Reflection and Transmission

at a Potential Step

Outline

-  Review: Particle in a 1-D Box

-  Reflection and Transmission - Potential Step
-  Reflection from a Potential Barrier
-  Introduction to Barrier Penetration (Tunneling)

Reading and Applets:

.Text on Quantum Mechanics by French and Taylor
.Tutorial 10 – Quantum Mechanics in 1-D Potentials
.applets at http://phet.colorado.edu/en/get-phet/one-at-a-time

1
Schrodinger: A Wave Equation for Electrons

∂ ∂
Eψ = ωψ = −j ψ px ψ = kψ = j ψ
∂t ∂x

p2
E= (free-particle)
2m

∂ 2 ∂ 2 ψ
−j ψ = − (free-particle)
∂t 2m ∂x2

..The Free-Particle Schrodinger Wave Equation !

Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)

Image in the Public Domain
2
 Schrodinger Equation and Energy Conservation
The Schrodinger Wave Equation

2 ∂ 2 ψ(x)
Eψ(x) = − 2
+ V (x)ψ(x)
2m ∂x
The quantity |  |2 dx is interpreted as the probability that the particle can be
found at a particular point x (within interval dx)

2 |ψ|2
P (x) = |ψ| dx

n=3
0 L x

© Dr. Akira Tonomura, Hitachi, Ltd., Japan. All rights reserved. This content is
excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see
http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.

3
 Schrodinger Equation and Particle in a Box

2 ∂ 2 ψ(x)
Eψ(x) = − 2
+ V (x)ψ(x)
2m ∂x 
2  nπ x 
2
ψ(x) = sin P (x) = |ψ(x)| dx
L L
EIGENENERGIES for EIGENSTATES for PROBABILITY
1-D BOX 1-D BOX DENSITIES
ψ3
x x

ψ2
x x

ψ1
x x
0 L 0 L

4
Semiconductor Nanoparticles
(aka: Quantum Dots)
Determining QD energy
Core Shell
using the Schrödinger Equation
Core
Quantum 2 2 k12 2 π 2
Dot E1 = n E 1 E1 = =
2m 2mL2

9E1B
Red: bigger dots!
Blue: smaller dots!
9E1R

4E1B
4E1R

E1B E1R
3KRWRE\-+DOSHUW&RXUWHV\RI0%DZHQGL*URXS&KHPLVWU\0,7

LBLUE QD LRED QD
5
 Solutions to Schrodinger
s Equation
2 ∂ 2 ψ
− 2
= (E − V (x)) ψ
2m ∂x

The kinetic energy of the electron is related to the

curvature of the wavefunction

Tighter confinement Higher energy

Even the lowest energy bound state requires some wavefunction
curvature (kinetic energy) to satisfy boundary conditions

Nodes in wavefunction Higher energy

The n-th wavefunction (eigenstate) has (n-1) zero-crossings

6
 The Wavefunction
2
•  |ψ| dx corresponds to a physically meaningful quantity –
  - the probability of finding the particle near x
 ∗ dψ 
•  ψ  dx is related to the momentum probability density -
dx  - the probability of finding a particle with a particular momentum

PHYSICALLY MEANINGFUL STATES MUST HAVE THE FOLLOWING PROPERTIES:

 (x) must be single-valued, and finite

(finite to avoid infinite probability density)

 (x) must be continuous, with finite d /dx

(because d /dx is related to the momentum density)

In regions with finite potential, d /dx must be continuous

(with finite d2 /dx2, to avoid infinite energies)

There is usually no significance to the overall sign of  (x)

(it goes away when we take the absolute square)
(In fact,  (x,t) is usually complex !)
7
 Solutions to Schrodinger
s Equation
ψ(x)
In what energy level is the particle? n = …

(a) 7

(b) 8 x
(c) 9

What is the approximate shape of the

potential V(x) in which this particle is L
confined?

V(x) V(x)
V(x)
(a) (b) (c)
E E E

L L L
8
 WHICH WAVEFUNCTION CORRESPONDS TO WHICH POTENTIAL WELL ?

