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TORTURE OF OFFICIALS IN THE MIDDLE AGES: A LOOK INTO THE DEPTHS OF

ISLAMIC POLITICAL HISTORY

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International Journal of Arts & Sciences,
CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 08(04):449–460 (2015)

TORTURE OF OFFICIALS IN THE MIDDLE AGES: A LOOK INTO THE

DEPTHS OF ISLAMIC POLITICAL HISTORY

Samir Kittaniy

Al-Qasemi College of Education, Israel

This paper constitutes an inquiry into the methods used in the execution and torture of members of the
upper classes who occupied senior positions at the head of the political pyramid in Islamic states and
mini-states. The officials in question held various top administrative posts, including caliph, vizier,
commander of the army and official scribe. Written historical sources testify to the means used to
torture these officials. Islam as a religion does not permit any physical or mental against a Muslim's
person, certainly not against those at the head of the Islamic state, the caliph and his helpers. However,
the political reality as reflected in historical and adab compositions included a great deal of violence
against the senior officials of the state. Of course, violence against rulers (and subjects) is not unknown
in every human civilization, but the present study aims at shedding light on the political system in
medieval Islamic civilization.

Keywords: Islam, Arabic, Middle East, Middle Ages, Religion.

Introduction

It is no easy matter to trace the reports that speak about torture and describe it, both because of the sheer
size of the literary and historical corpus and because such reports are often interspersed with other
historical or literary materials. In addition, the different reports do not all agree with each other
concerning the methods used.
It is quite possible that readers will not find the following depiction of the tortures inflicted on
caliphs and their helpers admirable or amusing. Indeed, the present paper may be considered a
preliminary scholarly attempt to arouse interest in the political and security situation under which the
caliphs, their assistants and their dependants lived in the Islamic state, by way of exploiting existing texts
in order to gain a deeper understanding of political life under Islam in the Middle Ages.
The accounts of the killing of caliphs and senior officials are usually quite vivid. However, our
interest lies neither in the reliability of the reports nor in an assessment of the reasons given for such acts
of vengeance against them. Here we present the reports as they have reached us, treating them as probably
true, or at least as reliable as the other facts which the same sources report about various periods in
history, especially that of the Abbasid caliphate, which was a time when the Islamic world underwent a
number of occasionally contradictory cultural upheavals. The Persians and other non-Arab peoples came
to play a prominent role in the state's political, administrative and intellectual life and in Abbasid society.
It is thus quite likely that they introduced customs, traditions and practices into Islamic civilization which
they had inherited from their original cultures, among them some of the torture practices that we shall
present below.

449
450 Torture of Officials in the Middle Ages: ...

We shall restrict ourselves to a selection of examples of victims of political violence that will, we
believe, provide a sufficiently general picture of the ever increasing violence that beset the courts of
caliphs and sultans, especially in the Abbasid period. The various torture methods will be organized and
arranged in tabular form.
It should be noted that the examples that will be provided in this paper are the fruit of a very careful
perusal of the relevant historical and literary sources. Examples of descriptions of torture are not easy to
find, and we were forced to examine numerous works in order to locate the materials needed for the study.

The Position of Islamic Law on the Status of the Ruler

Islam commands that the ruler be treated with great reverence, since he is charged with the task of caring
for and managing the affairs of the Muslims. The caliph in the Islamic state is called imam ("leader") and
also amir al-mu'minin ("commander of the believers").
The post of imam is very highly regarded in the Muslim religion; in status it is considered second
only to that of a prophet.1 Various Muslim sources quote numerous utterances in praise of the imamate
and the caliphate.2All Islamic political theories are based in the fundamental premise that an Islamic
regime must be based on the shari'a. Because it is thus subordinate to theology, political science in Islam
cannot be based on free theorizing. Religion in Islam was never detached from politics, nor was politics
ever detached from ethics.3Several verses in the Qur'an speak about the lofty status of the ruler in the
Islamic state, obedience to whom is deemed an aspect of obedience to the deity. The importance of the
ruler was also stressed numerous times by the Prophet. The concept of the imamate was treated by a great
many Muslim jurists and thinkers, among them al-Mawardi, Ibn al-Farra', Ibn Khaldun, al-Qal'i, Ibn al-
Azraq, Ibn Taymiyya, Qudama b. Ja'far and others.4In fact, the imamate became a major subject of
contention and debate among Muslim scholars.
The rulers themselves (caliphs, sultans and governors) were very violent and their rage often led
them to kill their closest associates. That is why adab literature is so full of sharp admonitions concerning
the duties which are owed by those with whom they come into contact, whether as colleagues or relatives.
These duties encompass many different matters. These include the duty to give advice to the ruler,5
to refrain as much as possible from too close an association with him,6 to refrain from uttering lies in his

