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 B .. S Nishat
Education
03 00-53 71884,,0344-5515779,051-228 5833
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CauJrs.e:R~;seard- •~.t/cl:IJ!Od°£i'r• lldm:afirm

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~'16'04)
Lcroel· .llEd (LS :Y~n.r.d .Semt•.<;t'er.~ $'1Jl!riug•. 1020

AS!i'nGI"iill\ll[EI\1TNa.. l
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lil'rocess.
The o~.e.~U r.r. c ·. ilo:nli,ve~ . a · ' ~lil51iT di io·
~~~ ~~el'l!1. as Log1ral. oo. , • . l ·
c 1is 10
determine w~ 'h. :ngi •· · ' i ' o. 1Jll]a:ic
.:st.iteme1l'itof 1n , -owevcr. . . H: sc1ef:llJ ie n t. 10 - o s afl.ien as a fiud
sequence of steps, 11'hese aeti0l'IS1 aJre bener considered i)S genesnl
1 an
i;iresemteJi:riu:ci1P:1es. No;t steps 'l:Bke•
plaee i:~ every scientific inquiry and they <lire not. ;ahv:ays, done i:m the same order. As noted b:Y
scieci1tist 1JX1d philosopher Willia.Ill Wbewell {]/94--I !Hi6)~ ·i•i:nv.enttO'Jl, :se:gaiciti:y. [and] genius in-ie
roq11ired tit m,rery .'lte'Jtl.
Fonnah1rion. of a question
Um qt1ef;.rio:n 0311 t-efor ID the: expl<Il'l!llim1 of a S!l}OOi:ficobse1L"Vafirm11 i!IS, ~ll li•WJ:ty' i:S 'lh.e sky bl:rn:~",
but ,c.1111 also be· o;peB~nded, as in "How can I d.esi!!ll a dnm lo cure this pmticuliH dis~e?'''
This
.:smge fr-equen'tly lm•oivcs, f.iud:iti;1gand evlll~wtllll"i<rng evidence foo:m previous ,experi:ments. personal
seienrifie olbse1.11ati1cr11s ur assertions, as \ 1re!El as fh e wmk of .olher sdentqs,ts.. ff du::· iiU}swer is
1 1

a~.fiea:dy lh1m~.j a differe11it questfon 'tha'l builds on ~J!ie evidence cmil'l: be posed, Wben aipplyiR,g
~.he 51:[enta''ic rnefhod 1:0 .researo!~, derernq;il'ling a good q1.11estnon can he ·vc:ry di:ffici:dl and rl wm
arffed the· ootron1e of the inves:l:igati:io!!l..
Hyp0tbesiis
A 'hmathesi·s is a oouje,ctLm:,,DEJ;Sed on kt1arwloo . e a btaim1.ed while fom:mlati:ng the: !iJ:t11C'l'ltfot:1,
that mil.}' expha.ln any given bd1'B!''ior. :''Ii: hYIP ' '-- rs nlligli:~ be v;ery sµec;a1fit'._;. for ex11rnnpie1
.Ein.sllei:rn.'s'!'Qlli1vEil.euce priuci·pJe .· 'a11cr
1 • ,Crick's "DNA makes .RNA makes protein", 1 or iit
:might be· b:m111d.; for
the the· p opu latio a n1 ]g~~t 1 ~nliJ'.l.le, · cies of l:i:~ , . . d,I , m the 1u1txJ ' 10 · . d ths of

~ ·~~~ ~
be , ~e 1

~~· ~
. , llr nt
a: new
oce!ll.'IS. AstB.tisl.i,c:ail hwotJ1esi s ·. ·, · · mre abo .c:al, ...•. For ex1uMple,

.by:p[lll:mesesare cmU b n the 1i,;onjm:b:nre

i!h:at lbe·11tadsticru hypo· _ .i.s :fabe;. for c·:um.1pfo~, . at the: mew drug does :11~'!.kiog;.m:id tlirut any
cure is eaused by d:Blllitce. .. Researd:1.1~rs aamml.l.y wimt to shew i:Jhml 'Lh)e nuU '.hypo:l:bes!s: i:s ~IEJ'll~.
fh7
~lt.·em.
~t.ilil.i.~~· , ' ' ' ·' · . ' ·1_. :· !· ',- A

point;
firm.I.
a. '.!lc.1i;:11:1!tl1.11 : . . '1.1. ·l . , e
16'1.l:toornt: of am e: _ _ ' ~t }\ ' . _ :,
1

.
.
11J"t~ erwise, it ctllllmot he mmt:l.i.ag.fu:l.ly tested,
P'n!dici:ion
This Silep mvolves de;tenni:niag the logiatiift c equenees of i:h,c' l'.iypot11csiii~ 0J!le or mare
·p,redirclii:m!> are then :sdeot!;!d fro: er . , ~g. The more u:alikd.y ~u1l 11 pii.Ctdicl:iionw1M1ld be
t;oITelll sit.11piy by comc:ideTitle, · le : ore C:O'J:!Vi!m:i ; it W:ould be if tlhe poodi.cl~;[l]j, W!:>l',li:
fol.Iii.led; evidence.is 1d1io strnu swell!'~· · . rediip.tirn:i. ·s r.m -11 · · IIM<l'\o,-fJ!I, due lo
[he effects of hind:i>iiilil bias. · e predicf · - othesis
from lik,e:ly a~lemathr:s; if t . ke the, ' , l;l ,
edictiaI1, to Ifie cerrect rs :mol eviden · or -=.1·, T' one 'e~ 'lb.a , r..
Jesti:ng A '
ll1Us, is mJ .i:rn:'lfeStiga_ti.on ·r:rnJelh:er the· reBil. i,1,orld1 ~dtave.-s.as. predicied by ihe :hypat~e.srrst
1
•

Sc: i1e11~ists, (~~lt-l~,. :i:, ·p- ie) , ~ . ' , -t.1oi1'1i:n ~ ix t:', e. of

oo;i
ex.peri.merrl ~ c · i! 1 I"~ 1 , • El 1 ,_ • u:::1t wr~1'1
[he fJrndictio e fnlm -
I '.·s '.f ~'" IC 1_ . [mcrense£:
r ' - I

o·[h,eiwise, il eic:re8lses. Agree:meliit does lilO[ ~s1m1!'e , al 'he ~y,rio'tliesrn ts t.rue; .re·
exp~rime:nts may revea:J pmb]el]ls, Kill PCl[me:radb.-ri:sedscie:111,tisLs ti:J> try to :f;;ilfli cy
'hYl:')nl:l:te..se~. Le., to seooi::b for .and rest [hose. experiments tlwl seem mos.t dm11btfid,
L~ifge'111:ml'dilers; of
successful 1confimtati:nrn;, ,aI'e:J1Jot rnm•mc~ngir ·lliiey ,;mise from elifperi'me:111ts 111at avoid
risk..Experimea:rts sh,01.1.ld l]e de:s,ig)lileicl, lo nii:rillil"Ez:e, 1ms:sibfo ermrs, .e.s,pecinl[y ·l'.lhmagh ·l:he
t1s~of
'11pp:mp:riin:esa:ienli1i1:ie;onlrn1l~.Fi:u exaJ:nple, t'e!-its of medical IJL'ieatrue;ins are corrunorlly run
2
as . cifmble~'bl ind. tests, "fest 11e:rsonne:l. who might ·1.1.mwi:1if:ingly reve1:1J[ to t~ slllb]'~c~s wbich
.Sall:lpli::s are: (hie desi:tied test drugs and whicll are p1ac.e'bos. !llfi: kepr ignor;mt efw:hich sre which.
Such, hints e® 'bias the responses of the tesl s1Hlbject.s, Fu1Jl1hem10re., failure of m e~perime:111:
doos, nO'I: lilft"•essariJy mean ·[h:e hlypoiliesis is fB.ls.e. Ex1Pe.riments. <!.l\lRys d.epeilld 011. several
hypD'l:n"eSes, e~g.,, that d1e·ti:st eqnipmeat is: '!ltorkfog ![!IIOifle·fily, ;Bind <11 fa·i[rn.1e may 'be a '.la.Hnre
of one of tihe am.i]iaey byJmdu."'.:Ses. fuq:rerwrm~uts CBJ11 be eendneted in a ·comege lab. ·en a
ki:tcbelil
~ble. at CEilN'.s La:nt-eHadron Co:llideT,, at 'I.he bottom ·OI a.!l ·IDOe.Elil1, Ol!l MB!r-s a:ndJ so ·01'1.
Astimn.omers do experimenta, seardifog for [l:l;met.s arcuad dist11[1t stsrs, FinaUy. n11osl ir:idi~·idU3'I
1L'lx:petimemt:s adifooiis hi:g'bjy S]J'ed·fi~ topics for reascms. of:pra-cricai.ily.A:s. a result, 1evicleu1:;e
.El!l:m1J1t brm1d~ to~l·]cs is llSlll:ttUy cic1C111i1121:ala:ted ~dmd]y.
Alimysis
n1.is in\•·o[:¥es de:temlliniliig what '
.a:ctioas to ~aike. The :prediclions
l.o det:enm:nc: whidil is better e.b .. ; •
Ili!RlilY times, a stl!ltistiml n
fa.lsilim the· b)'iPolihesis,· · . _
l:m:t ihe· evidence is um 'OlJ,gb. for bigl· ', ' . e1u:e, (h
• • , .om [!be hypotlii:e~liis 1 _ • ' •

1 • • 'I 11 I I ' ~ "'

m:u:st be tes:red. O.lii::e: ,a .· . ~ · 1 ·.es:1is l:S· slmmgl;:r S1.J[:l1, .· . ed by evidence, a :new queslllo1J11 cal),
be a1sk.ed to p,rovide fi.irtl:icr UDsi:ght on th~ tm:llfle' tepic, Eviid!e;nce from otlliier s;c ienti:st!i: and
, .. 1 ,
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···. · . ·.· · .· . ' ·. .
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ear e . a. . ·· I
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:yr
1g:Ltest.Jo.11 'l\'1lD~ u ·. c · · .m ' . . . · .er t:o
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BIIli!i!Wll:.r a s1 m i; .f.l uro11 ;d, er
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'
g:u11Cst:' m11,

11~n1~JU, :t al:wrnys. litey

rt:1·11M~~IPu· ce of the
have the·
e11uf.1 hes :a
 [he suceess of a hypolh·esis,, or its service to science, lies· not si:mp·]y in its peroe iv.ed '11·1Jruth'1,
or p-011\\'!i!r lo displace, subsunu: or reduee ,11 predecessor idea, but perhaps m-ore fr1 its ab.l[[ly te
:sti:m1.1.l.ate t~~e researeh tbat t'l•iJI mun~:iua~e .... bald s11ppositio:ns and .01.T.-as of:-vSJ~1mess.
ln g.e1:11ere:l !ici.erritiSim te;od lo look for theories ~bllt ate "eleeant" or "beaunfal", In eontrast to '!!be
usna] .iE111gli:s.h. use-sf these terms, tbiey here reJer to a th·eory in soeordaoee wll:th the .knm\1u
facris. w.hi1i::h is lileve:rtbde,ss tel.<1l:i:1r-ely si:n~ple iil!lild easy te ]um.dle. Occan'i's Razor serves a<S, a
rule .of
~hmr1b for cboo:sin:g: the o.10s'l desimble ~unrn:1gs:n a gmup of e.qmi I ly e:x.:planato:ry hypod1eses ..
Te :minin1ize the confirmation 'bi~i"S \vhich r:t:s1:dts foom eute:rtafoi~ng a s.ingle hypothesi:s,. s.lmm;i:
inference e'IJl1!1Jlirn:sizes the need fori enbenai111.ing m11l:n:ill!l1le a.]tem~threbwo.tJ1.eses:.
fayi~1g spociiiJI a:iJt:e1tn:icm. lo the generatiui'l.of ex· lan~tii01Js., Peiooe outlined the sci·~Btific method
lliS· ii OOOmil:latlon of th:~ kl.lids of 'n:fo1,el'.I , . ill. _pUlrposeful' cycle aimed st SCtt~i:ll1g doubts~, as
fo]l1nvs· (in §Ul-lV i'lil. '1 A Neglel;' ue,:at"~;:u;;ejp•tas etherwise noted}:
wi:rn..more scienti.uc teams fovo. _ ·. ·: 1 e.ss, 1Jke~ y · es~ruc,b1 findin .·s: a
1 e true,"]
Hence: '1
Rii::s'l;WJCb ~r~:mess

De:li:Jlf; the Pm!blen.1

[de;nl:ifyi:i:1g ill. ccm:ipeHi:og :resea~tii""a!!i,dli;j'aJ.
WhaI issue, problem ·(n lopiCJ- · it!Bi~!olfi
I ii-

Jhis wmiksheer w:iM ~gi.llAlJ1d'.lp1f:I~

Ibis vi.dem arl'ld ,- owe
~~.rd~~~~:~<li.~~
.

5 -~~~c~ify·~~ew~ .· ,.· ~~b.·l 11 .· · i.· · . ~ , . I I' ~ ! . ;eS2l:

3
ir3 . . : n g . . .;.; ~ •t ...l t : i. :

s;~0:~r.o~:o1\.·sf.·..dz~l·u~~l.·e bo.:[~~r-.a,:~=.!c:~:~
R.ev:ie1w [!u.: Uterarure.. ·• · . '

!i:Kil.!lhn!lI:B!m . TI, IIg'l - . . . . · , . _ - . I · . .. · .· -.· . _ .

.r t · dy been
lo fiia1m11:· yo· · .·. ' pmj ' · 1 ·· ~ e i . ., ' · : 1 :~ • • ; •

-
_
e111mined, you l:IIUSI conducfa 1tefaur:e reV11~r, . . · · - - . . .

J. Foliluufat.c· a H.}1]otfresis an1 lf'rob!ei11 Sta1.E1me:n.1

D.epell'.ld:i.ng 011 your r~searnh questiea 21ad nH~tliooolo,gy, yom ·wi~ll be reqW:rOO: tn forirm.lale a
res.em:h Jll-;1'!)0the:s:is OR a problen1 s!tat:emernl based on ymJtr r~searnh question,
1

A research h,}'1Po:lhes1!!l. is an ed11.1.cat~d :prroic:·l:imt lhrut pmi.iiicles: oo explm:i;rtiim:i for an ob~erva"b']e

(ooe~:saitabte} evellt er co11dition.
A [JJmbiem s:t.!')itemel'lt is hoth a reite:mncm of the i:imbl:em ~~at the Sindy wi[[ address and d1e
jusfrFication for .stndy:i1;1g ·the [llm'bfom. Learn umre BJbaut hD'w to diiw1doo a nrobl~m.s.la:f ement 1

4. :Se.l.ect a Research De-sign

Decidi1:1g whElit you w-i'll .researe!i wm ~1elp lo derem.li:ne how you w!lM des~ y:ornr research
p:roj'ecl.
WiH [t be mm.l:itariv.e (U q·nanl11Bti1,,,e? Whe·t mcthodo.loirv wul id:esiim will you choose';!'
Wht1t_ methods ~ ·n,ochniq!Jl1es, a!l[ld tools - will you use· to eo:l~ecit~ anid:)'l:e, iill'ld i.n!el'Jl):l"tt yom data?
5. Carry Out •ti!he: Researc'h ·
Novi' yo:u i..:an. :fiinrally condlld. your resean:h.!
For :ma:i1,y.1 'lli!.is is the mrnst C'.liljuynb!:e part of'the precess; bat, .its, also Ile step tlbat reqllllfi::-s the
greEl!re:st aiUentiolJ!, tn di;,:ttJii.l to emuin~ 1ha'I .~ - esearcb de'Sign: and mel1a rnlls are fo!W\veCI
at
1

.ra:counddy ~ 1.o gen.erat.e good d 1n:I. -., tb.e ~resean:b is ccmdu.cmdl e~~.i:cally.
Read_ more ~~c:u~ OOYI' to be <1 ' i I· reseilrcho:r. •
6.. mate:rpret Your Re-s:~1hs
Olilce ym,1r experiment I . s d:arm . ;e ' .ana]yze the
-wsrag .metlhods det m: i.m1le111i.cet 8~~~·· you :musl
IIDl.e fe-su.l~s. I._. ..,,.,
n is iinr,mrtrmt ihal ~IJl;llf rel:e!lafi.on is S'Utppm1
1.R~1]orlltl1eRm.. ·
101UUC~U11ri@ui> of~ausalitvor enrrelation,

The P?rpo.se yo·.•, .· .. · · ,· . • cl cl: ~ .•. t

'f. '_ -. , <,
,Blfi a:1it1de linp111 _ ' ~ _ _ · · _ •h · .~ :
.Bis. part of u panel disou!!.'Sfoa 1::1.r a i;io•sh.:r presentrnJio 1:. -

Here are son1:e lips for 1d:es.iii:ni11~ ;t1 helter resea:tch ll'U!!ter
8•.. R~il1ea·1
lt·tsearch is an i:lerati.ve ~mi:;es!IL.
New 'nov\rle.dge· leads to more
b:O\'Vledge
of research ls. 1-0 s'hm;re kno\11:le..l-~~_.

Q,2 Compare mi.d qgpl: - s-·

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~ ···1 3 -.

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:appliedaction) resea[tlli;;
R.e9emx:hM · _ ._ · eW!U
_.·.
me discuss the OOlliCat:iomd ,pbre:111ome111.R1?
1
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·
·
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~er.emx:h.tm: ·. :· s ied :' ~ ~ l .... :.. ---,' .1 · - ..
fresilmrch,
lite kJ1m:11vledgie. 1 t creates, m;er gmuiD' i:illc resesre · p . • b em 1t 1 n.vesugates ere.
Basic R:sem:cb
Ibis rese~h fa, co1.1duoted lnrgely for tbe enl:u1nce:memt of niJw]erlge, aad is reSI:arc:hi wlri:icli
does :naol l~:a.ve immedi.ati; co:mmen:iJ'IJ[ potentfal The ll'li!Jreil:r-.:b ·~vb;iclu, is done fo:r'h1iln1ml i;irdfillle,
ll[[li:n:ml. welfare aad pJmu ldn_gdomwe]:fii1'1\e. It is called basic, pute, fundam:e1rtal i;".esean:'h. llie
lll!Il.i:na lnolivattio:ni, he re i:s liO expand nmn''s :lrnowlaril.ge, rmt m.erease or iavent so:metlli111g,
'.l
 Acro:rd~111g te Travers, "Basie Jlesea!"Ch is, desig;nerl to add ~o an orgmizoo body of scientiJio
knowl:edge: and does not necessarily p:r-oduce res:ud~:s of :i1nmed.iate practical value, ·• .S1:1ch ai
resem::h is time and cost i !1i:e1TuSivc. ffl{EHllpie; A111 '€X!Peft1l'l'el'ltlrJ[ research 'IJ~CJJ'l l:'llEl)I not 'be or wm
oo bet1Pfo] ir1 the hrtnunn pr-o,gress). It is used 110 !!lobr~ a IPlioblem hy a.ddnng to 'lliie field of
,B!ppl.i.tatioo of a d:ns.ci:pl ine,
Applioo Rese>aird1 ·
Ap:plied rese·erch is designed to solve practical problems, of the· 1m1od.em world., rat1ter 'lh<!in 'lo
acquire know:ledge For k11owledge1s sake. The goal ofarppl:ied research is to inl!prrove· tine
l]unum
1Com:liti:m. H focuses on ani11i!:ys:is and so]v:ing sacial and real Li:fe problesns, T11is rreseW\Ch is
gem.:taJl.lly co:i:idl!l1::tcidl oil. ti large scalie basis and ·s ~P'¢1'11!ive.. As s11,1cl:i,. it :is o:ltern: coud1tn::'wd with
the Sl)[ppo.lJltof s.01tni· fi.11-a1111!cilig ~.ge· cy :like· .• · _ ·. · Eiil:i.o:i:ifl.l government, public corporatiea, wudd
1

bm:ik,. UNlCIEiF, urn::, Etc. k·i;;:o · .te . aut, ••a;pp.li~d ~wwJch is au ii:westig;11.tion for l"li'ays of
usil'.lg scientifieknowled~~to s · 'iilll pmb.l.e1. , . er example:- - . ricuhure crop
prednction, b"e~d or curre a · es, offices .•
s.p b1Jw can, common[ca:lfo
Prob]e:m oriented resea
R. es.'il;ill'Ch...i1$ d mm.~ 0. )T -III I
Eg;~ Vll'TO does p.ro:hl m
-~ed ~e-siearol] fo:r de. ' 'pi.Ilg co:urntriecS, India Bgricul!hue and
precessed food eJl.]MM1 dieveilopm-e.al illlltho.rity {.APEU A) tiondm;t :regulru- research for 'Lh.e l:iei:i:ef.i~.
- . - :I\ -
1

of agri~:wndustryA~i!IJ!lf>f,.,: . - ~ .-
~~~"::~1~tJ;\r~ ·. , ;v~
1

