
programmed logic.These logic gates allow a computer to make decisions with the help
of Boolean algebra. If you’ve dabbled in programming, then these should be familiar,
including booleans like AND, OR, NOT, etc… Combining all of this logic together is
what makes our computer software run, providing a series of instructions for our
computers to carry out. Transistors are also used to power all of the memory in our
computers. By hooking up logic gates in a particular pattern, you can create output
connections that feedback into input connections. This creates a kind of pattern where
transistors will stay on even after their base current is removed, leaving a transistor in
what’s called a stable state on or off state. Multiply this by millions or billions of stable
state transistors, and you soon find yourself with an arrangement of constantly on and
off transistors that can store data as both 1s and 0s. For only coming into existence
around 70 years ago, transistors have had a heck of a ride, growing from dozens to
hundreds and now even millions and billions of transistors in our everyday computing
devices! These semiconductor components round out our look into the fascinating world
of active components that play a dynamic role in the growth of our electronic designs.

4(c)

The factor that generates a key difference between half wave rectifier and full wave
rectifier is that a half wave rectifier shows unidirectional nature and hence makes use of
only one-half cycle of applied input. While the full wave rectifier shows bidirectional
nature as both the halves of the input signal is utilized at the time of operation.
A circuit of half wave rectifier requires only 1 diode. While 2 or even 4 diodes are also
utilized in the circuit of full wave rectifier.
The fundamental ripple frequency in case of half wave rectifier is f i.e., supplied input
frequency (50 Hz). While it is twice the supplied frequency i.e., 2f (100 Hz) in case of full
wave rectifiers.
A half wave rectifier has good voltage regulation. However, full wave rectifiers provide
better voltage regulation as compared to half wave rectifiers.
The ripple factor in case of half wave rectifier is more in comparison to the full wave
rectifier. For half-wave rectifier, it is about 1.21 but for full wave rectifier, it is 0.482.
The peak inverse voltage in case of half wave rectifier is equivalent to the maximum
value of applied input voltage. While peak inverse voltage of full wave rectifier is twice
the maximum value of applied input voltage. A full wave rectifier converts both halves of
the AC power to DC. It is more efficient than a half wave rectifier but requires a bit more
circuitry. A half wave requires one diode and a filter capacitor. A full wave (bridge)
rectifier requires four diodes and a non-grounded (balanced) transformer secondary
coil. With full wave rectification, the amount of "filtering" (=series inductors and/or shunt
capacitors) required to achieve adequately smooth DC is reduced in a major way.
These filtering elements can add significantly to the size and cost of the equipment, so
reducing what is required can pay off "big time."
A full-wave rectifier passes twice as many pulses as does a half-wave rectifier.

So more of input power is transferred to the load. More efficient.