1
Al-Tartushi, Siraj al-muluk (Light of the Kings), 101; Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Misbah al-mudi' (The Illuminating Lamp),
134-136; al-Mawsili, Husn al-suluk (Excellence of Comportment), 48; Ibn al-Azraq, Bada'i' al-silk (Marvels of
Behavior), 1:83-84.
2
For example, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur said to al-Mahdi when he appointed him as regent: "Join grace with
thanks, power with forgiveness, obedience with affection and victory with modesty. Know that only piety and
justice are fitting for a caliph". See: Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Misbah al-mudi', 135.
3
A. K. S. Lambton, "Islamic Political Thought", in The Legacy of Islam, p 404.
4
See al-Mawardi, al-Ahkam al-sultaniyya (The Sultan's Regulations), 5; Ibn Radwan, al-Shuhub al-lami'a (The
Shining Stars), 14; Ibn al-Azraq, Bada'i' al-silk, 1/90; al-Qal'i, Tahdhib al-Riyasa (Instruction for Leadership), 74;
Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima (Introduction), 1:202; Qudama b. Ja'far, al-Kharaj (Land Tax), chapter on al-siyasa
("policy"), 49-51; see also Sherwani, Studies in Muslim Political Thought and Adminstration, pp. 101-102; J.H.
Kramers- [C.E Bosworth], "Sultan", EI2, vol. 9, pp. 849-851; Gibb & Hamilton, Studies on the Civilization of Islam,
185-189.
5
Al-Mawardi (ascribed), Nasihat al-muluk (Advice of Kings), 43-46, 49-53; al-Basti, Rawdat al-'uqala' (Garden of
the Wise), 259; al-Asadi, al-Taysir wal-i'tibar (Facilitation and Warning), 102; al-Tartushi, Siraj al-muluk (Light of
Kings), 121. The ruler is required to gather around himself knowledgeable people and experts in Islamic law who
will provide him with sage advice. In Muslim speculum regis literature the idea that the ruler needs to seek advice is
based on a famed saying of the Prophet: "Religion is advice. He was asked: For whom? He replied: For God, His
Prophet, the Muslim imams and their associates". See: al-Tabari, al-Mu'jam al-kabir (The Great Lexicon), 2:53; al-
Mawardi, Nasihat al-muluk, 43; Ibn Taymiyya, al-Siyasa al-shar'iyya (Policy and Islamic law), 139.
6
Ethical and exhortatory writings are filled with warnings against association with the ruler. This is especially true
of Ibn al-Muqaffa', who considered association with rulers an affliction. Among his numerous statements to this
effect is the following: "If you are afflicted with accompanying the ruler you must be filled with great perseverance
 Samir Kittaniy 451

presence7 and absolute obedience to the ruler even at the expense of one's own welfare or life. The ruler's
close associates are urged to be patient if the ruler disagrees with their views and even when he treats
them cruelly in word or deed.
Clearly the fact that such issues receive so much attention in speculum regis literature is a reflection
of the constant fear in which the ruler's "close associates" live. That is why Ibn al-Muqaffa' advises his
readers not to seek the proximity of the ruler unless one is prepared to adopt a specific mode of behavior,8
in his words: "You must comply if put to the test, steadfast if brought close, loyal if trusted, teach them
while giving them the impression that you are learning from them, educate them and make as if they are
educating you, thank them without demanding thanks from them, be aware of their whims, act to their
benefit, be submissive if they wrong you, acquiesce if they enrage you. If you cannot, then stay as far
away from them as you can, and be on your guard against them.9

Methods of Torturing Rulers and Senior Officials

The method
Forced drinking of a laxative
Gouging out the eye(s)
The way it was carried out
The laxative was put in food or
drink. The victim took it into
himself. This was done in order to
defame or ridicule.
A sharp hot object is inserted into
the eye (sometimes into both eyes)
in order to blind the victim, or a
harmful material akin to antimony
is put inside the eyelids, which are
then wrapped in a dressing.11
Examples from Islamic
history of the method's
victims
Yazid b. Mufarragh al-
Hemiari10
The Abbasid caliph al-
Qahir12
The Abbasid caliph al-
Muttaqi13
The Abbasid caliph al-
Mustakfi14