t •

one clarification
'" H:emi;:', needed 1s we use lh..e tenn .Problem • ~l ts not ~ i;Drobl.em .1n tnse
whea
SeHS:C', n i,s. lllS'Uill.lly ill.
- m
deci~ion. Wlilk:i:r:1;g diletf:!llll:EI nr it is aaeed to'.~lL~kh::a. panticu!air

;t5" '1 rt
business sitm1tiun.
"' l1 cmild be a di:fficu.l!tyor .an1I!1. 1' :, •• ' ii : ,
for e.g~:~R~~~tme of M-Obi]~ c .•. · r .. )!'. 1 decn:":sed 'b . 2S% iu [he los:l yea:r,. "F.he: Cilliirne,o:ftlie'
problem.can be· any one' m the . . · - •
."' Ponr ,qua.1· nf : .,t.iJu,e .1nrn!1,Wlltll.
ity ,_.JI . . . ::11
a.11111 ty.
' .- .JI
, r e auvertm1ug
• •

eampsign, ~ High pri 1 ,Bii' . ar ting; team, "'

Icm:gJh, compeliiilio:n fr. · 11. !Pl ted.

Problem :!iolving
This type ofresearch is, dn:ne by arn i:ndivid1.ral compaoy fo:; itfae pmhlen1 faced by it Mm'1el:iu;g
res.eatfi~h and :mmlfket researdu1re the mpp'lied r-esearcli. For eg:~ videecnn inl~ma~.lon~ c11m:lm:ls
res.e:amh 'tin stt1d~· eustomer satisfactio11 level, it ·~vii] be· :11.rn_b:leiu :sol.ring re:!lem:d:i. l~n s:hort. the:
main aim ofpoob]e1n .soh··ing. Fe.Search is ·to disco\1'e:r some so'.lnriol'I for s1u1re pr-es'5i:og l)il''ilC ticl'lll 1

pmb]f'.Dl.. . .-
Qltrlil'ltl.lat1ve Res.eau:.h
ibis, research ]s, based 01'1 1nm1eric fi,g;mi:res or mEmbetiS. Qna!'lti~atirve m.smmh·a]m to measure fue,
qll!'t1:llfttly or u1m1:111t arn0 ooimiJ!lam.s i~ ;;.,1[[h past i;e~offis, and tries. to ~toject fo:r futQ:r.e period. Ia
.soc:ial sciences, '"quantitBJ·l:i''t! research refe:rs to the :syst:erna1:ic en1pfrfoa'I :invc.sti,galion of
q:wt1:111ti:m·1i.\'C properties and phe:n<Jlme:nti am:!! their· re'.~st:iiol'ls~:il".ls''. Thie ebjecfrve of
quan·titative researeh l:s 'lo devdo:p and cmiJ!llo:y .l'l'lilli~hemaficall 11m.del:s, 1tbeories. cir hypothesis
1

pe-rtaimdn.g to ph.•em:imt:m1.
TI1e process of :m~eu1e:nt is central to gmu:i:l:ita:live research because ~t pmv:ides fundmrn::n~a.1
1conneetion lileti¥eli:[1 empirical ob!!' 1rvi11Jtio - .. mad1ematitwl. expression ·of quBimli:tative
relaitio~sbip:s. Slatist~ii'.:s is the: :m .·. · del · ·used branch of nuJ1d:1.em<alics· [1J11 q1.1m1tl~ative· rese-
41\1'1'1. Sfanlstic:a~ nu:tbods -a~ used ext . ith i.111 field.- .· • bas ooo.ri;cmri_i . .· merce
..
hi. sum, the· rese0:1i:ooh llsiu:g~ the • · dm::'I '.hy u·ruatitatiive::
rescar•ch as. the: iaferen · aiti r, objecl'iv:ity is
true· prinmry fillllrd so th :. t •the.
Qu.iElllitm:tive Research I ,
Qu.ililLLil'lilfrve eesearch pm . _ , ·' lll.o:r.l~qm1:1llitatiYe l}i . ·, of aina~)r~is. 1 Q11.iaU~live .:resea!1i::.his

ircsearnh refers ~ ' :

1'
·ii.1m· ·
iomUectiligt am1ly.illig ood :ill!teipreti.og diilta by o~~-e:rviag 1~.!hat peoph:: do and sm,y, Qu.11.l.ilathcc
5·
•
,r le,' ' , s . 01' : cri:ptiou
: 1 "s u
r- - - '

of [hilllgs.. Qua.l.i' t 1 _ ti ' _ -: LI of

II t' , I • , , I , ,_
ioma ·~Ill 1g .f'. _ • u _ 1 I _ _. , , .
The i:mmre of·Ma:is cype·gfres~h ~s i:Xplomklry ,iii!rl'd ope11 1ei:nl!ed. Sunal.l .111llmbifi:r·ofi;:i~11·le are·
i:nterv:ie\'ilecl :in dle:pth. and ·or a. rdruli.11·ely small niurim.ller uf'feeus grio111p.s rnr:e cnndncted,
·~ llilirl:ative research ran be :furtlh.e.r cl:imsi:fie · .. llhe fol.law:mg type.
I. Phc1:1,ai1.1em:dogy;~11 fo:nn of re · h i: . ·. · d1 'lh:e res~'llritlu::r 11ttm.1pls to :i.lJ!iu:k:·mlinmllh:ow one
rlJ.[ mDlt ir.vdi.vi.cl:~111.s t·x:peri.et:Jlle I ue ienen, E.g:-we ight Jinteil"iti,ew 20 vi1cti:llll> of
'bhopal tragedy, ' - •
u. E'fl]ii:mg~!by-:: ~hislype of - rib.i I th ~ In - u,p ofpe~:le. A
'~1:1i.·1:1ue is. the shared e01 I ,. 'ili.iro.gs. ofa
grcmp ofpeop·:~e. Eg: .in A:1:1rlilllmM1
ishmd and sn:iidy the· cdllm~

·1,~"
Dl Ca:\'ie st11dy:-:is a fOlit. , qul.xmtivie. research tfoilt is focusedon p:rmriding u detailed 1H;emml

rv Gmand u ' . · · :' h is . :JJ,a,e#:r liil~rJs.e·1VRt:io:1 rn

1
 hat·",,·'T:..J.
·~:~~.:~i~.:.
fo.·.r

•g.: ,.. .. I

1B0~· ~.·.-.s, '

··.'fX.''Va-·:~... ··~'
~.l

---~. w.~· ~. . •;·

of data. fulm ·li!.~::ic', . it ·. .Ped; 1t tiises ii, va, '.oldmi sources. ]och1iiing quElilil,titative
1Mta1 review of records, ililn1e:1Vi.e~vs. C1bserva:Liorr1 1110id snrv·eyli
V. Hbitmicid Jesemk..:it .aUows. ·Ollie· no discllll:!ls. 11m11 ai:i.d. presentie·vents ±ni mbe mmlc-;d: of 'Ln·e
p:rese1ru con~iticm, an.:fl: a:llmn one to n:ellerr.and pn::nricle [JO!lls:ihie· .ans\vers to c1t1unrt issues
rn11d p:rn:ble.'ms. E.g:-d11.e lendi:ng ·p;iUe,tn ofhil,sa.r1ess ii'! diiie 19'1. t:e:lllllmy.

