Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol.

34, 168}175 (2001)

Textural Changes of Co!ee Beans as A!ected

by Roasting Conditions
P. Pittia*, M. Dalla Rosa and C. R. LericiR

Dipartimento di Scienze degli Alimenti, Università di Udine, via Marangoni 97, 33100 Udine (Italy)
(Received March 1, 2000; accepted December 30, 2000)

During the roasting process, cowee beans change their textural properties, losing strength and toughness and becoming progressively
more brittle, owing to chemical, physical and structural modixcations.
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the factors~such as density and moisture~awecting the mechanical properties of cowee beans
roasted at 170, 200 3C and under so-called high yield conditions. To distinguish the ewects due to roasting (where both density and
moisture changes occur) from those due to the water removal alone, heat treatments on cowee bean samples at dehydration temperatures
(90}105 3C) have been also carried out. Results showed that the typical brittleness of roasted and high yield cowee beans seems to be
related both to the water loss and to the change of tissue structure owing to the pyrolysis phenomena and to the decrease of density. In
fact, even if dried and roasted cowee beans showed, at similar moisture content, a reduced and weak signixcant diwerence in the
resistance to fracture and in toughness, roasting caused a decrease of the deformability, the index of a brittle and fragile texture.

 2001 Academic Press

Keywords: co!ee; texture; roasting; moisture; density

Introduction
Roasting is probably the most important step in co!ee
processing, causing marked chemical, physical, structural
and sensorial changes (Sievetz & Desrosier, 1979). Dur-
ing this process, co!ee beans are subjected to high tem-
peratures (in the case of an Italian-style roasting it ranges
between 200 and 240 3C bean temperature) for di!erent
times depending on the desired characteristics of the "nal
product (Lerici & Nicoli, 1990).
The roasting conditions also give rise to signi"cant
changes in the textural properties of the co!ee bean. In
fact, during this process, beans lose their strength and
toughness and become progressively more crumbly and
brittle, which are typical characteristics of the roasted
product. On the other hand the reaching of a certain
degree of brittleness is very important for the grinding to
which co!ee beans have to be subjected to before brew-
ing. The uniformity of the product of the grinding process
depends on various factors including the brittleness of
the roasted co!ee bean and it a!ects the extraction of
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: 39 0432590719;
E-mail: paola.pittia@dsa.uniud.it
R This work is dedicated to the memory of our co-author Prof. C. R.
Lerici, who died March 9, 2000
0023-6438/01/050168#08 $35.00/0
 2001 Academic Press All articles available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
soluble solids to obtain the co!ee brew (Clo & Voilley,
1983; Clarke & Macrae, 1985).
Even if the changes in the textural and mechanical charac-
teristics to which the co!ee bean undergo during roasting
play a relevant role in the quality of the roasted beans,
these properties have been scarcely studied until now.
Considering the possible causes of the relevant change of
the texture during roasting, one e!ect could be attributed
to the noticeable reduction of density due to the volume
increase and to the corresponding increase of porosity of
the bean structure determined by the increase of the
pressure of the internal gases, products of the heat-in-
duced reactions (mainly water vapour and carbon diox-
ide, but also pyrolysis reaction products) (Massini et al.,
1990; Gutierrez et al., 1993). It is known, in fact, that the
overall mechanical properties of a food could be related
to the cell structure which is typical of various vegetables
and fruits or they may result from the physical state, or
porosity (Roos, 1995).
On the other hand, one of the main factors which may
signi"cantly a!ect mechanical properties of foods during
processing and storage is the presence of plasticizers,
where water can be considered the most important
(Roos, 1995). Some authors discovered the e!ect of
moisture content and water activity on selected mechan-
ical properties, such as the hardness, toughness
and breaking force of cereals, intact legumes and nuts
doi:10.1006/ fstl.2000.0749