and refrain from scolding". See al-Adab al-saghir wal-adab al-kabir (Adab and Literature), 80; al-Tha'alibi, al-
Tamthil wal-muhadara (Representation and Lecture), 102. "If you are afflicted with a ruler, seek fortification from
scholars". See: Ibn al-Muqaffa', op.cit., 68; Maskawayh, al-Hikma al-Khalida (Eternal Wisdom), 294. Sadan has
studied the way rulers have been compared to the sea in Arab culture, from both its positive and its negative aspects,
see: J. Sadan, "Vine, Women and Seas", Journal of Semitic Studies 34:142-152. See also Hawwa, Sa'id, Fusul fi al-
imra wal-imara, (Chapters on Power and Authority), 110-111.
7
Ibn al-Muqaffa' says: "Do not think lightly of sending a lie to the ruler or anyone else in jest, for it quickly nullifies
the truth and repels the truth". See: al-Adab al-saghir wal-adab al-kabir, 88.
8
See: al-Jabiri, Muhammad, al-'Aql al-siyasi al-'arabi (Arab Political Mentality), 345.
9
Ibn al-Muqaffa', al-Adab al-saghir wal-adab al-kabir, 96-97.
10
The first recorded case of the use of this torture method was by ‫ޏ‬Ubayd Allah b. Ziyad, who used it to torment
Yazid b. Mufarragh, because the latter had mocked his father and his children. See: al-Asfahani, al-Aghani (Songs),
18:272-273.
11
Gouging out the eyes was a method of torture used very frequently against senior officials and the rulers
themselves. The method came into common use in the third century AH/ninth century CE. It was used against
political rivals and was usually carried out by specialists (in general physicians). See: al-Shaliji, 'Abbud, Mawsu'at
al-'adhab (Encyclopedia of Torture), 4:81. According to Metz the practice was borrowed from the Byzantines. See:
al-Hadara al-islamiyya, 2:132. Gouging out the eyes was practiced especially during the late Abbasid period, when
Turkish troops controlled the caliphs, who became nothing more than puppets who could be removed after being
blinded. See: Hasan, Ibrahim Hasan, Tarikh al-islam al-siyasi (Political History of Islam), 3:9.
12
His full name: Abu al-Mansur Muhammad al-Qahir bi-Allah. Al-Radi ordered him to be blinded. The deed was
carried out by the physician Ibn Bakhtishu', who rubbed al-Qahir's eyes twice with a heated nail "until they flowed
on his cheeks", according to one historian's description. This was the first caliph whose eyes were removed. See: Ibn
al-Jawzi, ibid., 8:141-142; al-Balkhi (ascribed), Kitab al-bad' wal-tarikh (Book of Beginning and History), 2:304; al-
Suyuti, Tarikh al-khulafa' (History of the Caliphs), 306-307; Maskawayh, Tajarib al-umam (Experiences of
Nations), 1:292; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:186; see also al-Shalji, ‫ޏ‬Abbud, op. cit., 4:84.
452 Torture of Officials in the Middle Ages: ...

The housekeeper of the

caliph al-Mustakfi
Cutting off the tongue The tongue was pulled out with a Al-'Ukawwik16
sharp instrument and then Ibn al-Sakkit17
severed.15
Cutting off the nose Usually this involved severing part Ibn al-'Amid19
of the nose, especially the front
part.18
Removal of teeth The victim's teeth are extracted Ibn Abi al-Fawaris
with an iron instrument, or he is al-Qarmati20 and a
beaten on the face until his teeth number of others in
break. the reign of
al-Mu'tadid