1
ln BmJI..:11·1:t•iont.o '.i!1l!.le llJbnve, \"i'·e a-s• so 'n!.l..'JJYe ·~.,;1, e ·lJlIeSC.n•JPtr• ve reseerc'niL. Fut:1d. ameata- I
res.ea_n...;:1.1..1t, o·f ·wuLlC' :1L:i
. · ' 1 . . . 1 •1 .1 · 1 • . I •
l1 ~ l:S I S 1 l i RSe1t 1 O'.l1t esl;n [ !r s n ng 'll'IUl lOUS l aean es
Al:im ~:iie researeh :is c:la5s,ified :into.:
D.eser]!:JtIVe research
Armtytiiood research
Fu·ndame:nt<1[ research
Corn~e;p:tnJ<d research
Empirical. research
One time research or longi:l11idii:1J.ml research
F'ield:·Settillg research Of falbon1tory research m··5[mu]artim1 researeb.
Ci.i:mi.cal or cil1i,a;gmostic reileal'li.1h.
ExJ!l·ionitory research
H.i:s~oric~~: .n~seilr.·cb
Gondus.ioli!. orie:i:itt}d l'l:li·e~rd1
Cas'e st1uity resesrch
Sho.r!t term M'l!ie·airc~'.1

rs m .rese~rnl~
tbat top]c:. It is
_ [ are .Plll'.t of die
Sa1me· dis1ti1:1C! • 'C:
~.FJial:JiEarive empts to
-.i;::o~l.e1:il qam11:•"!.il"iii:!:r'' mple. h is
an i,:io!!)u.la:rn,...J.a. .1.1.,.......,..
............
diemDtgrnphiic ~grn_'l!'nt.
lJnccmrtrolled vm:iaJ}i~s.: In descri;ptive research,none of the m[llhles are rntluem::ed :i111 MY
v.ra.y. This uses ob:sea'variomil metibod,s to ·crmdrn::,t libe re.s.em'I:h, He'JJJ:e,·tlite nature of the· vM!ablf's
o:r [heir b.ebavior is not in &~ ll;rn:d:!i ofll~ reseqoche;r.
Cro:ss;;secti:onlil[ studies; 1De-s1cri1:].t'ive resea1PCh is gel'.ler01Uyn erns:hsectimuil studv where diffe.1Jent
seetioas lllelo:ngi!l'lg to the· :su1e: gm!lll:p ar"e sturned.
Basi:s for further .resea:roh The data ml leered sad lill'IB[yz:etl fm:m. desc:ripti.we ~e;u·ch ean dum.
1:

be fmtlier res~hiedi wing dffferent research tecbriiqu~s. The data alsn mm :hidp ~omt
tmvrutls
the ~ypes of researeh me-tho& are lo be used for the :subse.quent l.'eSCB:l'iCh.
U1.e J B~sic l)ipes .o:r pe-scr~!Pt~ve R..es:m.:b Methods . , . .. . . , .
Oli!e of ti:h.e goals of science ts, descr1phon {otb.er goals mdnde i:ir.:ecl ict!l.on mid exp.hmat1.rn1).
D.esc;r]~ttve research methrn:l:S are i,:irttty nm.eh as d1ey-sm.mtl-tltey describe.s:ituatfol'!s. Theydo
no! n:mk.e accurate predictions, and they do eot detennine cause aad effe1::l
111u:re are three 1:I11ai:l!I t)];les of clie~criptiv1e ~u.eitlhods; ubservational mdhm:ls,ai:se.,stuiJ)r i:m:rliods
,tlim:I slnvey methods, Th.is nrtid.~· r • U brie• - · , scribe each of lfie9e metheds, 'their ,advo:mtll,ges,
rmd their <i!rawbath, thti:s, nay ~1 01:1 ltc:r underslam:I reseerch fill:ld:ings:, vil'.helher reporl:OO
i:~, the: m~.am1>trea:m _~:u:d:ia, or wh 1. ~i a reseim::l~ •
Obse:n1u1tionllll Method
With. the observational l11e·re ote 'mo
:llflai:li! cale·gories; of l:fule . J1i!:to:ry
observa tio11.
1 ,
The biggest a(hrimt~ge 1Itu&ail.i:st~c raethcd o sea.rgireil~I!'J:'
em· is: th~t .re-seaochers v:ie'llli!'

~:~~a=~1,~~~~~_.,t·._ ,l.- . , tf
~ciiPari:ls :iu lE:ei:r aatmal. euv:iironmi;inl~. T.his leads to eeolegicsl vlilllid:ity than
-:CJh~_-M~.
l-~f-_.-· ~-. ]Jl;t\;1'~~- ~1~ · ~
Pliopcm~nts ol· ~ ~l11J~.-,~~tory.
Lbe.rtc511l.hs foend whe111. us:i:ag l.uhorn~ocy ob&e.n'il:l:io '. art more .me.miagfia.l tiruw:i. lllim!ie: obtained,
\vitb u;itmllliBl:iiC o'h11erv<1tiou. ·
La~o:mt:ory ob~er'liarliullS are U1>1JJi1JJy less tim. · 0:111surni11g aad d1eaiper f.haa [IELhr.mlistic
0bservii1!lioilli~ 1()f eourse, borJi1,
1
al is•. '.d labamlm:yobservation Me i11portfillt'ia ~.rud lo
Lbe HAivmiceniel'.l!i 1af:sc:ic::rnti:fiie .
Case Study 'Method
Case s:lucl;y resesreh favol:Ves · J' • du'El!l:s. Case
Sitmies often lead lo f h Case studies
should not.be used lo . mBikiril); 1R·c11mte

'I. _. .
p:rediciicms. . . indhddmds.G-
. . , -~'··..· , • ·• ' _ . .
--n effec - i -] 1:l__~;r_- 's ,_. ,
1
_ ~ .

1.
_ ''.gbt affilit:t
Ibero arie two senous p - . ems w1rb ease studies - expe~talilcy effects and artyp1cal
[he ~c!.ions t. - · . -· .~:i~, -.-.1 1~' ~- ..
1
.,~- ~, ': i :1 . g
.as~1.6
1)111rtm·1pmls · . . b us, D · . I' ' zetiens Md
detraetfro:m ex:li::mel w] id:it~·· ~ ' .' ' ' ' ' [ I" eeeees- _.

Su:rvey M'e:t!bod
9
ln smtv:ey mel:hoo research, particip;mt:s m1tswet qbil!esrions, iuhnmislered liltml'lgh i1JLtem~\vs or
qi11!est)om]a'i11"-es. Aflier pa1rt:ici:pa1Hlts, BDS'Wier 1:he q:u,estrion, r~earcihe:rs, des:J:ribe !the, responses
gi1ore111.. In .order fm fu~ · Sl'lrvey Lo_'be l·mth rdfa.1i)]e mnd vali:d[ :it js :httporlf[mt tha~ 'lbe qnestioJli!l
mie c:onstrm:ted ;pmpe.r'ly. Q1.1 e.sticms S:b.ould b~ 1111rri~h!ffil so 'l:lu:y a:re deaJ11 :nn;dl; eMy to
1

it:Q\L'lil(Jrehe1m:t

9
Another considieratfo:ri when d~gru!l'l:g: q11restlons, is whed1er In imch1cle opea-ended, dosed~
ende.d, part~a[ly epen-ended, or .ra·t.i1:1:g.-sm:1ile· l [J1111estici111s.• Advm.'l~ages a111d. disad~runtilges cam
be fo:wmd with each type:
Ope1.Hnrle.d quesfim1s. aUow for a greater vm~iety olreSll'.lotises :froM ;partlc i:piin'L~ ~u:I rillFe
di:ffic1L1lt l:o a:rui[yze s!;arl:iatk-0Uy because t~1.e data mast lie ceded or rre.duood in some manaer,
cJo.sed~ erufo.d qu:est!i:ons, are ret1is.y- lo a:rnalyz..e statist:iicaI~y~ but •lihey sericms[y limit the· respenses
·lhillit
particifia111'S ca11 give. Many researehers ;p:refe; 'to use a Lnkell't~lype scale because it's ¥ery C:fl<SJi'
to analyze sml:iatk-011.y.
hl m:ld[ti'.(l:Iil to l!be metbc1.ds. listed albo\ e SQu1e· ilildi.vidMls alsu iaclude q~;m.lirn.tlve (a:s ai d:isti:m: -n
11

:m~tlu1d) md archii'\i·ail. m:ethm:l.s wbl!f.l. discussina · d:e.sc:ri:pti:ve res~:rcl1 a:netlmds:.

u is i:l!lfl:pcrtmt Ito emphasize diat cl. 'scii~ti ·. e:m:ch metlmds ;qm only descrihe Ill, set uf
observiltion!l·er the dam coUect ' · ; t dra.w ccnelasions from tliat .dBJ:(a abcml wh:Doh. way
the· t1d1mtio1.llil:i.ip, gm:,s- Dabs. fa... r does B · . A?
Ulil.foi11t1unii1!~ly1' in Il!la11y SitlJJ.d.ies · ·today. he, tal l.i:iEri~atiou
of their reseereh mid :Stl: :' ~.c·ru. .IUl:i!Wt:O:s:lilrl
relati1n1sbj:ps. Nabbing ·ou]!. th
1.. ,-....-···

CORR!ELATION RESl!Q~
To eaeied OLI:~ lo help ;:xpl.wll .i:l'lll!l'.]Ortoot human be:havio'Llll'.S or to predie; l.i.kely outcomes,

~~,~;::a~·~~,r:J!\f:irtlo?:1iLDiOll,
,~~0~J]g·Q~].W
. :~o~. .· .:-:J,~tl·.1 . - ~i~.Bv .: c •: ~ ng

.
wlat11n1sh1.,p a~;JJJQU~~J· ;i··~.,~~hi~cd
l:o II. more CJJ:tnpl.~ varia:bl.es !>m:b all, mlJ'ti:ilatiun 'Of reamillg. Typ'e.s of •i.iO.ttebutiouw researca
Se.l1ecti.ng a pro]ljl,ernC',l1tiosillg a !ifill'lf]fo Se~.ecting o.r id!evd.opi:l:1g iD~tru.1111.efJiitDetent:1i.11~ig
procedares CoUr:.:ctiug 11:11ili1. 11:lllw.yzing c;l;ita. ~[i' . . relilllg r·es;UJ1:lt. Basic s~eps
Teacber ab::iut ~ .:stll.ldy the c;a.rn1 · f the: , . uI:J1 of descriµri:\i·e behav;i1:nirs. dil>J)hiy in class,
Srndellt l:ia.vfog diffiClil.lty in. !ll tic u:bjecL Teael» a'lxm.l tn stiJtdy the cmJ!li~~ ,of si'llldent
100es not l)erfonm. in the &u~ject I · . · - •
Wh;llft? [nvest~gator :etleiiinpt to 1e. me eau _ s ·1n;rut <i:l1rea:dy
·ex:~m. between m u!l:non :JJ f i ·. · • nals, :iel:ELrional ·
r

Histerieal research ·
The searehes had 'beell!~d~
regien for each of the t : : )'ems. using llii.li: ''6 - I'' fnoo:el 11 s ;fJJ fl':mnework. Tlliiii!i was done b1
mg cihi- ,
iflin:e ' · . 'l,o:ipnlll.e""ITts
r
1