(A)

(1)

(B)

(2)

(C)

(3)
NOTICE THAT FOR FINITE POTENTIAL WELLS WAVEFUNCTIONS ARE NOT ZERO AT THE WELL BOUNDARY
9
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−jk1 x
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x
E = Eo
V
CASE I : Eo > V
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2mEo
In Region 1: Eo ψ = − k12 =
2m ∂x2 2

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2m (Eo − V )
In Region 2: (Eo − V ) ψ = − k22 =
2m ∂x2 2

10
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−jk1 x
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x
E = Eo
V
CASE I : Eo > V
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

ψ1 = Ae−jk1 x + Bejk1 x ψ2 = Ce−jk2 x

ψ is continuous: ψ1 (0) = ψ2 (0) A+B =C

∂ψ is continuous: ∂ ∂ k2
ψ(0) = ψ2 (0) A−B = C
∂x ∂x ∂x k1

11
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−jk1 x
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x
E = Eo
V
CASE I : Eo > V
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

A+B =C
B 1 − k2 /k1 C 2
= =
A 1 + k2 /k1 A 1 + k2 /k1
k2
k1 − k 2 2k1 A−B = C
= = k1
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
12
Example from: http://phet.colorado.edu/en/get-phet/one-at-a-time
13
 Quantum Electron Currents

Given an electron of mass m

2
that is located in space with charge density ρ = q |ψ(x)|
and moving with momentum < p > corresponding to < v >= k/m

… then the current density for a single electron is given by

2
J = ρv = q |ψ| (k/m)

14
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−jk1 x
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x
E = Eo
V
CASE I : Eo > V
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

 2
Jref lected JB |ψB | (k1 /m)  B 
2
Reflection = R = = = 2
= 
Jincident JA |ψA | (k1 /m) A
 2
Jtransmitted JC |ψC | (k2 /m)  C  k2
2
Transmission = T = = = 2
= 
Jincident JA |ψA | (k1 /m) A k1

B 1 − k2 /k1 C 2
= =
A 1 + k2 /k1 A 1 + k2 /k1
15
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−jk1 x
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x
E = Eo
V
CASE I : Eo > V
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

 2  2
B   k1 − k2 
  
Reflection = R =   =  
1
A k1 + k2 
T
Transmission = T = 1 − R
T +R=1
4k1 k2
= 2
R |k1 + k2 |

1 
k2 V
= 1−
Eo = V Eo = ∞ k1 Eo

16
 IBM Almaden STM of Copper

Image originally created by the IBM Corporation.

© IBM Corporation. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.

17
 IBM Almaden
Image originally created by the IBM Corporation.
© IBM Corporation. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
18
 IBM Almaden
Image originally created by the IBM Corporation.
© IBM Corporation. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.
19
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−κx
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x

V
CASE II : Eo < V E = Eo
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2mEo
In Region 1: Eo ψ = − k12 =
2m ∂x2 2

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2 2m (Eo − V )
In Region 2: (Eo − V ) ψ = − κ =
2m ∂x2 2

20
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−κx
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x

V
CASE II : Eo < V E = Eo
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

ψ1 = Ae −jk1 x
+ Be jk1 x ψ2 = Ce−κx

ψ is continuous: ψ1 (0) = ψ2 (0) A+B =C

∂ψ is continuous: ∂ ∂ κ
ψ(0) = ψ2 (0) A − B = −j C
∂x ∂x ∂x k1

21
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−κx
A Simple
Potential Step ψB = Be−jk1 x

V
CASE II : Eo < V E = Eo
E=0
Region 1 Region 2
x
x=0

A+B =C
B 1 + jκ/k1 C 2
= =
A 1 − jκ/k1 A 1 − jκ/k1
κ
A − B = −j C
 2 k1
B 
R =   = 1 T =0
A
Total reflection  Transmission must be zero
22
 Quantum Tunneling Through a Thin Potential Barrier

Total Reflection at Boundary

R=1 T =0

Frustrated Total Reflection (Tunneling)