168

(Tran et al., 1981; Al Saleh & Gallant, 1985; Borges
& Peleg, 1997).
Thus, considering the relevant loss of water that take
place during the roasting of the co!ee beans (from
11}12 g/100 g to 1.5}2 g/100 g) (Lerici et al., 1980), it
could be hypothesized that the brittleness of the roasted
product is related to its very low moisture.
In this paper, factors*such as density and moisture*
a!ecting the mechanical properties of the co!ee beans of
Arabica and Robusta varieties dried and roasted at dif-
ferent processing conditions, have been considered. In
order to distinguish the e!ects due to roasting (when
both density and moisture changes occur) from those due
to the water removal alone, some heating treatments on
co!ee bean samples at dehydration temperatures
(90}105 3C) and a high yield cycle (T: 240 3C*4 min#
T: 190 3C*16 min), were also carried out. The so-called
&high yield' roasting is related to a process where the heat
exchange occurs very fast in order to obtain higher vol-
ume expansion of the beans owing to a faster pressure
increase within the beans, than in the traditional roasting
process. This type of process is claimed to produce
a highly porous structure in the bean cell tissues and this
should determine a higher extraction yield than tra-
ditionally roasted co!ee during brewing of ground
co!ee (Anon., 1984; Lerici et al., 1985; Dalla Rosa et al.,
1986).
The results of the textural evaluations on the di!erently
treated co!ee beans have bean discussed together with
the physico-chemical and chemical properties of the
corresponding product.
Materials and Methods
Arabica (Co+ea arabica, var. Santos) and Robusta (Co+ea
Canephora var. Robusta) green beans were utilized for
the di!erent heat treatments. Physical properties of the
samples used are reported in Table 1. Heat treatments
were performed using a laboratory air circulating oven
(Memmert, mod.100/UM, Germany) at constant temper-
ature of 170 or 200 3C and 90 or 105 3C in order to
simulate light and dark roasting and drying cycles, re-
spectively. About 40 g of green co!ee beans were placed
on stainless steel nets in a single layer. For each sampling
Table 1 Physical properties of the raw Arabica and
Robusta co!ee beans under study (number of sam-
ples"20)
Arabica Robusta
Mass (g) Mean 0.15 0.16
s.d.? 0.02 0.02
Height (m;10\) Mean 3.7 3.9
s.d.? 0.4 0.4
Length (m;10\) Mean 9.1 7.6
s.d.? 0.4 0.4
Width (m;10\) Mean 7.0 6.2
s.d.? 0.3 0.4
? Standard deviation.
169
lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3
step two nets were withdrawn from the oven and samples
of beans were used for analysis.
The higher temperatures have been chosen on the basis
of previous works where appeared to be adequate to
produce roasting conditions at laboratory scale (Lerici
et al., 1980). Process times were up to 20 min for roasting
and up to 24 h for drying processes. A high yield treat-
ment was also carried out only on Arabica green co!ee in
order to make a product characterized by a great bean
expansion, thus with a very low density. In this case,
co!ee beans were heated for 4 min at 240 3C and then for
16 min at 190 3C.
On each sample, before and after the process, the follow-
ing determinations were carried out:
Moisture, protein, fat and ash
Carried out according to AOAC methods (1980).
Mono- and disaccharide
This was done by gaschromatographic analysis, follow-
ing the procedure described in a previous work (Lerici
et al., 1978).
Total weight loss (= )
2
This is expressed as g/100 g, and is calculated by weigh-
ing co!ee samples before (W ) and after roasting or
'
drying (W), as follows: W "100 (W!W )/W
2 ' '
Density
This was calculated by using a picnometer according to
Lerici et al. (1980). Data have been given as apparent
density (d ) considering the actual weight/volume ratio.
Normalized density (d ), to highlight the density reduc-
,
tion as well as due to the increase of volume, were
obtained keeping into account the weight loss due to the
moisture/dry matter loss during drying or roasting
according to the following equation:
d "d (1#W /100).
,  2
Colour analysis
Analysed by using a tristimulus colorimeter (Chroma-
meter-2 Re#ectance, Minolta, Japan) equipped with a
CR-200 measuring head. The instrument was calibrated
on a white tile before each measurement. Standard C.I.E.
conditions with illuminant &C' (6774K) were used. Colour
was expressed in L*, a*, b* Hunter scale parameters and
a* and b* were used to compute the hue angle (tan\
b*/a*) (Little, 1975). Measurements were performed on
samples of ground co!ee beans placed on suitable cells.
Mean values and standard deviations were obtained
from at least "ve measurements for each sample and the
variation coe$cient, expressed as the percentage ratio
between the standard deviation and the mean value, was
40.3%.
lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3
Mechanical testing
An Instron Universal Testing Machine, mod. 4301
(U.T.M., Instron International Limited, High Wycombe,
England) equipped with a 1000 N load cell was used. For