1~11mbim eac!h ,CJf

i.wo r:egim:is ·iqM! ' ]~ .
in lft:;i:t ·reg;io _ .. · · ~!!::!!. m~ ~ . •. . _ ~ _ _ •. , 1 :elil'.le'llrll.ell'I
IDO:k pl ace dun.ng ihe writing lil.JI preeess, d, om; · d over aps, were 1 Jil · n: El!ll.d ortic:le:s
\were re:ass:igo.ed 110 d:iff;ere11t catE>g1o:ries: as ap:p:roprit1te.. ·nu~ data ·coUeotiolll :t"ImC)e~s is:
smmnaris~d in Ttibie 5. Stage Miel]imil J\Jtla]1's:i:s f'irst llknmd ~11~e.rvi~w·s with s:i.bm.ific mil'l IJam.
code.d lll'sing· NVivo with figures wnr'ki1r1g in eoch region. ti~l mmiel u:s~d as .o-vel?l:IH c:oocept11mi
fimI!ilf:\·!{OiiL s.eccmd l>orn11d Regional '.IH~'W!ipapers s:eainrm.~dD.a~a. cm:lied i.ll!ii£1j5 Access fo:r
[e]ai,arnn:t rui:id.e:,s far ye.ru"Sdat~se \vJJ:h ti~I '!']lodel rn;~d as: 198:1. l 99:S BillJcl: 1(]JIJ5, over.ii.I
ormceptmd
IO
 [irn:rm:11•.'ork. Nati1:nud &. .r;egfomil :nworts Daw med to supplement and produced hy Govenmreet,
confirm cb:ln from n:ews,paipcir eeonemie develepmeu bodie~.artieles .. NGO''s ami S11.m!tistics
New·Zeala:ni:d colleeted forperiod :fr-o:m· ]'98:5 to 20CTll. Hi!sto.rica! SO"l]rce material ecnsists of
prnnaey and s.ecomrary seuroes, Hiistoro:8!t1sseiecn ·11rn eveets and people that ~hey .,;::ot1srd:er i:n~!
Po1'tant By doing Ml 11hey clbn'''t so 1:n1.D:ch recreate the :p;rus~ as rediscovee it~ and to some cx:l:en:~
eolou .r it with dn.eir own set of ''1'1~111 e j,irad,geme11ts. The :li1iistoriCE1~ reseercher's most i11~~rta111
ro:Je is (;o cilloose re'.liahle son:rces, in o:rder to create :rel:ial)le l'.larmniv·e<s <iibaut ~lliie past (Howd~ e'I
at WO I ~· There needs, to be a syst~nulilic all'lpmac;h to ga!lliiiermg d'aw~ as collecl:ing .anb~ the
most con1peUi:ll1g evidence t:BlII resuh [11 ~1aterial tll:mt ]s uarepresen:t.ltive (Wenget· el ..il.. 2000),
UtiJisrng l:be authoritn1ti:v!! source m1[y is nnt :El wise ~1iPJil"O'IM1h. Evideace s'b.oni.ld be coUected
&nm l.i. wide mwge cf ssurees, 1e,m:[1 of wh · I] ·.ha\•e tla.,el:r ewn stren;glhs, aad weaikn·e·sses.
{Tosi~ 2i0QIJ}. AIIy source ~mrteri II.a:· S:llould be ::s1:11::ljet:ted to boih extemaI w1.d inte:ma!
1arilfo]sm. 'fbe nutlnm.nc·ity of 111. , , if! de'le:r.n1i . by .e;dernal cri; :ici .1 , , ei\em;
1t:redi:b.iJ.iit.yis esltablis:b1.ed hy i.itt ~ - · lSID ( S:ln: ' - '980~'h· e ' 0 ' 'll. - riticism
i.mvoh1es e.srall.dns.lD:ing ·wt tb;:r . ·c itciililil : · a to,. p guutt:or.
1e-stah·lfrih:i:111gwhe~~ct .i:t ; :,a · 1e:1:i:" _. k:mtmv: . · . '··. ·• - he doe1il~.1e:11~
{Tosih 21000}. [nte:m~~ d -" ·.- QOtisi.sts. aflr).'1 ftab]a .· . anmg and !IT!lllki~ga
jud,ger)}(!r;it as Ito the ilik . _ · · and prejudices of 1 wri.le:r filicisib :WOO).

A'!"ll ....... · llJ'i'e'

llfllt.llwr1 · l'l}rue J)11111.ni.:r

ifc·. sad seeial
ain of the :above·

1
I.I
8
Lh<11t UIS•l!S ·th.le ooieDlilic, method 'to eo~lett .scie111t:ifie data can i:i:rovide 11. definhe <tllSwew ahir.m;t best
p:raicliaes, i.11 teaching.
The purpose of edueatinaal research is. to develop new knowfodge about the teuc:b:i.l'ig~'leaJm:ing
.:s:itmltiou to iTiflj.'lmve e·dl.lca·a:ional. practice. Bducatnonal re-search ean address ~he foUmwl'ig
vairiibl.es:
Lmn1ing: How do .st'.rn:let1:ts best 'learn various s;l]bj!ect~?
Tmdifn,g: Wl:1nt are tilhe best leadhi.n,g_practiloes to foster stw!.e11t ad]ie'!?eme:nt?
Motrv<1ti.on: "M~al ate ·1hie best ~recti€es for teachers to motivete ·th·ei.nitudents to ac'hicvl'!·?'
Dcvdoprnel'rt flm\11~ do d:iildre111' and adults change ovcrti1.n:e·, i.m:tµdi:ng ~h.dwoogaiLive,
soc·i3], and emationa] skills?'
Classroom r.na:riagem.e'llt What &;[
situdent l e<1r.i:i.i:11:g'l'
1

.By collectiag S"Cie:otrlic ·die.ta ElhdlillM~· ~n:iaiYiltl ru~mrcb cal'.I:

1~sfahl:lsh the best practices [bat·: ~hm.1ld useta
i.Ilf!!{Prnve: lie:ami:img oatll:cn• e - ·ti 1

Ni,g:eci:a ~ sbould focus. . ·M1JM1C'11tm

1eilm;af:iort I ,
For ei.runp~~i:. ~ifo:=g'ler & _. · l (20U9) 00Jnd1J1.c1e · , _'esem:rdn -s.lludy to examine best i;iia:cliites of
!:t!adrLilig .n111:r1il.he:r.skiUs to you11Jg c.hild.re11. Mullhs teachers cyipkaUy l.ill.lacb n1.1mbet .skills by
.""-~: i·. ·1 · ·
1

.~kmg·p1.1:pi.l~(DtB.· ~, ·(i .. ..
·
m
Ht;)W .1m110.y li}ea. ·
:· · ' e. : : . · s-
l L. ~ ~ _
~ u . i: iu ?
_.J , :i.
J . ,. · I . . ..· : . . .
L _
I ' . . • I - . ' ' ~ - d
t H!!l
I ,' •
._
' - ;

I1 a'i' il:e. .·..

1
_ · •. ,:r_
:a!ll.d thul!l.gjlu -Let they c1:1ul.d wme 1J!lf "~:111. ·.:better aad more ~Ilgag;il!lg method, a.f
lllllI1'.i11l:ier 1

leaching mmil.her ~kiUi;;~ They dieved.ope,d Bl number gsmetlu11:l mi,ght look 1>oauilhing lik.e this;

• ~1fA~
Tue gaare !imply n:qu iece of l"'P"' wi"'lli1:- _ - - umbm . !o lO it. two
markers (lhe smil·ey faces- theee can be· bottle ti1.ps~1, aed a. spilClner witim the lil1J111mhers· I. w:id 2.
r-
-.A.l · .re~a,t:iv.e".lg,--.. ILl1:
1
. ';. · s·:m;,:-
i~~
b=~ra->.
· ·L·~· · t ·, ·: : 1 -
·i 3 ~ : u p) .;o _.
p .ay 1Ji1.e grun . :
1 ,rr 1e . . , . , t ! a --, ·111.. . - . · .e;ir ·, : . , - . . . , · c;_WJ.p} imu
[u1Jvetlieirm . •·. . _~.a. -.·. . .. : · - ·. -. Im-~ -~ · - ;.' < .: · .en~mbe11
four. - I picked the number l:wQ. I mlliVe fi'I··~. six,"), Chi.llrrn l!lt. a ~~hool :were: mod:mnly p;lilcecl,
m
e:ilhe[ a trad.i.tioilla1 :millth11 g;mup er the gaume wuup. Clli[dre1:1 in tltl:e ndhi.urm[ l'.l1a!tlhs grit::m1p
!'.'CGei:ved 1101ma.i. maths im:;lruiil:icm. whereas llll1i.ldJr-:ei:I i!l!I. thl: grum.e gJL'{lti:p ~,fayed !:hil,11. gmne. Botlh.
gnrnps ts:pe.ac am eq'.)J.al amm,mt of ti~nc s1t1.1d:yfr1g nmbbe:iillla'tics~ .Aft~r a..'lieW weeks, .eH ef the·
d:iiild;rem were ~S!t.ed on ~lhe:iir .m.a:lh:ii ~ki.l.l:s. These researchers fo:und tl!llllt (.ll[ 11.\l'e:rage, t;hii.dren
m
[he g<[l'llC: _group !Pe:rftH'l!l.100. be:ttew than the ·1r-...d]ti0mil gmup in maths e::rlilimticm, ocilll(llflri~1g
lillil:mhers, snd ari~~nuetic ! Siegler and Rams.ni :found! a better a!bld mere enga,gi.ng way of tead1ing
nm:[li:s, and they hiive scienti:[fo· evidei11ce·b~ed on the· ehildre,n's msths le·sl secres to support
that [heir W<lY of 'Leacb:~:1g is nraore effective than the liradit~anlii] me!lhod. They cn1n eonelude dMI
l;eachers who use this gm'lu: to teach nllim'ber .s!lcins. will[ ~1el[!l' thel:r students do bener Fl]
rn11.·lli.emiflitics.
ff you are coo.d111:ctfog 8!l'i edseatioaal ps.yc:holegy reseerch s.mdy. then your topie wi 1:1 be
prinn1ri~y focrnrod ml i:ndivii:hmls in an d111cnfino11:l 1oon'le·id, The purpose of ps.yehological.
i'.esCal"Ch is to srudy key "WIIFiiJib]es a<oot!l:t a hi!U:niali. beiag; how 'd].ey befaave, tni!!lk~ fo:d~ believe,
1e~c. As .suc:\h, psyc!Jo!ogjcal researeh must e.xamin,e individoal d111J.mi:teristii;s,. nol group
stractures, Therefore, llll1I educatioJ! J psyc:: D' study w.i U examiee stildenl
pei::fo:nuance1
situdent m.otivn.t:iul!I. ~Jlilde:Etl attit · stu ul bel iefs, tel!lld:u~:rs• hmwledl.,ge, etc. However:1-an
1ecl,tncaf:iona~psy~~~o-logy stL1dyij . - , mine sdn· ''el_vmiahfos, · ·~I ~wl faciUties.1
go"Vm:llmm.e.111 fimdu1g, etc. ·
Whnteii"UJ l:ype ·of educa ·.o: !JU sre ·~ · urpoise-o.f
1eclm~afional re,i;;ean:ih.is ' . r ·ionail . t!<la.<Mw· ·
re~cal"ch ~d corn.dl!Jletin1 : 1111.ily educi!llti.. "· '"' crfedm:iatim:nt]
·""•'' ~- Y!rmg be11efits for
1e1lmcaf ienal p:raclice::
·, Ui:idcrstW!ld
t ,o•odt
·, 1m: t ... : ' de• . . ·: ·· •
Pmv idi;: i:1IBtru:ctiu11 thut :1m1X.i:n1iie11 :slude<n1ts" l~antill'lg..
Develop au edlili ' · ; ; .·. ' .
.P'Nffidi;: :sok1liirni: '
1
,

' . •. ·
i:f 1 t . .
, • .