13
He was blinded in order to make him unfit for the caliphate. This was arranged by 'Alam, al-Mustakfi bi-Allah's
housekeeper so that he would succeed him as caliph. It is reported that al-Muttaqi cried out in pain as he was being
blinded, and that his wives and servants cried out with him until the entire palace was shaken. Thereupon the
commander Tuzun gave an order to play the drums in order to drown out the sounds of al-Muttaqi's retinue. Ibn al-
Taqtaqa, al-Fakhri, 284; al-Suyuti, Tarikh al-khulafa', 312; Ibn al-Jawzi, op.cit., 8:227; Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:418-
419; Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya wal-nihaya, 11:218.
14
Full name: Sulayman b. Ahmad b. 'Ali, an Abbasid caliph. In his days raids were carried out against the Tartars,
under the command of the sultan al-Nasir Qalawun. He held his position as caliph for more than thirty-nine years.
He was blinded on the orders of Mu'izz al-Dawla al-Buwayhi, who thereupon removed him from office. See: Ibn al-
Jawzi, op.cit., 8:233; al-Balkhi (ascribed), op.cit., 2:305; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:220-221; al-Suyuti, op.cit., 313-314;
al-Mas'udi, op.cit., 4:370-371; al-Taqtaqa, op.cit., 287; Ibn Khaldun, Diwan al-mubtada' wal-khabar (Book of
Subject and Predicate), 3:522. See his biography in al-Zarkali, al-A'lam (The Notables), 3:121.
15
It is reported that the first to have used cutting the tongue was Ziyad b. Abih, the governor of Iraq in the Umayyad
period. The practice was then continued by many Umayyad caliphs. See: al-'Asqalani, Lisan al-mizan (Language of
the Balance), 3:473.
16
Full name: Abu al-Hasan 'Ali b. Jabala (d. 213 AH). He became blind due to smallpox at the age of seven. A
prominent poet, he wrote the praises of the caliph al-Ma'mun's commanders Abu Dalf (d. 226 AH) and Hamid al-
Tawsi (d. 210 AH) as well as his vizier al-Hasan b. Sahl. In the wake of al-'Ukawwid's panegyric for Abu Dalf the
caliph became jealous of the latter, whom the poet described as the best man in the world and unique among the
Arabs. Al-Ma'mun had Abu Dalf killed and summoned al-'Ukawwid, seized him and had his tongue removed. See:
al-Asfahani, al-Aghani, 8:263, 20:47-50; Ibn al-Jawzi, op.cit., 6:235-237 (al-Jawzi does mention the story, but
claims that it is false and that the poet managed to flee and died while in hiding in Baghdad). See also: Ibn Tayfur,
Kitab Baghdad (Book of Baghdad), 158-159; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 10:628-629.
17
Full name: Abu Yusuf Ya'qub b. Ishaq. His father was a philologist and he was a teacher of children, a
grammarian and a narrator of poetry. He wrote a number of works on language. He taught the future caliph al-
Mu'tazz when the latter was regent in the reign of al-Mutawakkil. His excessive praise for 'Ali b. Abi Talib and his
family so enraged al-Mutawakkil that he ordered his tongue removed. According to some reports this caused the
poet's death. See: Ibn Khallikan, op.cit., 3:400.
18
See: Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-'Arab (Language of the Arabs), 8:41-42, s.v. jd'; al-Zamakhshari, Asas al-balagha
(Fundamentals of Rhetoric), 84-85. It is reported that one Qasir tricked al-Zabba' into agreeing that 'Amr b. 'Udayy
should cut off the end of his nose. This gave rise to the saying: "Something for which Qasir cut off his nose", or "A
deception …". See the story in: al-Maydani, Majma; al-amthal (Compendium of Proverbs), 1:289-293 ("a petty
affair in a serious affair"), 2:229 ("for something for which Qasir cut off his nose").
19
Full name: Ya'qub b. Ishaq (d. 244/858), a prominent expert on language and literature. Originally from Khorasan,
he studied in Baghdad and became a companion of the caliph al-Mutawakkil. He was a profound writer and
composed epistles and poetry. He became a vizier of Rukn al-Dawla al-Buwayhi. 'Adad al-Dawla al-Buwayhi
punished him for a number of reasons: He gouged out one of his eyes, cut off his nose and shave his beard. See: al-
Hamawi, Mu'jam al-udaba' (Lexicon of Authors), 6:2841. On his relationship with his rival al-Sahib b. 'Abbad and
how the latter brought about his fall, see: Tabbana, Badawi, al-Sahib b. 'Abbad, 74-79. His biography can be found
in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 8:195.
20
See the story of his torture in: al-Mas'udi, op.cit., 4:270.
 Samir Kittaniy 453

Burning A fire is prepared and the victim is Abu al-Hasan al-Baridi22

thrown into it, often after having
been whipped or crucified. Also the
bodies of victims were burned after
beheading.21
Sleep deprivation The victim was not allowed to
sleep, and so suffered a mental
breakdown. Men would be
appointed to stand over the victim
and prod him whenever he began to
sleep. The purpose of this treatment
was to cause the victim to confess.
Whipping The victim is given a large number
of lashes, often over one-hundred
and occasionally up to one-
thousand. The implements used are
whips, floggers and rough ropes.
Al-Hasan b. Sahl, known as
"Shaylama"23
Ibn al-Zayyat24
Al-Fadl b. Yahya al-
Barmaki25
Ahmad b. Isra'il the scribe26
Al-Mu'ayyid, the caliph al-
Mu'tazz's regent27
Aban b. Bashir the scribe28
Ibn al-Furat29
The vizier al-Muhallabi30
A number of other viziers,
jurists and poets31