the measurements, 25 beans of each sample were taken at
random, then positioned individually on its longest side
and with the #at side up between two metal parallel
plates of the dynamometer. Compression force was ap-
plied at a rate of 0.83 m\/s until failure occurred; work-
ing temperature was 20$1 3C. The heat treatment
caused meaningful changes in the trend of the force-
displacement curve of the samples (see discussion in the
text). Thus, due to the di$culty to calculate the true
stress and strain, the mechanical properties of the raw
and di!erently heated co!ee beans were characterized
with the following empirical measurements carried out in
the force-displacement curve (Borges & Peleg, 1997).
Breaking force (N)*corresponding to force at the major
failure event. It was considered as empirical measure of
strength;
Strain at fracture (%)*corresponding to the deformation
at the "rst breaking point and used as index of the
deformability; it was expressed as percentage to keep into
account the actual dimensions of the di!erently heat
treated beans;
Work (J)*corresponding to the area under the force-
displacement curve until the "rst breaking event occur-
red. This parameter has been used as empirical index of
toughness.
Statistical analysis
In order to investigate the in#uence of roasting para-
meters on textural properties of co!ee beans, Student's
t values computations (two tailed) to determine if the
di!erence between the means was by chance only (if
P'0.05) or was statistically signi"cant (if P40.05) at
the 95% level of signi"cance, were carried out.
Results and Discussion
In Table 2, composition of raw Arabica and Robusta
co!ee beans is reported. Data show that Arabica co!ee
has a sugar and fat content higher than Robusta, in
agreement with data reported by other authors (Trugo,
1985).
In Fig. 1a, b and c the changes in moisture, apparent
density and hue angle of Arabica co!ee beans during
roasting at 170, 200 3C and under high yield conditions
as a function of the heating time, are represented. In
Fig. 1d, e and f the changes of the same parameters for
the Robusta co!ee are shown.
It is possible to note that, in our process conditions,
the moisture of both co!ee varieties presents a steep
170
Table 2 Chemical composition of raw Arabica and
Robusta co!ee beans under study
(g/100 g)
Arabica Robusta
Moisture 11.45 11.26
Mono- and disaccaride 14.90 8.54
Protein 12.45 14.88
Fat 12.27 8.96
Ash 3.55 3.76
decrease, i.e. 42 g/100 g after 20 min of roasting time. At
the same time, a decrease both in weight (due to the water
loss and heat-induced reaction products loss) and, more
signi"cantly, in density has been noticed (Fig. 1b and e),
caused by the increase of the volume and internal gas
formation. These changes are, in turn, implied in the bean
expansion and in the formation of a characteristic porous
structure in the roasted co!ee bean (Massini et al., 1990).
During roasting, due to the non-enzymatic browning and
pyrolysis reactions, a change in the co!ee bean colour
takes place. Consequently, the yellow-green colour of the
raw bean changes to the brown-black roasted colour.
This is shown by the progressive and marked decrease of
the hue angle value of the samples (Fig. 1c and f ). How-
ever, the colour changes observed in Robusta co!ee were
more limited, probably due to the lower sugar content
(Trugo, 1985).
In spite of the di!erent compositions, the roasting condi-
tions (170 and 200 3C) gave only minor di!erences be-
tween the chemical and physico-chemical parameters of
the Arabica and Robusta co!ee beans. On the other
hand, the peculiar heating conditions used to obtain the
high yield product caused a quicker decrease in moisture,
higher development and evolution of the thermal-in-
duced reactions of the Arabica co!ee beans leading to
a product, after 20 min of process time, with lower appar-
ent density and lower hue angle than the roasted (170 or
200 3C) co!ee samples.
The trends observed in these results are in agreement
with those reported by other authors (Lerici et al., 1985;
Severini et al., 1992) and this con"rms that experimental
conditions, even at the laboratory scale, were adequate to
simulate the roasting process. Preliminary roasting treat-
ments in our experimental conditions showed to be re-
producible at P(0.05 taking into account the behaviour
of chemical and chemico-physical characteristics. Fur-
thermore, the co!ee beans studied were well representa-
tive of the Arabica and Robusta co!ees, even if obtained
from di!erent production areas (Lerici et al., 1980).
In the case of the heating treatments at dehydration
temperatures (90}105 3C), despite the relevant decrease
of the moisture content obtained after 24 h, the dried
co!ee samples of both co!ee varieties did not show
signi"cant changes both in colour and in density in
comparison with the raw ones (Table 3).
At the same time the physico-chemical modi"cations
were induced by the heat treatments, changes of the
co!ee bean texture were observed. Changes in the
 lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3