I - ,' ·
·
I 11 . ;-~-15-779· ·
' ' 1 . . • . •·
I
· . · . ·
.· .
. .
. ·. ·
.Plil:lltb~ R.:ei>earoh is needed to l.leijp. sha.llt decis.io:J1 mit1liag t1:klil.l educati,01u1I goals from. i:b~i.. c-.n~,
·p'h.ilmmphy tn E11rfil~y&is of snei etal Biud i1:1d:iv idm1] needs, Furth~r de.l:inei.qtio:u. is 111ieeded of ili,i:
d'.e,ci.s;iot1:-l:l:mkfog roles cf ~1c teec'bet~ admini . [ofE, local bmmh of edu i:;e.l:ii.on. and slate
d'.e:partment::sof eduratioa. Edu · · nal ~1 'lh:CTl \l!>ei> the 1>di;:nlffic method 'lu co:Ui;:ct
sc;;ienti:fi~ dil/tfili C:Bil'.l proy[.d[:e :II. de; ll!bm:Jil lJe8l 'l'lilCtices in teac:b.i1ng. The pi.!iilJiOSll:'
of edura:l:i.OJiUd resear.dr1is w kn1>w~ie · .:oui . -!I Ile t · hi: · :situatiim1 to
de.
impmv~,edrn::afii:ma:I practice. :l n
cmtRJCUlUMDE . CJ HES
The "1::cmn:riiii:lee''r.: infor
de not comprehe11siv~
P'rrugimms l"ihat Work
,i;a:nd.idates:.. f· · n ·, ' .
€W!d[UlftOl'i d1J!.1111'1nl.lllil!i'-
:Elippmad1es, f · I

2
IJ
1
 01.liS iter.i:l:ia:n.s; of research, de'll·eilop:iucnt, and l\\t!:incn~ent.n-..ro of the: ~:ro_gmnIS <l!(--e sti I] i:i1 the
1 e!ldy _s,'lag;es ofresearc'.h, 'bu:I aU are the f!iroduct of 4 or- more )'e!lt'S- of work, aml Severn] lt11ve
been i!l'I varimH!i stag'f:ll: of dieve:lopm1!nt or di:sse:n~:i[m:tfo:n fo:r nrore tlum1. [ (l years.
h1.~!5-e:rv:ire teadber ed11m'l:ic.m and dev-i::[opment is !'!art. of mml:i program, for l!'llosl: of the
programs, irii1t:ia] lrnirrti~1g i~ for less 'th;BJ[I I week~ but Cognitiv,dy Guided ]:irustmc;l:irnn mqlli:res a
41---week semfo.ar, and Re·11di1g ~ec\'.wery req;i:rires a ~full yefil" of tmin11,1g,
Federal fand'.in,g for r-esellil'.C.h and dev-e·:lopmenl portioes of the· pmg]rnnIS- rM,ged :6-1\J.m $33 0.,0:00
m SS minion. Many of die i.m111WaliYe [lmgral'l'l!S \'!'ere alsn s~ipporred by :state and ;private· fi.md:s
,Md by time in-kind contributions nf school distri!l1ls·tl\trul !;)mrtiici,pa,ted im tlie]r deeelopmeet end
d'.em1;:m:stmtio11.
'filu: seve:lll pmgra:D]rS· re'vle'!Ved illl t . is- sec • - , . <Se,iilt tiiilmpl.e:tof pliomisiing i;im_grl!ll1ns· in four
llifros.: high.er nrder tl:1inking skill _di: i. m111lhem?1([(;:f, and g_ei1e:ri-c mslmctiomd l]pPfOat:be::>
for use· i.11 any -sui:-ij~ct area, . am, Prnjei::- · · · PACT, integral s - ,tiou in
The
tlii:l'lk:i!t~g skil~s; i:a~o l:be eurrieu of ead1. - ect-n ~ler. - · ' b.!ifo, p[1ogra1Ms
aire· desigm':ld io enhance . e · m:lin,g dioory
.Md cogniill:ive science. , · , el;ail because it
offees an 1eJ<;a1.nple of a , .e fil'.S-tgrade lha1 has
beeri decrno:utmfed 101 Ir , 0111.lmwi:ii;igpos 1uve· e t over at least the nie~ttwo grad-es, The·
ether reii!di.og [llmgrlilil1l., Rei::i[llnn;;al Te.m.chiing, demenstrates Vygcts:k}~s model of E;iJl.idr.;:·d

~::~:~:~nj~~ . :- :· ,
basic ~semch p _ ,
1
;?lr11)i'J:l~1
~J~iU&\o"r;'l
. - ~n•
~- nlJ
edm.1atior:m.l :p:ra&1:i1t1e.
The tiNo umliieD"!ati.cs prog)l'illn!l BJFe ~~.e CoJliprehi:ms:i:ve Schi:m:I. Malb e1mti.cs PmgJ111m (CSMP)
1

Blllid Co_gn.itivel.yUrnded .~rin~ticm. CSMP, . · rs IDI. imle-re.sti:a1g ~Ilmple of lil fiid(l,~i:Ulii.ti.lll'Eed

ef.fm1 l:n1.1:se.d oli. new concepts of · trueti · ul ''lf'iIB :subs~;ne1:1lly dt:;irdop~d by a :labornltm-y
1

of N[E. The idea, of :ii.i:u::]ud:iag.th:" · 1'

in the ins · of li[Jll'iJl:lellimliQ: is n.gw
he:corll.lit:1g
!]ti.Ore \'Vldt:S:pn:ad:. f;ognitive~)' . t111.!.Cli.o:ra an ex ,mpl att'lu;rs C'.lllU
learn, to ,dliiagno . se.a. c'hi'ld's. kw · 'ids -di:rectly en
[h~I: :1evet The pmgml d • .· . . ., , of presehoe!
i:::hildre:1H::cmd1.1Ciloo ;at ' e l'I'. ' -,11y 0 w~sro:I]) a ' I 11
1
, • ' rd Deviel,{ij)me:nt

Cenrer. ·• '-
The fi]~al two e::iu1mpl:~s~ · m:p11lf'H1S1s]s:t:ed [nstmci'i,1u1 1(CM). and ~ooi;ierait:il'e l1eami111g~ mie.
ill11~Lrafrveos~-·-C'11',vil .. -5:~ - J 1es~,r'r 3 ··
.
1
5' 1
l'l:i1Jalii[

s- J·11reas,
S}llbJeot: :p l . " . -~ · · s[ 2- - , ,, . v _pment1
refil'letm:11n~ , , Ii,~ ~ _· . , ' _ _ ,
Bottom of f'oi1:11:i:
c;rtlon, .ood 'Im'~ h~nre beeo smdied extens:ively by 5e'\1eml r-esean:lliiern,. TI1e~ long:..~fmll
efforns ill1JSLmre 1:h~ 'iISe:fulnes:s of rese>1:r:cl:i in .ild1!11Itifyil'lg md co:nf:iJro'ling :inllo\iations th;;ir ca[I :
1m1li:e.a
prui~,th~e differe,1u:e in ed111aJ1lirum. St1udre;o1t Teaim l1ei.'illm1i:[l1g, ill cooJ>ern:1:iv e teaming pro_grillill
1

c:rmted 'by 11ese.arda·e:rs an the· Jnliris :HnpkJns, Ce:rn.ter for Sm:::iail Orgnm:rnticm of lmt: Solloo]s, i!! m
example of a 1ruogrnu1l:rnsed10111~ri.or l1esea:rch in mciai ootl org,:m]i:zanorml. psydi10]0gy and
modilied by tbe dev1:dopefs1 OtY{n su)bseqmmt l'C.Sea:reb an01 e\'aJ111BJtianw.
AU of1the pllognmlS desc:ri]ood illl the-sec~iim1 used reseii:td1 ~es:ig!lils in w'hid the perfomm11"1Ce of
.:srtude:nts~ in an experimental ,g£-Ol!i!i'' wns SOl!llpiil!Fed with .rmtiion11l 11.i1m1s. or liri~b d1ie
pe:rforn.~ance of smdei:i.~s in a eon.'lrol group. Hawever, ~Ifie .cam:rniti:ee, was gemeral.ly
disa:ppo:i:11too in ·l.h.e q:irut1:[i·1y oflhe e:valmttions HB.ifaibJe frn1r1rthese: pi:ogran1I.S1 \•iihicb eihib.i:ted
1

several prolblems. r~ut of lh.e-gai:rniS reported for smne-o:f the eva.lwilinio:n:s may be dli.e to a
slatfatfoal 11.ftimtl known
as. regress,io:r! ·~owar-d the· mean, a prohle:m. '[bat cecurs when subjec~s for a r-enllooiru trwtment
OOCOfil\': taadiidates for selection by 1m{hi.bitimg fow~r lf:iau illV"<ige m::],1.ie¥e:me:n'l SOOIJeii~ The ~lOS:t
cornmD:illy used criteriea for prng:i.·:1m1 success ·_ - · . ~!' s.l::ff:tistica[lry significaml ~l!l.creasi~ ia
performa:noe "11[! a s.'tmild1ltrdized :Ilic ievem ·t. A]timugb these res,ts, 11re 11:se:lj;1[, they alien
pmv:ide o re.lativ-ely namow i.mfo::· n of nden1t. ac:h1h:veme-illt In mklil:im:i~ :fi'=·w ofthe: pmgnin11J
barve· coUeoterl fol:lm¥ ..~Up da~ It · wheitha i. - • J 1L':l:ffeci:s v..•ere " · d after
smde:nts; !e:l1 the p.mgmm. In m •. , r l:li1e eval 9u dat ly ·ff f:· Uy mana:ged j

demo:rn:sliratiomuliinh1ot ;· o · ~- ' cfissem' [ tfor · -assisted

i:1J.str11JJctio:11 and ..-ioopcr, · re full sured,
Moroove1r,. e:Nlc::qit for d afilii.stc<lhis•· : · ~ , 'd uo , all of the evi:de:acc
fa:r ef'fectivene.ss. has b , -· vided by pmg:Tinu de-. - ·• opera .. Las:tly. tlu~ Ciepmils of ev.E1[11mti:o:D!IS· 1

s~~1- ,. ' - ~~·15.. "m' .

weru ofteo less tlu1mllil.gh.dmn we \\1\Qiu.ld have liked,
D~i:ip:itd':~e~e li ·. - . I '

~·-'
Wl~.~~-: l:IJI~~tfilt _ 1
fi L1Uil:igs:. ~.. evert
I
. ·~ , : . ~
-

. ·. .
' ·~~1 , . ' ._ :
1t : ~ 11 ~
·
'e ll~"'"
1
a~ ·,
I.I '" .
_ , :1e,
·•'"

1
·p.ro·~'1li1J.lli, and appmool:ueio; described should be ·!i.mrui: desed pro:misi:rn:g, :ra'lll:1cr dum of peoven
ef.fcctiv-e.111f.'lss.
Bottom ·o:r Fenn
Sdu:tlJil .Develo·p:me·nl Poogmm
P.'rogrnm Ile;script~:oa
The Schaol, U;evek1pme:nl Prog · . d:o:zens. of llrb;:m schno]s in
:as. -~. jo:int effort be:twe-e11 the Y · · , dy C Ne~w J~r!ley (Schmidt~ 1991).
- Acc£rnding to Comer (' , · ~ · p~.'s; byp -
[he a1p:plia11ticm of soci . mi u1:vMim'scie.u ' - ,
"1.ri 11. imp:mve the· dih111 a;m~",.,.
atio:11S:hi:1:m
:acade'llfl.fo mid social : ofs~ude:nrn.
Psycbi.attisf_s_·
, - - [·
,i:;:hild d.e-velo: - .1 _.- ·_ an 1.

1
'Comerrepo' - ' .: - ·1: pm a .
and iia .I :JO sehoo sin _ -oma :s~,;-oo·' idi:si:rictil.
15
 11.c:h.ool'.5
_ .~~llltacy
hl"it!b··: 1')l Sry:s-ten1. ¥£llil!OJ!lii":s~ckool pro,g~au1
1liLnre sig1:1if:ieJml
llie Sd'ioo[ Ue·vel10:1:n:l'ne:n1 Pr-ogra.m was ~ni,!ThaUy s:11rppoITTd by· ~e ford foltil:rtdati.on as one DJ
several Coopemth're p:rojec:ix het\•Ji'e~u1J11:ivevs.ities aind pui'l11[1!:. scfom'L :sys:1en1s. The first trv.vo
1

scl:iords ·were loc:a<t~d in lm:it sociooommlilI1ic nei_gihb::nrlmodsaod se.~"Ved a strn1cleT:1.I.po_p-w!ttilon

dial
~:vas, 98 peroen:t 1Mrican Afri1eric8'11. Rl~it:n~ds i111dic;i1e.d ·llii:i!il at ~'~ begmI1mg of' the· :pmject thesie

15
 smdeJJ1$S, were kiwt:st in ac.ademiic: achievemeet in lhe chy, and there' \1!'ere reports of
serious
attendence and 'behavior ~mbfoms.
The basis of ~1.·e program rs, to actively an v.ol;..,·.e sdJ100L adt11i1.1.is'tmtors~ t:eadaers1 p~rei'lts,, and
tllellffl~. ~'ie1:11l·~h speeift~ists, m c:reafa1g 3 secure and aOCqf tiog; envireament for .stC1d.ei'lt 'IC<Jiflll!

l'lg_
Mos't ofrbe 111'Hl.erlyill'lgconc~ts for the prognI!fll are drawn ·fu:i1ndeve:[opn~enta[ md social
psy;chofogy imd <!!re· med to 00:11.K•rilt:·administrators, 'l:each.e~, and .11rur-e111ts in how ·10 ,assist
d:iild'rea in ernotioJ11il. oocfa[,, and m::adenllic
gmwlh.
A.Ji'described by Co.mer (] ~O), the Sih.o.o1 Dcvd.opn~ent f.tog,fil'Ll:I. was desigl'led to inehcde:. ( :1
) a :>lieenri:g coramitree oemposed of scheol !i]ru:ni:niistJJ'~tors. teachers, parents, 1ui1.d
represe_n'illllives rfom the Yale Cilri[d Sf'U.dy CeT1rer; 1(2.) apupil] erseanel team ~m.n1~10$i:;:d
ohnental :liea:lth
!11rorkers 111;i1ul speed1 and l:i:eiu::Ill'lg ·: rapis ·.. (3·} ~'Jn:e school t:lomlni·treeSr---
<C1J.rnriii:mumi,
persoonel, and evah:mtion--elil · ·. ' ,in~~llded tin,e JPNnici:pa], thesccial wodk:ed:oo.:m tih.e
:me.um~ health team, teachers; . prese:nta ·: Imm :the •·a. , s' The work of 1

lnei;e gOOilp.li!· wtJis, :SUJ}po:rl:ed :in ksb' : ~d ' if:licJ1 teachers

l.ear.H.d more aool!d c'lJ.i.1. , (!)- . el a .Qgr pi!!rticrpat1: m;
1Lleai;~1e1 Iii.ides i.Q,
'l;dendi;:d~da.y tlie du .... .,,,..,..
program.I ... fo:r. .· teachers in the

·! ·
.Bomnn o:f Fomi: 8e1.:.s.. .. · . .