21
Death by burning was imposed on those who claimed to be prophets and on apostates; al-Hallaj, too, suffered this
punishment. See: Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 6:143; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-a'yan (Obituaries of Notables), 1:262-263.
22
An Abbasid vizier under the caliph al-Muttaqi. See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:442; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:201-211;
Ibn Khaldun, op.cit., 3:517.
23
There is some uncertainty concerning his nickname. He was with Sahib al-Zanj to the end of the latter's days. The
caliph al-Mu'tadid had him arrested and accused him of having taken part in a plot to overthrow him in favor of one
of the sons of al-Wathiq. He admitted the plot but refused to divulge to whom he was asked to give his allegiance.
Thereupon the caliph ordered him to be stretched between four poles. A fire was lit under him and he was turned
from side to side until he roasted and died, while the caliph looked on. See: Ibn al-Jawzi, op.cit. 7:267; al-Tannukhi,
Nishwar al-muhadara, 1:97; Ibn al-Athir, op. cit. 7:461; al-Mas'udi, op.cit. 4:243-244; al-Shaliji, op.cit., 6:191.
24
Full name: Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Malik b. Aban (d. 233/847), a poet, rhetorician and a vizier in the reign's of al-
Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq. He wrote a collection of poetry. See: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 6:248.
25
He was the caliph al-Rashid's vizier. He fell out of favor with the caliph, who ordered his servant Masrur to give
him two-hundred lashes of the whip, from which he nearly died. See the detailed story of his whipping in: Ibn
Khallikan, Wafayat al-A'yan, 2:254; al-Bayhaqi, al-Mahasin wal-masawi' (Good Deeds and Bad Deeds), 383-384.
26
He was the scribe of the state treasury, whom the caliph al-Wathiq ordered to be given ten lashes every day, for a
total of about one-thousand in all. See: al-Tabari, op.cit., 11:128. According to another account the caliph al-
Muhtadi ordered that he be given one-thousand lashes, and that if he did not die, he should be whipped further until
he did die. See: al-Tabari, ibid., 12:33-34.
27
Al-Mu'tazz removed him from his regency and ordered that he be imprisoned, put in chains and given forty
successive lashes before being executed. See: al-Shaliji, 'Abbud, Mawsu'at al-'adhab, 6:112.
28
He was tortured by al-Musayyab b. Zuhayr, the caliph al-Mansur's head of police, who whipped him to death. See:
Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 6:34.
29
He held the posts of scribe and vizier a number of times. After he was dismissed for the third time the caliph al-
Muqtadir ordered that he be whipped to death and not receive either food or drink. See: Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Muntazim
(The Arrangement), :60-62; Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil (The Complete), 8:151-155; al-Sabi', Tuhfat al-umara'
(Curiosities of Princes), 60-2; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A'yan, 2:200-204. His nickname of Ibn al-Furat (literally:
Son of the Euphrates) was given to him by the caliph al-Muqtadir upon his appointment to the post of vizier. See: al-
Sabi', Rusum dar al-khilafa (Pictures of the House of the Caliphate), 130. The reason for his execution is given by
al-Tannukhi in his Nishwar al-muhadara, 2:268-270.
30
Mu'izz al-Dawla punished him for showing reluctance in the matter of building a house for him. He was struck to
the ground and given a great number of lashes. See: al-Tannukhi, op.cit., 1:93-94.
454 Torture of Officials in the Middle Ages: ...

Ripping open the flesh
Executing the victim and
placing his head in the lap of
one of his close companions
Execution in shackles
Death by hunger and thirst
Execution by filling with air and
bleeding
Execution by being walled up
alive
A sharp rod is pushed into the Fayruz the Persian.32
victim's body, and vinegar or salt
may be poured into the wound in
order to ensure that he dies in great
pain.
The convicted prisoner is killed and 'Ali b. Yalbaq33
his head is placed in the lap of a
close associate
The victim is tied and taken to be Salih b. Wasif34
executed after having been denied
food and drink. This method
resembles the modern practice of
fettering the person to be executed
and making him helpless.
The victim is incarcerated and The Abbasid caliph al-
denied food and drink until he dies Mu'tazz35
The victim is restrained. His ears, A number of the caliph al-
nose and mouth are stuffed with Mu'tadid's entourage
cotton wool. A bellow is then The caliph al-Muntasir37
inserted into his anus and he is
blown up until he becomes like a
bloated water skin, with inflated
organs and his eyes protrude. He is
then struck on two arteries above
his eyebrows. Blood and air rush
out of his eyes with a whistling
sound, following which he
eventually dies.36
The victim is placed in a narrow Ahmad b. al-Muktafi38
space that is closed with bricks and
mortar, leaving the victim to die in
it.