Fig. 1 Changes in moisture, density and hue angle of Arabica (a, b, and c) and Robusta (d, e and f ) co!ee beans during roasting at
170 3C, 200 3C and under high yield conditions (䊏: Arabica, 170 3C; 䉱: Arabica, 200 3C; 䊊: Arabica, high yield; 䊐: Robusta,
170 3C; 䉭: Robusta, 200 3C)

textural characteristics of the co!ee bean as a function of
the heat treatment time were revealed, at "rst, by the
variation of the shape of the force-deformation curve
during the instrumental measurements. For example, the
force-deformation curve of an Arabica green bean and an
Arabica roasted (170 3C, 20 min) bean are reported in
Fig. 2. In general, green beans showed a well-de"ned
fracture point (Fig. 2a); on the other hand, in the case of
co!ee beans that underwent progressively longer heating
times, the force-deformation curves became more
irregular and irreproducible. At the same time, a decrease
was noticed in the breaking force, stress at fracture, and
an increase in the number of peaks, similar to that seen in
brittle foods (Aguilera & Stanley, 1999). Furthermore,
this behaviour has been evidenced for all the heat
treatments carried out, independently of the temperature
considered.
In Fig. 3, changes in the breaking force of Arabica co!ee
beans heated under roasting (170 and 200 3C) or drying
(90 and 105 3C) conditions, as a function of process time

171
lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3

Table 3 Chemical and physico-chemical characteristics of Arabica and Robusta co!ee under study after 24 h under
drying conditions

Moisture App. density

(g/100 g) (g/m;10\) Hue angle
Heating
Variety temperature (3C) Mean s.d.? Mean s.d.? Mean s.d.?

Arabica 90 1.590 0.051 1.123 0.002 1.482 0.010

105 1.381 0.062 1.063 0.001 1.402 0.021
Robusta 90 1.481 0.042 1.079 0.002 1.503 0.018
105 1.162 0.041 0.987 0.001 1.442 0.013

? Standard deviation.

Fig. 3 Breaking force of Arabica co!ee beans heated under

roasting (170 3C and 200 3C) or drying (90 3C and 105 3C)
conditions, as a function of process time (䊉: 90 3C; 䉲: 105 3C;
䊏: 170 3C; 䉱: 200 3C; 䊐: high yield). Inset shows "rst hour in
more details

Fig. 2 Examples of force-deformation curve of Arabica green

(a) and roasted at 170 3C for 20 min (b) bean

are reported. The very high breaking force value of the

green co!ee bean of both Arabica and Robusta co!ees
could be attributed, partly, to the presence of a certain
amount of some structural polysaccharides, especially
those derived from the polymerization of mannan
(Trugo, 1985). However, in all cases, as the heating time Fig. 4 Breaking force of co!ee beans di!erently heated as
increases, the force at failure tends to decrease, reaching a function of the respective dry matter (䊉: Arabica, 90 3C; 䉲:
similar and very low values at the end of the process, to Arabica, 105 3C; 䊏: Arabica, 170 3C; 䉱: Arabica, 200 3C; 䊊:
indicate a progressive reduction in the strength of the Arabica, high yield; 䊐: Robusta, 170 3C; 䉭: Robusta, 200 3C)
bean.
The process temperature a!ected textural changes of the
beans as evidenced by the di!erent trends of the breaking In Fig. 4, the breaking force data of Arabica and Robusta
force decrease of the di!erently treated co!ee samples co!ee beans heated di!erently have been further reported
and by the di!erent time needed to reduce the breaking as a function of their respective dry matter. Regardless of
force. the di!erent heating conditions, the trend of the strength