-~·)tm.ts.~Tl!:'O. . . ·, - , ·,
Tbruu~hout.
. JI . di tlu: pmgram':s
, d\evefop1:neal.
., - mid
I,
implen1-eotal:Jion,. the focus W.illl on invol,ving llilc
1.1Jil.u1:i:slm:1 mg ~ t n': .,. · . · ~ . . . . . : · ~. ac . : · _ · . . ..
worked \ll;'Dili cm. ' .· ' - ' '.· '
1 · •

''e or
1•
'0 'fl ' ' ' .11 I II . ' '.
,BlIJbS0-Cia] behavior .. A speu:ua] pr-O~m. the distoYecy room, llinc:l~.ded a, vm:iety ·oftuoC~~ torys.,
aod materiiall f.ot·smdeau lo use .i.rad.iv:idiuaUy. :Eu peirs, 01' in [gil'Ollps.~ ruid Wru> slBififud by an 1

1.1.lild;i:rsllll]din g m11d, iDo::,i;:ptin:ig fi:iu:,;!Jier w!n:i he . · ·11:1.e d1.ikken \Wr.kt.h.rciu~t ·ih.eir fems,
M;ci.-etilies., mid fill;g~r. Many oflllii -1 .ildi ·.. : . llie&e st;hools "'re.rer1ot emoti.OJil;aUy Qr srn::iiili11y
prop~ for echcol: lh.e:Y. ca.me. ' ~.a cum farmi[:y c: yiro.Dmt:l'its that did not el1!;111;i;umgl!
~ogDirti:\il: oir e:1:1u::1tiou&I gmwth. .I, it wm ~a: . · · for ' · vide !llill
' ,; . I: ", ; .. ; :11 ..• 1. 1· · . 1 1. .
env •1 ••.mmITT!ll111
...!. · 1 t :1 1 \ J r u n s ·re s1 : 11' :1 ·
j
., 1 t J r iey weire
11ir:o w m .. ,
assigned tethesame 'i , c: 1 - , Il
Adr.w:i:nisLralors., paren 1 · • , : .I. a , . m1l:s.' !]mgrm:rlis,
Cumc.ulll][I] cli:fllngmf 3JI' · e disoov;eey roo:m; 1•

~r t i ci ~ . a ' l i o n '
w e: r e c :o : rr t i :n g :ruval ofptl'renls:. Aic'Qf. :iag l·t;i Comef' ( 1.9:80. l 9~8), pm1enw

i j~ :a l 51~1!·
e:m on IJ !lc ' .•
10 ·.' II;!: :n ]f' l~:·ye~. . • db:Y.
dil:SSC:lllilOIHll , 0 . !Mi Il ~ ,. :C · s; m:id ~ • l"OIWl!fig
<l::Ol)peratiun • rnlio •- '•,
·j' ' < a e l'lf'..S nor I~ ' '

1)11!Jer:tts lo rnre wiben o ~se:riru1ijf8 c ass; w. at w look or:- . , at so.rn; ·of q1Jesrions ~o asli el:C.
) J I I I

festi:nig a:nd EvahlliaiLi:on

 Date reiJ.0111.ed by Omrer 1( [ 9:8:B) show '.1'.11ll1l'rlked i.mpmve:ment for ~uaitliiell!I.le!tic:s l'lilld re11dfog
scmres: of fb'mth .~er'5 at11a1di~g i]i!e fllrs.t hllo N cw H:.Uve!il Sdi100Ls; flCl perfu1rJil'Umce data h;p,ie
'bee[! f):fOr\l'.Jded Oii !l111denl;s in ·Othei!' gJ111i1des. Jfun ] 969 r£i.e fonrtb grade S'l:irnid\eJJtE!i i111 tii.ese sc]lnol:!i
W1ere foitictionijl]gsHghtly be:!mv a 1hi11d grad:e 'level; ] 0 ·year:li .later [he)' were petfur1111ing at grade
1·6
level; and by 1984 !hey were s_mrit1:g: .l years akiv,egrade [,e,r,el Moroo''\o'el', SC:hoolli aUendaJ:l1ce~
ait aKI' ,gritde levels, ituprrn.~d to aecond hi:ghecst in ti1e c:it.y1 i:lilld .st[l)del'lt co:11.mct was, r-epoo:ed as
milI'l:i1111.at
The pmgm:m. lvas f11I1:1t:1~.er ev.d:rn;Ued by devel.ope;rs i111. <11 l 987 stud,y lisfog a mmfom!ly ..~ie,c1!'ed
sw1:1p!e of Jll6 Afrioml Ame:ric.a11 stndeats in grades 3-5. Of tile ~ota] sainp~~. 176· :sltM:limM
were attending. seven Schoo.I Oevelo!J!),t'lle!l1t Prnpn. sc~~~ois arotmd fll1e co11!l'lih'.Y, '91 ™ere a:lte·nd
i11g, four orm.'tro1 :sdrm(]lls (cmliil)Ma'bl'e S(Cboo]s not using the prograr:n), and 3 9 wer:e i:n three
1

speeiel
.solfmok 11be msults, shol\Y sigJ11:ific111nt gwi:ns in rea.di:[lg soo:res,, as me:a:sui:-.ed 'by daSi$ll.100m grades,
for shu:len:ls: i.1:q pmgraDlfQ·s.cbools but not for s.tudenrls in conitwn~ schools; lihere wem'e-mJ sigjLl:ifiG11JI1t
prui ill! !IlflLl111::1rna.til~sfor e:i~be1t ·
.BoU01ri o:F :Form:
grnu~,. Ch.ildmu in program sch
1envit1lll1tUCllJt oi:ile:r the prnig1rnm.1i
et al., 1989).
bl another sl:udy. s.tuden · ce Oeotges
Gm1nl)1(Mal)1'.laud)1:1;;i. e gaim (Hl,
the Ca.lffo:mia Ac:l:i.ie"lieme~i;i _ , _ 01ne:ir, I. 91'.l:il)
..
1985 ~md 198,
.Bli:'llrWee:ll. grade srudeuds in Co . er''s p:mgram scl'.1i:m1~ ga:med .I~ percenfile
in fa.n;gum.ge a11d 9 m .rem:li:ng~ thml.il,gli:alll1 the dlstriet, :sluder:iU;. gained
pcints ia ma:lli.ei:imti,~s., 1.. 7
Ulpil>n::erilile·po· · l- · 1, IHI •
1
'~ 1,.leve'I.

5J.~'
smCle.utlJ, l[I the . ' - : Ul I •0 ' ' ' • i < 2 .ilJ
l,illl,._~·age. and 1 _ _ , · _ .- ' ~ 1 : , t•i1 _ llll _ ._ e ]'._ oints
·re5p~c"t.i,;·e:ly. Pri:111;e' Georges County .is die- fi.fteer1.rtlf hugest ill 1:h,e C.'Cl<llrllllcy a:oo liias ] OSJIOO
smCl~U1t1J:, 1pl p;;:rn;eu~. o.f: whom are Afrita.lID American,

N:lllti.mmI A:sse;ssmdill or lid)wi:catii:

.Dev~Jopmcnt of the :Na:li.o nal .·
ifodend funds ii!:i. the Ia:lie l 960s mr' r:rnt.U~
stm:le.nts.in science, 11m:a[hem:ati1."tJRl!:ii
Siturues. ;run~ mesie, mifl . i · .t . 1Ll:Sl.Dg
samples of s1:111dents hI : e tl:f.'JMWI~. a· !
l]d
nrm·themE1rLics: are pt;' . •.and. ·1!1u~ 01he1r
aS·ses:w~·
s.ubj·e00; on ru:i iniegul:M
NAEP is 111:L'!f~~· , t and f, '·
samp[i.rlg of s ~ as tW:; ; r ;,j . ,-:a _, ·s 'red in
repolil:i.ng fin , l~e u.;e. ~ J. . , 11 . i\l:\ · . - , "' ·. · J ' : , · . . e l'}ast
·
three decades y ps:yie ~ologiii!lts-:51B.tJtsucmus. ru1. t'd.11Hm1llon re:!lleiirie lern., W'.n; · Uli.lt ·t
11
i11fwoik:, NAIEP wm1.11.l.d h~ve been more ltim~-mns:l.l[ini~g fu:r stmfents. to take, more'
expem~ive to'
administer, aod less m::cliuate as: a measure af.ru::lhieve1mmt.
NAIEP lil:11s, reveided much about s1n:tdant;i' 'knt)\V[\edg:c· and how lhei 1: kriowh'!dge has
ch~n:g~i
evertime, In 1990, .onl:y ?4 pe~""Cel'.llt rif 1vi,~etf1:h graders bev.' bnw m.an:y hems equ;J!l
15'0
mi111111tes~ only 49 percent lmew 11vh<11l perc:ettl 7 fa of l 15; ,md o:o]y· ] j i:i.er-ce:111t kriell\. how mm:h
a.

11
 $.~1,000 depo:sFt wm11Ldl be wmd'l afler :fi mo:J11tlhs ~if i~ •eBJrne~ illlte1a~s1. of I per-cent ['.!er mo:]lth en
1

it.he i:nitia] amount(Natio.nn1.i\fise.smrent Go\re:rning· Board, ]99] )•., Trend dam !irn:Jicate l'hf1l
read.ing ood maitJbe:m.aticsskills have i1:1cl'.'e'!lsed only ·13.li~i:it:ly over tbe past two diocm:les wb:i]e
science ad1ievemenit dec:hned and then rose to ;diout d1ie l 9'10 levels (Nadarnd Centee Fur
Ed1.u:otion
Sta~istics. l99 l d). Ooe of the lesser knQ'W'l'l. h'cnds; is !:Mt tft~e toeadlug and mathematiea scores or
Amc3Jl1 A1nt:ri.CElln ll!nd Rispanio. :students httve been risrng fm.k!r ·!Jmn the natfonai <1,,-em.~e. The
fmrS;t decade of NAEf' data portly provoked !he l 9·80s school l'efonu eff.lJl1s (Nati.inulll. Rcsea!iicll.
Cmiadl., 1986 );. the seeond decadle of data has l'!f·cilllip:ted policy IIllflike:r.s. to rethink ltl :ieir refoIT11
.BoUmn o:f Form:
:srtn:ir1:gif!.S. because tbi effecta ·of those te fenas on. NAEP scores .h.a'\f1e. been less tbui l:he'.)f :li:ad
lio:ped,
Despite ii::> p.rcmfrmillce .ood. use, ,
is· d~Wice· over i;iimid:i k.1!1.o,1•ile:dg,·t!'·•ff:l.'i
measured. Some observers are · ause Ure
scin..e:s have no·p,erao![J.al: IQ·· ·e. li, in scores,
10t [a!(:k tlm:roof. reUect · swell .as
d:iaages 'iii schoo] inst .1, i:ll, ·[here would be
np chuge· in time s>cores dlenl utoli~·.alioa and family ~j:lpoirt

O·OA n·1 .· cS-l'"'n

d'.edir.ied... COJirvern~~y•. increases i.n i;;co·~ are notneceesarily evidence that sebool im;tIU.clio:n
n·3 nnf1'71·
.ilJ
htu!;[mlf:lil'.O"'"ed. 1
Q.4 ~-;&- ~lw ,~~ • .. .) • _ l • ot.lJ;dto
expenme:nwil .rcs.etiirc:h .
.Ai\l'S: ure, e:;ti:;r~;nimi;;nta]. research de~~gµsiavo[Ye cellecling gt1:a.11Li:!.m.livi;: datlit and p-erfornti1ig
s~iiltiistical mialY'si.s on them during r~e11reh, :Jerefuw, nm!lci11g i~ al!I e(XIUliilple {If gmmtitat:ive
irs;i.:m.'IXh method. .
\V.lmt are Tb:e Typei;; ·ofE;:i:peri •
The type.'i, afeqne:r.inun1.bll.nise•:.l!I~1Ml!'~"'"'g ~i!lflll~.:h.er ai>s.i;gias
subj·eorn to idfii ffenmt corn.d]ticm · · erime1111ral,
q:r: 1iBis-i~e~i;ie:iime:nt!ll, mi · · ,•
Ph::-i:lXiflelliimel'ltal: llii:i ·
[11. pri.experi:rui.elill:al
:r · es;i.gn, ci'th:e:r ct1 , ·, , • .r va:n.u · nd : , groups are o'b.sel.'Ved
for 'lhe eftect of the app. • · mn of an i:nd.eperiooil'I~ Vlliriable wlfiidlii ls pre:aamed m ea.use .ebal'lge.
[ti s ·~ l e s i ,:l.
A . ltbo 1 . 1.g ti, 1i~~e
Je x ,
I, " ' . .i11. 1! . 3
:g
.i! ,I· t
- t · ..•
\· .·.·. 16· .
, ~,
' ." '.'.a. '·..· ,:·.· , ·
- l fi .:·:c· '·
p II ·.• . . goo1rp.•
· · -
~e types