T = 0

23
 KEY TAKEAWAYS CASE I : Eo > V

A Simple Potential Step

 2  
B   k 1 − k 2 2
Ref lection = R =   =  
A k1 + k2 
Region 1 Region 2
4 k1 k2
T ransmission = T = 1 − R = 2
|k1 + k2 |

PARTIAL REFLECTION

CASE II : Eo < V

Region 1 Region 2

TOTAL REFLECTION

24
 ψA = Ae−jk1 x ψC = Ce−κx ψF = F e−jk1 x
A Rectangular
Potential Step ψB = Bejk1 x ψD = Deκx

V
CASE II : Eo < V E = Eo
E=0
−a 0 a
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2mEo
In Regions 1 and 3: Eo ψ = − k12 =
2m ∂x2 2

2 ∂ 2 ψ 2 2m(V − Eo )
In Region 2: (Eo − V )ψ = − κ =
2m ∂x2 2
 2
F  1
for Eo < V : T =   =
A 1+ 1 V2
4 Eo (V −Eo ) sinh2 (2κa)
25
A Rectangular
Potential Step

E U

for Eo < V :
 2
F  1
T =   =
A 1+ 1 V2
4 Eo (V −Eo ) sinh2 (2κa)

2
 2κa

−2κa 2
sinh (2κa) = e −e ≈ e−4κa
 2
F  1

T =  ≈ 2 e −4κa
A 1 + 14 Eo (VV −Eo )

26
 Flash Memory
Stored
Electrons

Erased Programmed

1
0

Image is in the public domain

CONTROL GATE Insulating

Floating
Dielectric Gate
Tunnel Oxide
FLOATING GATE

SOURCE DRAIN
CHANNEL
Channel
x
Substrate
V (x)

Electrons tunnel preferentially when a voltage is applied

27
 MOSFET: Transistor in a Nutshell
Conduction electron flow

Control Gate

Conducting Channel
Semiconductor

,PDJHFRXUWHV\RI-+R\W*URXS((&60,7
3KRWRE\/*RPH]


,PDJHFRXUWHV\RI-+R\W*URXS((&60,7
3KRWRE\/*RPH]

Tunneling causes thin insulating layers

to become leaky !
Image is in the public domain
28
 Reading Flash Memory

UNPROGRAMMED PROGRAMMED

CONTROL GATE CONTROL GATE

FLOATING GATE FLOATING GATE

SILICON

To obtain the same channel charge, the programmed gate needs a

higher control-gate voltage than the unprogrammed gate

How do we WRITE Flash Memory ?

29
 Example: Barrier Tunneling
•  Let
s consider a tunneling problem:

An electron with a total energy of Eo= 6 eV L = 2a

V0
approaches a potential barrier with a height of Eo
V0 = 12 eV. If the width of the barrier is metal
metal
L = 0.18 nm, what is the probability that the
0 L air x
electron will tunnel through the barrier?
 2 gap
F  16Eo (V − Eo ) −2κL
 
T =  ≈ e
A V 2

  
2me 2me 6eV −1
κ= (V − Eo ) = 2π (V − Eo ) = 2π ≈ 12.6 nm
 2 h 2
1.505eV-nm2

−2(12.6 nm−1 )(0.18 nm)

T = 4e = 4(0.011) = 4.4%
Question: What will T be if we double the width of the gap?
30
 Multiple Choice Questions
Consider a particle tunneling through a barrier:
1. Which of the following will increase the V
likelihood of tunneling? Eo

a. decrease the height of the barrier 0 L x

b. decrease the width of the barrier
c. decrease the mass of the particle

2. What is the energy of the particles that have successfully
escaped?

a. < initial energy
b. = initial energy
c. > initial energy
Although the amplitude of the wave is smaller after the barrier, no
energy is lost in the tunneling process
31
 Application of Tunneling:
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
Due to the quantum effect of barrier penetration, the
electron density of a material extends beyond its surface:

One can exploit this material STM tip

to measure the
~ 1 nm
electron density on a
material
s surface: material
STM tip

Sodium atoms
on metal:
E0 V

Single walled
carbon nanotube:
STM images
Image originally created
by IBM Corporation

© IBM Corporation. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse. Image is in the public domain

32
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Spring 2011

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