31
Among them the imam Malik b. Ans (d. 179 AH), the imam Ahmad b. Hanbal (d. 241 AH), and the poet Bashar
b. Burd (d. 167). For detailed accounts of the torture of these men in the order in which they are mentioned above,
see: Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-a'yan, 2:300-301, 1:40-41, 1:143-144; Ibn al-Jawzi, op,cit., 5:426-428, 6:488-490,
5:332-334.
32
Full name: Fayruz Husayn, a Persian notable who converted to Islam and became a follower of Husayn b.
Abdullah al-'Anbari. He was a brave knight who participated in the fighting against al-Hajjaj, who captured him and
ordered him to be wounded and vinegar and salt to be poured into his wounds until he died. See: al-Mubarrad, al-
Kamil, 2:271-272.
33
He was slaughtered like a sheep, then his head was cut off and cast into the lap of his father Yalbaq before the
latter was killed, too. See the report in: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:260-261.
34
Historical sources contain hundreds of reports of people executed in this manner, which was very popular. For
more on this particular person, see: al-Tabari, op.cit., 12:68-70.
35
Full name: Muhammad b. Ja'far. He was imprisoned by al-Musta'in bi-Allah after the latter took over the office of
caliph in 255/869. See his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 70.
36
He was bled to death by his physician Ibn Tayfur, who was forced to do this by the Turks, who were incensed
because the caliph had said of them "These are the killers of the caliphs". The physician used a poisoned feather so
that the caliph would not realize what was happening, and from this he died. See: Hasan, Ibrahim Hasan, Tarikh al-
islam (History of Islam), 3:7.
37
See: Metz, op.cit., 2:133.
38
He refused to accept the post of caliph after the caliph al-Muqtadir was killed. Al-Qahir, who was appointed in his
stead, ordered him walled in alive. See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:260; Ibn al-Jawzi, op.cit., 8:126.
 Samir Kittaniy 455

Execution by flaying alive The victim is skinned alive with a
knife until he dies.
Burial alive The victim is thrown into a deep
well, usually bound, and then he is
covered with soil.
Execution by poisoning The poison may be placed in the
victim's food or drink, or in his
napkin.
Castration The victim's genitals are cut off, or
his testicles are torn from his
body.44
Nailing A nail is driven into one of the
victim's limbs, usually a hand or a
foot.47
The ascetic Abu Bakr al-
Nabulsi39
Abu al-Saraya40
Some of al-Mu'tadid's
commanders
The caliph al-Mu'tamid41
The caliph al-Mu'tadid42
The vizier Hamid b. al-
'Abbas43
The Abbasid caliph al-
Muhtadi45
The Abbasid caliph Ibn al-
Mu'tazz46
'Abd al-Mu'min b. 'Abd al-
Wahhab al-Baghdadi (d. 742
AH)48

39
An ascetic theologian from the city of Ramla, also called "the martyr" (d. 363 AH). He spoke thus against the
Fatimid rulers: "If a Muslim man has ten arrows, he should shoot one at the Byzantines and nine at the Fatimids".
He was arrested and brought before al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, who reviled him, whipped him and then had him skinned
alive. It is related that a Jew performed the act of skinning and that Abu Bakr al-Nabulsi recited the Qur'an without
moaning. The Jew took pity on him and stabbed him in the heart to make him die more quickly. See: Ibn al-Athir,
op.cit., 8:640; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:287.
40
Full name: Nasr b. Hamdan b. Hamdun. He was the governor of Mosul, whom the caliph al-Qahir ordered to be
buried alive (d. 322/934). See his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 8:22.
41
Al-Mas'udi relates that the caliph al-Mu'tamid sat down to sup with two of his companions. The three were
enjoying a pleasant meal when suddenly all died. See: Muruj al-dhahab (The Golden Pastures), 4:229-230.
42
Full name: Ahmad b. Talha b. Ja'far, an Abbasid caliph who showed great bravery as a youth in his wars against
the Blacks. He was very greatly revered and treated his subjects justly. It is related that one of his slave girls
poisoned him with a napkin that she had given him to dry himself. According to another account he was poisoned by
one Isma'il b. Bulbul and that the poison coursed through his body for a long time before he died. See: al-Mas'udi,
op.cit., 4:273-274. See his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 1:140.
43
He was vizier under the caliph al-Muqtadir, who appointed him to the post in 306 AH. Before that he was
governor of Persia and Basra. In 311 AH al-Muqtadir removed him from office and had him arrested. He was
magnanimous and polite. The vizier Ibn Maqla the calligrapher was one of his scribes. It is related that he died from
ingesting poisoned eggs. See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:139-142; Ibn al-Jawzi, op. cit., 8:49-53; Ibn Kathir, op.cit.,
11:156; al-Zarkali, al-A'lam, 2:161.
44
Al-Jahiz mentions another method of castration: The testicles were tied tightly at their root and eventually
dropped. He also states that the person who performed castrations used a thin heated sword, called al-hasima ("the
severer") or al-qati'a (identical in meaning to the previous word). This was used mainly for gelding animals. See: al-
Hayawan (Animals), 1:130-131. In a special chapter Al-Jahiz discusses the physical changes which a man undergoes
after being castrated. See: ibid., 1:106-107. According to some adab sources Hisham b. 'Abd al-Malik sent a letter to
his governor in al-Madina with the following message: "Take a count (ahsi) of the effeminate men near you" but the
governor misread the verb as ”castrate" (akhsi). See: ibid., 1:121-122; Ibn al-Jawzi, Akhbar al-hamqa wal-
mughaffalin (Stories of Fools and the Gullible), 79; al-Sawli, Adab al-kuttab, 59.
45
There is some dispute as to the precise way he was killed, as noted above. See: Ibn al-Athir, op,cit., 228- 233.
46
Full name: 'Abd Allah b. Muhammad, poet and caliph, author of a number of books. He received the epithet al-
Murtadi bi-Allah after he became caliph. He remained in office for a day and a night, and then was removed (d.
296/907). He was imprisoned at night, then his testicles were crushed and he died. See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:18;
see his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 4:118.
47
It is related that the first to have used this form of torture was Bishr b. Marwan, 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan's
governor in Iraq. See: al-Watwat, Ghurar al-khasa'is (The Finest of the Special), 404.
48
He was governor of Qaws. The sultan al-Nasir Ahmad ordered him nailed and sent roving on a camel. See: al-
'Asqalani, al-Durar al-kamina (Hidden Pearls), 2:420.
456 Torture of Officials in the Middle Ages: ...