[n l]n,js Lj'!1le' of C1'!:J}~l".~1Ueirt1lil'Is.trndy ,, m1Jl,y one dq1enden'l grm1;p or \i'iUUlb]e ~S. considered,
1'.he situdy :isi carried Olllt ,;ifi:,e[·mme ·b)~aitmEiil w'liliich wa.i;;. :prammecl [:o c:a~e c·'.h.ange.
maikmg it & po.sttes.t slfndy.
One~gmup IP'retest.Jposlt-est Re.s~®ll'iCh
JDesign:

18
"Ibis teseareh design ·COl1'.ibines beth po.sttes.t and pref.ei!il st1uity by cEl!rry:i!l'lg 01i1It a tesit en a
.single gr-oup before the ~l'e<ll·l!luenl: is admi.11isti:;::red and afte-:r ~he treatment is adnfo1[stered•. W:i~h
the fomier beiil'lg .adinini:ste•·:ed Bil the 'lhegi1mi:ng of treatm.e[~t arni lalrcr !It 1il~e end,
Static-ymrp 1(),:;mil"orjm!ll:
hi 9. :Stt1ti:c~grm1;p cm;l:lpl!lrisOJl Stllld)I;. 2: er mere g1UIJJ}ll are plm::OO amfo:r o!Jservatfo:n, where
onJy one of tibe gmu11s is :snh5ii:lcted to so.me tm11tment \'l'hi]e the oth·er ,gmups -BJre held statie.
AU the gr-ou!l:JS are past-te~stoo,andl the observed ,(l[ffe1-e;m::es helween the groups ,ore assumed
to be a
result cfthe treennent,
Quiu:ri~i::xl!]ei:inlenla'.I Research D ~ign
I.hie· '!!.~cud ".qi;m:si'" means partial. ba~~ or pseudo. Theecfere, tfae qm1:sl:-e:x~e'i:im:ent!dn:s-~al'ch
oo·a.ci:ng II resemblnnoe lo the true- " . - IEltlSemcm,, !Ju:l nott!he SWl].C. [a quasi-
expetimeats, the p;E1rfo:: i,pan:ts are ml:y assigaed, and as srn;:h.. llhey are used in settisgs
\Vherie rnl!ldti:ini.zarion. is diffical . : , . Q iblie. ·
This is 'ilery comlli!Ulll: in ~d'uca, ' - . rch, w to a.Uow ~:le
11i:iwdom-selectllb1J!1 of s:tu. · . 1Joo.m1 s ·
Some examples of qui ' .. : . en search o equivaleat
1Contr-o] goo1q1, des:ig _ ' unh:rb:a&rn:lc~B'l.JBl,,I
True fapeirin11!nla! Re· . eaign
~;~~:~.·., '~~:r~m. . a. i.~.~~~l}~~lisl>tiOclalil rnu1~:y:]~ ~a:s~~fOp'l~rO· z~
m ~ t es!
le'.re

\"I 1lho1.1.t
lic. ~;~
a pretes
h!·
. . t
d.
, . . . . ,
~:·e&,';speFrOV~t~

I ' '
"i~ril'ne true expJ.:::r1• . _ . _ _ _ .• _a , e
' •
1 1 ,: _. 111. ,
I .
.: '. ·.I
ll!lai1ip!llfol~ei;l.l:,iy tliie ~earnbt:r,. and Lhe: dis,lri.bulfoll' uuSit be rarufom. The elassi ficatio:n. of
tree experi:me:nwil desip ~inc-.lude~
The po5He5l·c:n]y Coni:r-ol G!rtJ!li:p Design; [[I - is deB~gri•. su~jei;:ts are 1t1r.uilo.inl.yS\'i~e-ted illld
,Blllsig11ed to' ~li•t: :j glJIJ!il]lli r(CO:!].tlm d I:~ -. , . : 1;mtal), ood Oi!l]jl' tl]:e e:xiperi[m.m:til group .i.s. treated,
A£lt:e:r close ebservsficn, beth ost-tested, l!ll. ·, & eoaelusion is dru\ii•a from. !:he'
d~.ft"erience between thefl!e £mlip . ,, - 1

1grn , •

The p11el\es1t~_postitesl Co:nnml - '~ - ls me 1rm:idoml:y

assigned tn t.lu: 2 gmu; , • -11 pe: : . · · t!rnntm.
Afi:er clese obScerva,ticm~ b ed :in iem::I~
gro'lill[ll'..
Solmnoia :ifi:mr-,g:oou!D' . . . his is com: me· , of tl1e - . , d. me p1Je:fest~pos-tt:est
1~on1ro:I grcmps. l.n this e -- ."llTI.e:nmd.ondy selee 1suiibjects m:ie Jll•:lacedl il'lto 4 . gmlilJlfl..

~1~~:i:; ·.:9.: · _1· . _-:~ ~·I

'
1 i ::· ·1
s:. u .· '4 1:{ .-'.
1Fl·~fJ.'··.. ·a . ···.·s1. t·~~
s.·f.·
'~?J".·,\.. -l·.ej.1
. , 1errwu nre
~:~
fummplesof~ ,i:ei[ ; · · · ·. / , - ',~~ ,()~ OJ J
Expe:l'imenlru ~em:c -ex,emp1'es-nre I : ''· , erent', • 'epen . il'lg oil : .le [y!file ·O . e.'\i!l]I e:rm1e'utal .re:ooruih
de.S<ig;n lh11t is be_uni.:i oo:nisidered, the iuosl basic ~fJlll'.l1ple ofex;peri~ue.111tal resea:rC:h is laboral:o:ey
experiments, i.vb:ld1 :may dil:'Ter ~n na·ae diep1md:ing on tbe :subj ed: of reseorrc:,h.
Admioisl1edllig :IE.:i\,mm Aliff The End ofSeine.s:1,er
 Dm11];g: dw seme~ster stl!l!deDts: in a class are ]ec:t11,-cd on !:Ja:rli;Cu!!!ll""colllil'"Ses aed an exa:m is
admi:ni:ste!fiecl CJJ[ the end of ihe s.e11'lf!:ste:r•. ht lbi:s ease, the stl]deuts: :;11'-e· !!he s.11libjects o:r
·d11:pende:11t vairialbl.es '<vh:ile the [eo:IIJ!11es, are ~J1e inrle,pemdctxl Yariables. treaite:d om the :suihj eets,
Only one gr-Ol!IJI of ca:refuUy sefocli'ed subjects are ·Cotuiderod! in d1ls <e·sieBirieh,. 1naJd:ng it a pre•
•expef'in~errE"SJ[ researidh design exan~ple. We \vill also notice 'll.1rrttes:ts aifC only carried ou!: llJt"'lne
end of tlhe semester. and not ill!t •the beg,irn~fo:g. ·
fmther ll1il~i1g it easy for US ~O Cli:H:!Oll:l(le· tth1Ett it ]s ll eue-shcr CEISii: srudy res1eMoeb.
Employee S:lcil.l E¥alualion
Befere ~rui:pfo·Jiag a job J>edke:r. o•gm:inltioas ccndncr tests 1tl:mit ;arre llsed lo screea 01J1t
less: qualified eandi dates fru.oi the peel of quoli:lied appl icerns. This l'Wiiy~
oTgID.ni:zatim:i.s cen delttm.me: au e,n1p[oyiee~s.ski~! set · &e p · - · : emplcrymeud.
hl the £'-Otlrrse of emplu)'i:lle~.·i:. n • · .ti. _s also Cii!IIITY mu empfo:y!!:e trai11.lt1g lo ;impriove
1ecnployee· ;p:oodtmtnvily and gen _ 1 the· O!Ellll!I. ' :ti.• Further e · · · · · · ~ cmrried 0'1t :
1111
the· end of ea:d1 ltami:mg to les1 · 1; of&e 1 · nipl ur ·
testfor i.mpmve~m:ot ·
I

Here, tb,i:: subj,el!:!t is tlie · r . y, ., . . he 'lre

pre<lest~:!Xl!sl'testconllio.11 · · pcrlment;i.] !'\~
:reil"l&·
.Evah.mtio:n. of l'eacmng _ , d
Lei! us.. consider an 1,C11:deirnic illllifit1diu11. Lhat w.tm:ts to cvalt.i'Ol!le the tead:img lllil.etlhod o:D. '!:e:;u;;hcts
::~fy!~~~Tt.. . !ft 5!t~!!~ i5
smartness, ~v I '

t'J-11
11 ·
I ' ~

,
·~· '

This is u nu equivil~nt gro1J.p design example bi:cnl:Se du~ Slll!mpl.es are net CliJlli!L Uy
: I ~.e ls '~· ·,
1
cv1duatiillg
[be effell:tiVfillcssof each teacher's teac'.hmg melh.~ th~s way. we nrn.y eonclude ,01:fl:er a post-
test
jm~. been earned •Olll •.
Howeves, this may be in:lluerniee ·
example, ii very s11m;r1t :sl'.ui:h};i:it
!][lethoo ·of h.'3.cbi1J1g.
Wh;rut are the Chamcteris<tics 0N11!~1
v:m.ria'bl•il$
Exi;;en'i:menrru :reseanil · ', Ol'l llli . depe.n eat, ind
depe1u:le;1:1t vl!l!riables. · . riables being titl!'l!~ll
subj·eci ofthe reseai:rih . .
· 0
· t !·· .
.. fl!J.. : l
8~.·-

!fMlabl,es. EX 1 :S ag
• . ·. ~ , . · om
:i:· w.;:1t· m111 1

[.·h'El'l.•m11y als , . ·. ~7to CJ~~· · ~ . ,.. '· ~·· ~·· ~

Se;ltmg .
The .seti:W.g is where the experilif11e11·1. is c<Umed Oll[I. Mllltly experiments rue careied o:nn i·ni; tlhe
lnborato:ry, tvber·c· control i:'.8'11 be e:xerliRd o:o the e1drn111eipil:ils 'V;Miah]es, the;reby eli~Ilmatililg
them, Mul.ti~'llri!Elible
Expelilrmenl:11 res:e.arch 1:11ay :indude: millhip~t! ~nde1Jei1de:n:I: variables, e,~. tome, s!!::i'l[s;, ~e;sl ·scmes:.
etc.
\\fh;y Use El\ilf!ri:mental Res1mri:1h De.sign?·
Expelii:menla1.res:ean~h des.ign coo 'be majorly used in pbfy.s.ictd seieaees, :socia:I sclences,
·l':ldm:atlon, and psydmfog:y. ]l is used to make [l;'Ud:ic,llons ai!lld ·Gm\V eonclusieus on 11. s1Jllbjecl
DUl.'tE•ei'.
Sonme uses of ;expecimentai ll':esea!L'ith des;ign are higbiighte:d below,
Medicine: fu.pcrin1eJJ'ital . researehis used to [,Jmvitle the pn:ip:er h1ea!tmeot for diseases •. In most
eases, mthcr drn.!ll .d[~tly t:is'ung patients as the· .research. .subjec L, researt:ln:rs. take a. SillJI\ple of
·~h.e IOOcteri,J from the· pati:ent''s body and are treated with the devdoped <li!'l;l:i'lbtacterirn.~
U1e ehalll;ges ohs11:n•ed duri.ng ·~~.is perind are re~orded 13111d evaluaeed Ito delerm:ine irl:s.
1l':lftetlive:11.e-ss. TI1.is pr-oDe~ coo. be c.1:uriied ou~. IJIS'il'.lg diff~r~111l C'X!Perinrenta] r1eseaxb n1e11Jmd:s.,
Educ,aiti.att Asid.es liol1lil, science .s , .et: ts Jo" ... · u::11~.is.•t.rysnd P~~ys,ie!l. whi.ch :i1uro1lves teach.illg
smdeni:s. how 101 pe,11:roi:;mexperi ·, I re ,ooh~ ii mm. also be used ~11 ianpmviug the. stlilndi!,l'd of
an. iu;adeanic .i.urit,Jiliuilll~ This-.n:n1 Wg·-stud o~il.edge::11Jlll d~ 1.~'"1 'm:II}~i11 00'.Dliil.i!ll~
up 1i~·itb helter k:aclrull]gmeth 1. • mplem . the •. mg l.U a:id studeiI!t
leiill:mi;iug. . ·
[;.;J1JJJt:raaira B.e.hovfor: Sfoci • ~1 "ls: e
. ones 4iiirC:t;;Jb.,)J, ,, :rcb 'lo test
bllI:ll~n l::iell11ruviot!J.I".~. For consider 2 p
·~ .do:m. . .,.;, · . · subjool ef it.lire
1
social l:Dle!l1l.Ctiou resea · ere om: persoll!, is pl, , in a room withoul humaa i:artm1i;:li.an for I

