ES337 Water for Developing Countries

Part B: Irrigation and Hydropower

Brett Martinson

Office F334
Office hours Monday 11:00 – 13:00
Phone 22339
E-mail dbm@eng.warwick.ac.uk
Objectives

• To illustrate the combination of economics,

engineering and social organisation that determines
the best choice between competing technologies for
any specific site.
• To familiarise students with the design processes
and the trade-offs required in selecting sites and
system components for Hydropower.
• To enable students to design simple irrigation
systems and choose between competing methods
of water extraction.
• To introduce them to the complexity of the socio-
technical interactions that constrain the
construction of new irrigation or hydropower
schemes.
Syllabus

• B1. Basics
– Hydrology, Water conveyance, Water storage

• B2. Hydro power

– Hydro systems, power needs, power available,
yields and economics
– system design, entry arrangements, penstocks
and surge control, turbine selection, exit
arrangements and draft tubes, electronics and
control

• B3. Irrigation
– Water needs, Irrigation types,
Books

Massey, B (1998) Mechanics of Fluids

Stanley Thornes (QC 211 M2)
Harvey A et al (1993) Micro-hydro Design Manual,
IT Pubs, (TK 1081 H2)
Inversin, A ( 1986) Micro-Hydro Sourcebook,
NRECA (TK 1081 I6)
Tong Jiandong et al (1997) Mini Hydropower,
Wiley, (TK 1081 M4)
Stern, P (1997) Small Scale Irrigation
IT Pubs (TC 805 S8)
Cornish G (1998) Modern Irrigation Technologies,
IT Pubs, (qto TC 805.C6)
Diemer G & Huibers F (1996) Crops, People & Irrigation IT
Pubs (S 613 C7)
Web resources

Course site
www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/staff/dbm/es337/
Dams
World Commission on Dams (home of Dams and
Development: A New Framework for Decision-Making)
http://www.dams.org
Hydro
www.microhydropower.net
Irrigation
FAO Irrigation Water Management Training Manuals
www.fao.org/docrep/
Assessment

• Exam (70%)
– Three of six questions (choose four)

• Assessed work (30%)

– Set in week 14
– Worth 2.25 CATS ( 22 ½ hours work)
Part B1: Basics
B1.1 Hydrology
B1.1 Hydrology
Topics

• Catchments
• Runoff coefficient
– Infiltration, rainfall runoff relations, runoff
coefficients

• Interpolating rainfall data

– Arithmetic mean method,Thiessen networks,
isohyets

• Flow measurement
– Buckets, staff gauge, weirs, current meters, salt
gulp, float method

• Flow frequency
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments: Estimating area: Counting
squares
B1.1.1 Hydrology
Catchments: Estimating area: Blocking
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components

Transpiration
Evaporation Evapotranspiration
Soil water

Overland flow
Direct runoff

Interflow
Groundwater accreditation
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Components

• Transpiration
– Water used by plants and returned to the atmosphere

• Evaporation
– Water evaporated directly from surface puddles

• Soil water
– Water retained by the soil

• Overland flow
– water running on the surface

• Interflow
– Water flowing underground but feeding the water
course

• Groundwater accreditation
– Water lost to groundwater
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Infiltration
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Infiltration
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Coefficient

R = Runoff (mm s-1)

k = Runoff coefficient
R  kP
P = Precipitation
(mm s-1)
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Runoff:Coefficients

Surface Coefficient
Concrete or Asphalt 0.8-1
Gravel - Compact 0.7
Clay - Bare 0.75
Clay - Light Vegetation 0.6
Clay - Dense Vegetation 0.5
Gravel - Bare 0.65
Gravel - Light Vegetation 0.5
Gravel - Dense Vegetation 0.4
Loam - Bare 0.6
Loam - Light Vegetation 0.45
Loam - Dense Vegetation 0.35
Sand - Bare 0.5
Sand - Light Vegetation 0.4
Sand - Dense Vegetation 0.3
Grass Areas 0.35
B1.1.2 Hydrology
Streamflow

Qstream = Stream flow (litres s-1)

Qstream  RA R = Runoff (mm s-1)

A = Catchment area (m2)
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation of rainfall data
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Arithmetic mean

• Average each station in the area

n P = Precipitation

P1  P2  P3 ......Pn
P Subscripts are station numbers

P  1
n n
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Arithmetic mean:
Limitations

• Quick and dirty

• Takes no account of changes in rain
gauge density – outlying,
unrepresentative gauges can be over
valued
• Not applicable if rainfall is dominated
by topography, intense convection or
very localised rainfall
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method

P = Precipitation
A = Area
Subscripts refer to regions

AW PW  AY PY  AZ PZ
P
AW  AY  AZ
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method

P = Precipitation
A = Area
Subscripts refer to regions
i n

A P  A2 P2  A3 P3  ...... An Pn
AP
i 1
i i
P 1 1  i n
A1  A2  A3  ...... An
A
i 1
i
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Thiessen method:
Limitations