Slaughter Slitting the victim's throat with a 'Ali b. Yalbaq50 and Mu'nis51
knife or a sword.49
Dismemberment Parts of the living victim's body are Ibn al-Muqaffa'53
cut off, usually the extremities, the Al-Hallaj54
tongue and the nose.52 A number of rebels against
al-Rashid55
Ibn Maqla56
Abu Ja'far al-Baladi57
The pit (tannur) A small construction made of Ibn al-Zayyat59
wood or iron, with nails on
the sides that protrude inside.
The victim was pushed inside
and because the pit was so
small the nails pushed into
him whenever he made any
movement.58

49
Similarly to the way animals are slaughtered for food.
50
He was commander of the caliph's troops. The caliph al-Qahir had him and his son slaughtered, together with al-
Mu'nis, who was dragged into the sewer and slaughtered like a sheep. See: Metz, op,cit., 2:134.
51
Commander of the army under the caliph al-Muqtadir, who gave him the nickname al-Muzaffar ("the victorious
one"). See: al-Sabi, Rusum dar al-khilafa, 131.
52
The victim was mutilated before being killed.
53
Ibn al-Muqaffa''s limbs were severed and thrown into a burning oven before he was killed on the orders of al-
Mansur, who was enraged by the former's book al-Aman (Safety) in which he attacked al-Mansur. At the time he
was the scribe of al-Mansur's cousin 'Isa b. 'Ali, who was at odds with the caliph. The man who performed the
amputations and who killed him was Sufyan b. Mu'awiya b. Yazid b. al-Muhallab. For more on al-Muqaffa''s life,
death and political philosophy, see: Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist (The Catalog), 132; al-Jahshiyyani, Kitab al-wuzara'
wal-kuttab (Book of Viziers and Scribes), 104-107; al-Zarkali, al-A'lam, 4:140; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-a'yan,
1:266-268; Khafagi, Muhammad, al-Adab al-'arabiyya fi al-'asr al-'abbasi al-awwal (Arabic Literature in the Early
Abbasid Period), 323-333; F. Gabrieli, "L 'opera di Ibn al- Muqaffa' ", RSO, vol. 13, pp. 197- 247; F. Gabrieli, "Ibn
Al-Mukaffa' ", EI2, vol. 3, pp. 883-885; Y. Essid, A Critique of The Origins of Islamic Economic Thought, pp. 21-
22.
54
Al-Hallaj's four limbs were cut off. See: Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-a'yan, 1:262-263; Ibn al-Taqtaqa, op,cit., 260-
261; Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:128-129; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:143.
55
It is related that the brother of Rafi' b. al-Layth b. Nasr b. Sayyar, fell into al-Rashid's hands. When al-Rashid was
on his death bed he summoned a butcher to hone his knife and to dismember him quickly, before he (al-Rashid)
died). The butcher cut him into fourteen pieces. See the story in: al-Tannukhi, al-Faraj ba'da al-shidda (Relief after
Misfortune), 215-217.
56
See: Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-a'yan, 3:60. The vizier's tongue was also cut off. See: Ibn al-Athir, op,cit., 8:345-
346.
57
He was the vizier of the caliph al-Mustnajid. He was summoned to pledge his allegiance to al-Mustadi' after al-
Mustanjid's death, but was dismissed for some reason and dismembered. See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 11:362.
58
See: al-Mas'udi, Muruj al-dhahab, 4:88; Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 5:280; Ibn Khallikan, 3:51; al-Tabari, op.cit. 11:148-
149; al-Bayhaqi, al-Mahasin wal-masawi, 386-388; al-Asfahani, al-Aghani, 23:78. Al-Watwat reports that Ibn al-
Zayyat had used this pit, in the shape of a round vessel with nails inside, on Ibn Asbat al-Misri. See: al-Watwat,
Ghirar al-khasa'is, 414.
59
See his biography above. It is reported that he was the first to have used the pit on his enemies during his term of
office as vizier. He fell himself victim to it after a coup in which he fell into the hands of his enemies, the adherents
of al-Mutawakkil. He survived forty days in the pit before he died. See: al-Asfahani, op.cit., 23:78-79; al-Tannukhi,
Nishwar al-muhadara, 1:6; al-Tabari, op.cit., 148-149; al-Mas'udi, Muruj al-dhahab, 4:88-89; Ibn Khallikan, op.cit.,
3:48-52; Ibn Khaldun, Diwan al-mubtada' wal-khabar, 3:341.
 Samir Kittaniy 457