172

of the samples as a function of the correspondent dry
matter is almost similar showing a progressive and
signi"cant decrease as the moisture content of the co!ee
becomes lower.
It could also be observed that the lowest breaking force
values are reached by the samples of both co!ee varieties,
treated at the di!erent temperatures having similar and
very low moisture content. Statistical analysis carried out
on these last breaking force data evidenced signi"cant
di!erences (P(0.05) among the roasted and dried co!ee
samples both for Robusta and Arabica varieties. No
meaningful di!erences were shown between Arabica and
Robusta co!ee samples roasted at 200 3C for 16 min
(P'0.05). This result could be a!ected also by the ir-
regularity of the size and shape of the beans and possibly
by structural variability within each group of co!ee
bean sample which caused a variation coe$cient of the
textural evaluations up to 20%.
Limited di!erences in the change of the force at failure as
a function of the dry matter could be observed in the "rst
part of the graph (corresponding to the data of the
samples at the initial stage of the heat treatment). In
particular, the treatments carried out at higher temper-
atures (roasting and high yield conditions) determined an
initial higher decrease of the breaking force that could
be attributed to the higher density decrease and to the
higher water loss. A similar e!ect could be implied in the
lowest meaningful breaking load of the high yield co!ee
beans in comparison to the other samples at the same
water content (P(0.02) that is evident from dry matter
values above 95 g/100 g. Massini et al. (1990) showed by
SEM analysis of co!ee beans under industrial roasting
conditions (200}210 3C) the formation of cavities and
cracks after 4 min roasting in the internal and external
bean surface due to the relevant increase in the internal
pressure and volume of the co!ee bean.
To highlight the e!ect of the density on textural changes
of the co!ee beans, the breaking force data of Arabica
co!ee bean from di!erent process temperatures and
times are plotted against the correspondent normalized
density (Fig. 5).
The reduction of bean strength in co!ee dehydrated at 90
and 105 3C does not appear to be caused by the decrease
of density as due to the increase of volume. It is possible
to show that no relevant variation in this physical para-
meter has been observed in these samples after 24 h of
heating time (see also Table 3). On the other hand, in the
case of the co!ee beans roasted at 170 and 200 3C, the
textural changes observed during the roasting treatment
seem to be related to the change of density. In fact, in the
case of the dehydrated samples, co!ee beans with similar
values of density could correspond to samples with very
di!erent breaking forces, whilst during roasting, co!ee
beans show a change in their texture at the same time as
their normalized density.
The reduction in the fracture strength related to the
heating process could be considered as an index to
describe the typical textural properties of the roasted
co!ee beans, even if it does not seem to be useful enough
to discriminate between di!erent heating conditions.
Thus, in order to show better the e!ect of roasting condi-
173
lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3
Fig. 5 Breaking force of Arabica co!ee beans undergone to
di!erent process temperatures and times vs. normalized density
(䊉: 90 3C; 䉲: 105 3C; 䊏: 170 3C; 䉱: 200 3C; 䊐: high yield)
tions on the textural properties of the co!ee beans, the
strain at fracture and the work of the "rst failure event
were also considered. Data of these textural properties
evaluated on the raw co!ee beans and on the those
obtained after the longest time of heat treatment are
reported in Table 4.
It should be noted that, despite the signi"cant reduction
in the strength, drying conditions (24 h at 90 or 105 3C)
determined only a limited reduction of the strain in
respect to the corresponding raw sample; this reduction
was signi"cant only in the case of the Arabica variety. At
the same time, a great decrease in toughness of the co!ee
beans was observed as shown by the relevant decrease of
the work of the "rst failure event.
On the contrary, roasted and high yield co!ee presented
a meaningful reduction of both strain and work at frac-
ture in respect to the raw beans, to indicate a great
change of the textural properties of these samples due to
the heat treatment. In particular, the lower toughness
accompanied by a lower deformability are a typical index
of a brittle and fragile texture (Borges & Peleg, 1997).
The higher lipid content of the Arabica co!ee could be
implied in its meaningful (P(0.05) higher strain at frac-
ture than Robusta when textural data are compared for
both raw samples and after the same heating treatment.
It is known that the presence of oil could a!ect the
texture of a food due to its ability to act as a plasticizer,
even if not to the extent that water is (Borges & Peleg,
1997).
The results obtained from the textural analysis seem to
show that the water loss caused by heating, whatever the
temperature considered, a!ect mainly the sti!ness and
the toughness of the co!ee beans, or, in other words, their
resistance to fracture under compression.
Water, acting as plasticizer, is expected to decrease the
material's sti!ness. Therefore, decreasing the moisture,
should increase the sti!ness of the material up to the
glassy state. From a macroscopic point of view, the
results of our study showed an opposite e!ect by water
content. It could be supposed that, increasing the water
lwt/vol. 34 (2001) No. 3