• Not applicable if rainfall is dominated

by topography, intense convection or
very localised rainfall
• Can be unnecessarily time consuming
as catchment becomes smaller and
rain gauges are more spaced out –
simple distance weighting may be
adequate
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Isohyets

30mm

20mm

10mm
B1.1.3 Hydrology
Spatial interpolation: Isohyets:
Limitations

• Not applicable if rainfall is dominated

by topography or intense convection
(but better than Thiessen)
• Often difficult to obtain in low-income
countries and usually only for average
yearly precipitation
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation

• Buckets
• Float
• Weirs
• Staff gauge
• Current meters
• Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Buckets
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Buckets: Limitations

• Only useful for flows <20l/s

• Whole flow must be channelled to the
bucket
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float: Limitations

• Average flow can only be inferred from

flow at surface
• The stream bed should not have any
significant changes over the test
length
• Needs a good approximation of the
stream bed shape – which can be
tedious
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Float: Correction factors

Type Correction

Concrete channel, rectangular section, 0.85

smooth
Large, slow clear stream (>10m2) 0.75

Small regular stream (<10m2), 0.65

smooth bed
Shallow (<0.5m) turbulent stream 0.45

Very shallow (<0.2m) or rocky stream 0.25

B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation for
rectangular weirs
b>3h
>2h >2h

2   2
v0 
32
 v02

32

Q  Cw b  2 g   h     
3  2g   2 g  

 Cwbh3 2
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation:
Weir coefficients for rectangular weirs
Head on weir
h/H 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 5
0.5 2.31 2.28 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.26 2.26
1 2.07 2.05 2.04 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.03
2 1.95 1.93 1.92 1.92 1.91 1.91 1.90
10 1.85 1.83 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.82 1.81
 1.83 1.81 1.80 1.80 1.79 1.79 1.79
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation for
triangular weirs
b
>2h >2h

h


8  
Q  C 'w tan    2 g  h5 2
15 2
 
 C 'w tan   h5 2
2
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Calculation:
Weir coefficients for triangular weirs

1.39
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Weirs: Limitations

• An initial flow estimate is required to

ensure the notch is an appropriate
size
• The weir must be perfectly sealed
• Permanent weirs are costly
• Even a temporary weir can be
problematic and time consuming to
construct
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Staff gauge
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Staff gauge: Limitations

• Needs a good approximation of the

stream bed shape which must remain
valid – erosion/siltation will effect the
validity of measurements
• Only valid for comparing flows over
time – an initial flow reading must be
taken by another method
• “weir coefficients” will change with
water height
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Current meters
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Current meters:
Limitations

• Needs a good approximation of the

stream bed shape
• Cost?
• Fragility?
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp: Problems
B1.1.4 Hydrology
Flow estimation: Salt gulp: Limitations

• Automated equipment can be

expensive – non automated procedure
is complex
• Needs skill to take readings and
interpret duff ones
• Errors may not be apparent unless
maths is done on-site
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Time series

50
1982
0
50 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1983

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1984

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1985
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1986

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1987

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1988

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1989

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1990

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
1991
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Mass curve (Rippl
diagram)
14,000

12,000
Cummulative rainfall (mm)

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Buckets

100% 100%
90% 90%

Fraction of storms
Fraction of storms

80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
20 40 60 80 100 120 10 30 50 70 90 110
Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm)

100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
Fraction of storms
Fraction of storms

70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
5 20 35 50 65 80 95 2 10 18 26 34 42 50 58 66 74 82 90 98
Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm)
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Exceedance (flow
duration curve)
Daily Rainfall (mm) Occurrences Cumulative Percentage
(frequency) frequency cumulative
frequency
100 0 0 0.0%
99 0 0 0.0%
98 1 1 0.1%
97 0 1 0.1%
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
10 44 710 52.5%
9 52 762 56.4%
8 54 816 60.4%
7 90 906 67.0%
6 78 984 72.8%
5 126 1110 82.1%
4 106 1216 89.9%
3 96 1312 97.0%
2 39 1351 99.9%
1 1 1352 100.0%
B1.1.5 Hydrology
Flow frequency: Exceedance (flow
duration curve)
10
Discharge (m3 /s)

0.1

99.95
99.98
99.99
0.1
0.2
0.5

10

30

50

70

90
95

98
99
0.01
0.02
0.05

99.8
99.9
1
2

Percentage of discharge exceeding

http://www.geocities.com/jonpeltier/Excel/Charts/ProbabilityChart.html
B1.1 Hydrology
Summary

1. Streams are defined by their “catchments”; the

area where rain falls and flows to the stream
2. Rainfall over a catchment can be converted to a
(fairly rough) estimate of streamflow by using a
runoff coefficient
3. Nearby rain gauges can be used to give an
estimate of the rainfall over a catchment using
arithmetic mean or Thiessen methods. Isohyets
can also be used
4. Streamflow can also be measured directly using
means of buckets, floats, weirs, staff gauges
current meters and the salt gulp technique
5. Time series data can usefully be summarised as a
mass curve or as an exceedance
B1.2 Next…..Water Storage