Sword whipping The victim is struck with a sword Abu Muslim al-Khurasani60
repeatedly until he dies. The caliph al-Amin61
Al-Fadl b. Sahl62
The caliph al-Muqtadir63

Comments and Initial Conclusions

Clearly the torture of rivals was a practice which rulers in the Middle Ages (in all ages, in fact) did not
shy away from, despite the fact that caliphs and governors in the Islamic state were required to act in
accordance with the principles of their religion.
It was a combination of political and cultural factors that left their black mark on Muslim political
history.
At this point we present the following conclusions.
1. A detailed analysis of the literary and historical sources that describe the methods of torture and
execution seems to demonstrate that these practices were far from the norm. In fact, they were
deemed special enough to deserve specific mention; it was their very unusual and deviant nature
that attracted the attention of the chroniclers and caused them to include detailed reports of these
acts in their compositions.
2. Islam as a spiritual faith is concerned with ethics, and at least ostensibly would be expected to
encourage a culture of toleration and sympathy. However, political and material realities often
make it impossible to live up to the faith's lofty ideals. As a result we find that both literary and
historical records contain reports of caliphs, governors and sultans whose spiritual qualities left
much to be desired. This was so despite the spiritual aura with which Muslim theology and
political theory have invested the position of caliph. Clearly ideals and reality remained quite
distinct.
3. The very large number of reports on the torture of political rivals (and of one's own subjects) is an
undeniable fact. However, we may question the reliability of these sources, something which
would require a careful documentary analysis of the extant texts.
4. Certainly one of the factors in the transformation of the office of caliph into a material possession
(rather than the spiritual post which it was originally supposed to have been, and which it was
under the first four "righteously guided" caliphs and ceased to be under the caliphs after and
including Mu'awiya b. Abi Sufyan, with the exception of 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz) was the acts of
torture described in the present study.

60
This was the commander of the Abbasid army during the revolution in which the Abbasid state was founded. He
was killed by al-Mansur, who came to doubt his loyalty. When the commander, who had been camped in Khorasan,
came to al-Mansur's palace the latter reproved him in the strongest terms. Then he clapped his hands and a number
of men came out from behind a curtain where they were hiding and struck him with their swords until he died. His
body was then wrapped in a rug. He died in 137/755. See his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 3:337-338.
61
See: al-Tabari, op.cit., 10:207-214; al-Mas'udi, Muruj al-dhahab, 3:302-305; Ibn al-Jawzi, op.cit., 6:61-64; Ibn al-
Athir, op.cit., 6:282-288; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 10:602-603. See also: al-Daynuri, al-Akhbar al-tiwal (The Long
Reports), 365. See his biography in: al-Zarkali, op.cit., 7:127.
62
He was al-Ma'mun's first vizier, a Persian follower of Mazdaism who was converted to Islam by al-Ma'mun. His
father Sahl was one of al-Mahdi's men. See: al-Iskafi, Lutf al-tadbir (Gentle Conduct), 164-166; al-Balkhi
(ascribed), Kitab al-bad' wal-tarikh, 2:296; Ibn Khallikan, op.cit., 2:258-259; Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 6:347-348. Al-
Mas'udi reports that the caliph had him killed because they contended over a slave girl that he wanted to buy. See:
al-Mas'udi, op.cit., 4:5.
63
See: Ibn al-Athir, op.cit., 8:241-244; Ibn Kathir, op.cit., 11:176-177.
458 Torture of Officials in the Middle Ages: ...

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