Table 4 Mechanical parameters of raw and di!erently heated co!ee beans under study (number of samples"25)
Strain at fracture (%) Work (J)
Co!ee
variety Treatment Mean d.s. Mean d.s.

Arabica Raw 37.95 a 2.04 1.16;10\ a 2.4;10\

90 3C, 24 h 33.83 b 1.73 1.55;10\ b 3.5;10\
105 3C, 24 h 29.48 c 2.15 1.19;10\ b 2.9;10\
170 3C, 20 23.73 de 2.28 7.9 ;10\ c 1.6;10\
200 3C, 16 22.98 d 2.12 7.3 ;10\ c 2.0;10\
High yield 24.28 e 2.18 6.8 ;10\ d 1.8;10\
Robusta Raw 31.59 a 2.29 1.53;10\ a 3.9;10\
90 3C, 24 h 31.76 a 1.84 1.78;10\ b 2.9;10\
105 3C, 24 h 26.19 b 1.75 1.52;10\ c 3.1;10\
170 3C, 20 20.55 c 2.79 9.80;10\ d 2.7;10\
200 3C, 16 21.82 bc 2.66 8.23;10\ e 1.7;10\

Same letter within each co!ee variety and textural parameter means data not signi"cantly di!erent at 95% probability level.

content of the green co!ee bean by moisture sorption,
could lead to a reduction of the cellular toughening and,
thus, the original moisture content (about 10 g/100 g on
wet basis) of the green bean corresponds to an intermedi-
ate plasticization level, close to a peak in sti!ness. These
observations could con"rm the fact that plasticization by
water has di!erent behaviour in di!erent materials
(Harris & Peleg, 1996).
In our co!ee samples at higher moisture content (i.e.
green beans), water prevents or hinders failure. It enables
the co!ee bean to absorb higher levels of mechanical
energy (Harris & Peleg, 1996) before to fracture. On the
other hand, the low strength at failure and toughness of
both dried and roasted co!ee bean reached when the
moisture is very low (1.5}2 g/100 g, a +0.1) so that it

permits a glassy-like structure to form which is very easy
to break.
The treatment of the co!ee beans under roasting or high
yield conditions also a!ected their deformability, leading
to a structure with low elasticity, scarce resistance to
fracture and, thus, very brittle. In this case, the relevant
increase of bean volume and porosity, the correspondent
decrease in density and the changes in the cell structure
caused by the pyrolitic reactions induced by the high
temperature process could be the main causes of the
observed textural changes.
The textural behaviour is related to the bean integrity
under a de"nite deformation and its toughness does not
depend only to the rigidity of a single layer of tissue but
to the whole structure of the bean that becomes very
brittle and fragile reducing the moisture and changing its
structure and physical and chemical properties as a con-
sequence of the roasting process conditions.
Conclusions
On the basis of our results, it is possible to summarize
that the moisture content showed to mainly a!ect the
mechanical properties of co!ee beans during drying and
roasting and the maximum strength to fracture and
toughness of the green beans is related to a partial
plasticization. These results seems to be in agreement
with the data reported by other authors studying the
mechanical properties of cereal products (Harris & Peleg,
1996).
Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the roasting
process could in#uence the textural properties of the
co!ee beans, rather than just the in#uence on the moist-
ure. This evidences that the changes of the tissue com-
position and of the density due to the high temperature
treatment are determinant to de"ne the mechanical prop-
erties of the co!ee beans. In particular, the heating condi-
tions used during the roasting and the so-called &high
yield roasting' could lead to a bean characterized by
a low strength, low toughness and a low deformability,
which is the typical index of a fragile and brittle texture.
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