Date col:lecti:cm1 methcds '.il'll exftl!tliii~m

·~o~leli.ted for eJrl}eri:me · ,
re,~eru:'l::b'befr1.1~r cmrie
Olhs:e.l"l!'atio.na.] .Study:
ob.seJN"es"l:he: vwria:ble~ r-e.st wilillcilJll lil:mlilging m:ilitlng co:OO:it]m]s.

pwla·.hci ed· ·riens.2e.a·. dr.5. , ,1·n·• · ·..· ·i e-ov·IT.w. u (:.· :·. '.s1: l.· ·.·.a· : · ... ·, ,·.ti !;.':' ... "-·.·., : ,·. .·.· '
[I , .

tlibsmd. 'lbebar · ,: · i _eUr · · '_ · · :, . ~ 'l '

,~h:u1ged.. ·.. · ~ ·~ ~ · ·
'Ibis JUEi)" be a. very ris.lty thing tn do in ~i:medjc<1[ ca:s~-s beeanse l:t n1ay lje.ad loi deark1 ar
worse medk:!lil mni.diticms"
Sin:mh1tinns.: Thiis l;Jirm::edura 111.ses a l'llillthenmtnca'~ ph~ical, nr co1nputeili' rnodds to :replic:-.m:e
a real~'.life p:rore'Ss or simatim:i. n is fm[)J;mentl:y used \\\':Iii.en the actual sijtm11ii:orni ·is too
ex·pensi'li'"e!,
1doogerrnrs, or il!liprai::mcal m replicate i·ll ii\eal life,
'.21.
"Ibis method ]s; IXl'lliill:r:IOfl:IJir 1lSed i:fru 1:m:j:,ri~1eeriD[g ootl 03'lert1tti<11)i!i.l research for tearr:nf:ng purposes
Biild someti:me;s as .a tool to estinrate i;io·ssiMe outeemes .of real research .. Some 1conmmiJl! siLuatii:m
:soflwm-e are Si:n11ul:i11k MA TL.AB. and Si:mul:S.
No'I all kind!; of experimental tesearn:hcilln be caeried out n.i.'>i.n.g· si:r111il11tio:n as. a data
eolilection loot [It is very in;1ipr-nc·1ic.ai[ for a. let ·oftalbomtory··hased.r-esran:::h lhat involves
chemia1J proeesses,
Sun•eys: A s:i:J!fll'ey is a tnel used to gather fl'!;~enrn:t data <JJbaut t!be· d~iill!.aderi:st·icsof a:
1PO[tlt1lattio11,. and is cm.e .of the &'llmSt cO'.nrrnnon dat11 c0Uection IDo Is. A S:lll"'l·'e)' coasists of n gro'l1,]Jl of
1

questi:o:l'is
p:repm<ll:Jiy 'the .il"eseareiu:r.,. ~01 be· atl'.l.Swered b~ the: resdl.rcb subjocl.Sunreys c.ani be: slm-ed
1'vi~~ tb1e· ['.esp~:md•ern:ls 'both. physically and eilectro:11i.m1lly. Wbtel! col leering data 'tbrougli r

surveys. ·the kind ef dam c:o]lect.e:<l depernfl:S mil. -

• - · nt, and re.scarelmr$.have limited
i:;;outml. o•ver it.Fonnplus i,s, the 'be:~st tool for lil e1:i;n1eTirnJ data w1·:slnl! survevs, H
.has·;relevnl:lt fe$h.l:m5 1ll:m·t \vill aid du: dam co. - - s~rnlldi Im be ased in t .
~l's of experimeatel tl:.S'e.f!l.OO:l:t.

rs m .rese~rnl~
m.i est1ons., des:i.e::rJ of lliat. l°Ol[l·fo:. _ It
·caUed an ohservalio is d are :pm. ef [!be

Sa1me· dis1ti1:1cf re
~.FJial:JiEa:rive
· i:::o~l.e1:il qam11:•"!.il"iii:!:P'''
:El!Il l,'.lClil!JU_la:rn.,..J.a. .1.1.,.......,.. ............
diemDtgrnphiic ~grn_'f'nt.
lJDC(il'lltrolled vm:i~ibi~s.: In descri;ptive research, none of the m1:1Jhles <IJ'f' mfluem::ed :ilil M)I
v.ra.y. This uses ob:sea'Vii!ttomil metibods to ·crmdrn::,t libe re.semib. Henee, the Im:tme o~ ·1me vm!
llb]e~ o:r [heir b.ebavior is not in &~ ll;rn:d:s ofll~ reseqoche;r.
 Cro:ss;;secti:onlil[ studies; 1De-s1cri1:].t'ive resea1PCh is gel'.ler01Uyn erns:hsectimuil studv where
diffo.1Jent seetioas lllelo:ngi!l'lg to the· :su1e: gm!lll:p ar"e sturned.
Basi:s for further .resea:roh The data ml leered sad lill'IB[yz:etl fmim desc:nl:]ti've resen:11Ch ean 'loon
1:

be fmtlier res~hiedi wing dil:Fferent research tedi:riique:s, The data alsn mm :hdp i;mint tmvrutls
the ~ypes of .rescm·ch me-di!ods are lo be used for the :snhsequent l.'eSCB:l'iCh.
U1.e J B~sic l)ipes .o:r pe-scr~!Pt~ve R..es:m-:eb Methods . , . .. . . , .
Oli!e of ti:h.e goals of science ts, descr1phon ( otl~.er goals iaclnde i:ir.:ecl ict!l.on mid exp.hmat1.rn1).
D.esc;r]~ttve research methrn:l:S are i,:irttty nu1cb BS they sound - tltey describe.s:ituatfol'!s. Tiley do
no! n:mk.e accurate predictions, and they do eot de·lenuBne cause aad eff-e1::t
111u:re are three 1:I11ai:l!I t)];les of clie~cripti,v1e n:i.eitlhods; o!bsierv,atiot1al mdhmls, ai:se-'SluiJ)r merluiu;ls
,tlim:I slnvey methods, Th.is nrtid.~· r ·I.I briei •- - · , ~ribe each of these. nn:tluJ1ds, 'their ,advo:mtages,.
rmd their <i!rawbath, thti:s, nay ~1 01:1 ltc:r lilnderslam:l research ti:iui!ing:s.whether ~eported
i:~, the: m~.am1>trea:m _~:u:d:ia, or wh i a reseim::l~
1 • •
Obse:1F\1Blt1m:m] Me:th.od
With. the obsenrati:omd l11e·re ote 'mo
:llflai:li! cale·gories; of l:fule ~ slt!!iW',1~al)
Qi . J1i!:to:ry
observa tio11.
1 ,
The biggest a(hrimt~ge 1Itu&ail.i:st~c raethcd o sea.rem· is: th~t re-seiJrclu:~ viL'lw
aatm al. euv :iironmi;inl~ . T.his leads to gireil~I!'J:'

~:: ; ~ 1Jl~'
~ ~· ~· e•·a~1~
z z r1lkJWJtdil1
_. :t1,'t81 \_'1 J:1.A_··-~·~~~tory
ci iP ari:l s :i u lE:ei:r
eeolegicsl vlilllid:ity than

Pliopcm~ntsol
~, 1 --_-.:,1

·.--_ - .. 1 ,~,
1. ~

~Jt'l~_·M~.
.
Lbe.rtc511l.hs foend whe111. us:i:ag l.uhorn~ory ob&elY<1tiuif are .m.olll.:' .mew:iiagfu.l l:hm:a. th:JJSe· obtai:li:ecl,
\vitb u;itmllliBl:iiC o'h11erv<1tiou.
La~o:mt:ory ob~er'liarliullS are U1>1JJi1JJy less tim. · 0:111surni11g aad d1eaiper f.haa [IEl.h:r.mli.stic
,observiil!lioilli~ 1Qf eourse, bo rli1. al is•· , .d labamlm:y observation me i1.1portwn: in regw:d to
Lbe Hilivuieen1el'.l!i 1af scientific .

i·.
Su:rvr.:;· Me::thod
[11 sufll!ley 'l'lrtef:h.od researl(;h,. ,llilf
qTJ1es!l.ionaai[:es. At'l!er: - ~ ·:p
gi'!iiiell. In ordier fo:rtl11::
(tl1:1re~'fjfJ censructed p:rope:r:ty.~-rt)·
A ra1i1.sa:l-compa1mlii,\re , , < in is a resesreh desi:gn '
independeul 8, ~. · 1 · , e client!v. · · a ' Mnny
similarities e · eiw: · ; . . ·. _ 1
•'Anim.p~rta, _ · .Je be~ i_ _ . ic,, o. _ p . ~ _ _ . ' ', L esasel-
1i:::oml)1ltmhve sru.d1~ 1.mvol~ two or mere gro1,1jls an m ep~lildent vrm1t1 fo.
w:!:ri]e mrreh1rian studies involve lt'Wi]1 or more Vl[nah]es and mle' group," ... I]) m;:m]pulares &'I.
least one i~1de:~ndem variahle,
CORRELATlON RESEARiCH
To camed out 1u l:ie.lp ~Yplain i:m:po'r:tant human bel1avio1Ull'!l nr lo ['l!l'.ed:ict I iliBly outcotues.
1

Purpes.es of ,correlatfo1rn1I r~sernrehi

Expkmrn.roey studies. n is. to clarify out 1mder-standii:1,go, f i:rn,1m:rtnot [Pl~enon1e1Ila b]t identifyiing
relal:io:nsb~p anr1on;g; nriabiies. AIWllliY.S i.rn.ve.sdgate a :~uuL1ber of vsrisbles they believe are related
ID a more co~nptex. ·\•ari:ab.l.es :stEdh as. moti:va'l:ion or :lea:mi:l'lg. Types of.correlii'litio:1-ml research
Selec:rin,g a pllobl.ellJI C~·u:ios:irng a sa:n~;p'le Sdeotfag or deve[opi1.1g ll'ist!illlne'fitDetennil1i11Jg
p:mooo111J'es 1G0Ueoli:ng and a:nalyzi!llg datn ~nt-erprelim_g result Bask; steps
Te<iu;bcr aoo1111t to shady the cnnses of the m'lilOlm't of descripti'!;·e bebavioers di~pia:ir .in class ..
Stude:11t ha~ring dliffi.cidty in 1.11a1t:11ematics· nbject Teacher .ahiIJU'l to st11dy the esuses
of'.Sllud.et1l moos no'[ ~erfol'{Uin the S111Jbjet::'t .E::\i!lttnfde
\\l\at? [uvestll;gar~1u alletnpt tn de!!erminie the· c111U:se· or consequences of.differea.a:s 'thlilt al!l'eady
1exist between or mtlong g:Jifil!p o.f iudiividmds. Semetimes vie1ved1 along \¥Jilli m1nt:lati.onal
rescar•ch, as a fom:n. o.f associatloa :nee '.both: de'Slcr.iibe· ccnditions that ail:r.etudy
exist,
CALISA.l CO~tJPAR.ATIVE. .
T'lial two gmups of i11dividuuJs
i.nile:m:l!pt to· de:l!erDll.ii:te i:he· reasoi·
Group· Differeuces The
~-ri\V:I DAlll!lit:W.;-..:: 'I•: .Ei tlu:.r a
'lil111ria'ble that caW:i.ol :be · IDI maaipulated
l:m:t for om.: reBiSOCIS or ' .i:13, the effects ofai.
lileW d:id oa vecy youmg · · .· . n
Jt is. aihout. 0:11·~ of ·1!1.e type of 1Je.sea:rdi. method thal 11u;.nug co.mprism1 betweea.cm1se and dfuiCI..
·~·~·- i.._· '!·_ri:··:-_·_.·
7 ·,,a i~._. 1: d r.-· -1~•. -.--•.~T1 he
u:pmscms,~m._:bf·' 51· -_.~
·dt1fferie11ce .c;m. b '· - ' • : 1:1 , , , • :r o :r ,Iii·. :n. , . 1.lll.d of
meth.oo is. fo:rn:it. [. - - .·. ·. -· ~J n - . ·-00.
1 1

. , · .. : · - . . .i:. •
v.iria1:im1 i:11. the 2-41J!d.ividu paincm o:f siruden!t:i•. T:l~.is 'ind O"f-.researc~1 can be uood-:illl ~predl:i.rclio:m
,BJbout []Wbkim such as, the· difflilitenl achievemeats of student :in. the class, lf ~t .about tem,tiili:ri.g
mer.h.l:l'ds,. It ctlill. be research eli~he1r it is :relale : · -~.-rilhart ml!l.l:ti:medili'I. method. a:r U1c: se!f~leamil!lg
meth.oib. .
Case .Study 'Me~bml
Case st1.11:dy ~smrd:i irrvoh•·ei> · _ ...,_....,[vid~.i!.15. Case
Sitmies often !t'l'lld lo ~e.stabfo :~111-M!lml!'.!i Case smdies
should not be· 1!11iSed to · 0 . Biki:ri.~ aceurate