ARTICLE IN PRESS

LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715

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Effect of crust temperature and water content on acrylamide formation

during baking of white bread: Steam and falling temperature baking
Lilia Ahrnéa,, Claes-Göran Anderssona, Per Floberga, Johan Rosénb, Hans Lingnerta
a
SIK—The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, P.O. Box 5401, SE-402 29 Göteborg, Sweden
b
National Food Administration, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
Received 11 August 2006; received in revised form 22 December 2006; accepted 4 January 2007

Abstract

The effect of crust temperature and water content on acrylamide formation was studied during the baking of white bread. To assess the
effect of over-baking, we used a full factorial experimental design in which the baking time was increased by 5 and 10 min at each baking
temperature. Additional experiments were performed with steam baking and falling temperature baking. Immediately after baking, the
crust was divided into the outer and inner crust fractions, and the water content and acrylamide concentration of each fraction was
measured. The outer crust had a significantly lower water content and higher acrylamide concentration than the inner crust did. Crust
temperature in combination with water content had a significant effect on acrylamide formation, higher temperatures resulting in higher
acrylamide concentrations. However, at very high temperatures and lower water contents, acrylamide concentration was observed to
decrease, though the bread colour was then unacceptable for consumption. Steam and falling temperature baking, on the other hand,
decreased the acrylamide content while producing bread crust with an acceptable colour. The lowest acrylamide values and an acceptable
crust colour were produced by steam baking.
r 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Baking; Acrylamide; Steam baking; Crust; Temperature; Water content

1. Introduction ture, air velocity, relative humidity, and rate of heat

Bread baking is a complex process involving many
physical and chemical changes. The optimum baking
process depends on the type of bread to be baked and
the desired bread characteristics. The surface colour of
bread is an important quality associated with aroma,
texture, and appearance characteristics important to
consumers. Surface colour is often used as indicator of
baking completion. Bread colour develops late in baking,
simultaneously with crust formation, and arises from
chemical reactions such as the Maillard reaction and
sugar caramelization. The extent of these chemical reac-
tions is largely influenced by the physical mechanisms of
heat and water transport during baking. Thus, bread crust
colour is influenced by the dough recipe and by the
processing conditions during baking, i.e., time, tempera-
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 31 33 55 600; fax: +46 31 833 782.
E-mail address: lia@sik.se (L. Ahrné).
transfer.
The Maillard reaction is important for the formation of
colour and aroma in the bread crust, but may also be
associated with the formation of toxic compounds, such as
acrylamide (Mottram, Wedzicha, & Dodson, 2002; Stadler,
Blank, Varga, Robert, & Riediker, 2002; Zyzak et al.,
2003). Since the Swedish National Food Administration
announced in April 2002 that acrylamide had been found
in food products, research has been conducted worldwide
to attain a better understanding of acrylamide formation
mechanisms and to find ways to reduce such formation.
Acrylamide has been found in substantial amounts in many
different food products, mainly of plant origin, processed
at temperatures above 100–120 1C. The highest amounts of
acrylamide have been found in French Fries, potato crisps,
and crisp bread (Tareke, Rydberg, Karlsson, Eriksson, &
Tornqvist, 2002). Later studies, taking intake data into
account, have shown that the main food categories
responsible for acrylamide intake are potato products,

0023-6438/$30.00 r 2007 Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2007.01.010
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715
cereal products (including bread), and coffee (Svensson
et al., 2003; Matthys et al., 2005). CIAA, the Confederation
of the Food and Drink Industries in the Europe, published
in 2005 and updated in October 2006, the ‘‘Acrylamide
Toolbox’’ containing relevant information about acryla-
mide in foods and ways to reduce its formation (www.
ciaa.be).
Several approaches to reducing the acrylamide content
of bread have been reported in the literature in recent
years. Haase, Matthaeus, and Vosmann (2003) discussed
the formation of acrylamide in baked products, and
identified flour milling intensity and baking temperature
as important factors affecting acrylamide concentration in
bread. Springer, Fischer, Lehrack, and Freund (2003)
reported a 50% reduction in the acrylamide content by
changing the temperature/moisture profile during the
baking process. Surdyk, Rosen, Andersson, and Aman
(2004) examined the effect of aspargine and fructose on
acrylamide formation in white leavened bread at baking
temperatures over 200 1C, finding a strong correlation
between crust colour and acrylamide formation when the
recipe remained constant. However, when a flour with a
lower ash content was used, a lower acrylamide content
and a similar crust colour were obtained. Fredriksson,
Tallving, Rosen, and Aman (2004) suggested that extensive
fermentation with yeast may be one strategy for reducing
the acrylamide content of bread. Brathen and Knutsen
(2005) examined the effect of time and temperature on the
formation of acrylamide in bread, flat bread, dry starch
systems, and dried rye-based flat bread. Mustafa, Anders-
son, Rosen, Kamal-Eldin, and Aman (2005) studied the
effects of baking time and temperature and of changing the
recipe for yeast-leavened whole-grain rye crisp bread (by
adding fructose, asparagine, and oat bran concentrate) on
its acrylamide content and colour. Brathen, Kita, Knutsen,
and Wicklund (2005) and Fink, Andersson, Rosen, and
Aman (2006) observed that the addition of glycine to
dough significantly reduced the acrylamide content of both
flat bread and bread crust.
Baking temperature is an important parameter influen-
cing acrylamide formation. Although the temperature of
importance for the formation of acrylamide is the exact
temperature in the bread surface, most studies only report
the oven temperature. The heat is transported from the
oven air to the bread, and since bread is a poor heat
conductor, a temperature and water profile arises in the
bread. This temperature profile and its development over
time during baking are strongly influenced by the rate of
heat transfer from the oven to the bread surface, and by the
thermal and structural properties of the dough/bread that
determine heat and water transport inside the bread. Bread
crust is formed at the end of the baking process, when the
bread surface temperature is over 100 1C and water loss in
the bread surface is considerable. The crust fraction in
contact with the bread crumb may become dried, as is
typical of a crust, but may have poor colour development
compared with the outer surface. The extension of
1709
chemical reactions, including the formation of acrylamide
or colour, depend on the temperature and water distribu-
tion in the crust during baking. Very little research has
examined the effect of the in situ water content and
temperature of the bread crust during baking and their
effect on acrylamide formation. This present research
aimed to determine the effect of crust temperature and
water content on acrylamide formation in bread crust, and
to suggest ways to reduce it.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Recipe
Wheat flour (Bagarns Bästa, 18% protein, 0.45% ash,
0.017% aspargine, 0.013% glucose, and 0.005% fructose)
obtained from Nordmills (Uppsala, Sweden), was used
in this study. Bread dough was prepared as described in
Table 1.
The yeast was dissolved in 20 1C water and then added to
the dry ingredients. All the ingredients were mixed for
2 min at slow speed and then 5 min at high speed in a spiral
kneader (CDE Freviglio, Italy). Portions of dough, each
weighing 200 g, were placed in rectangular baking tins and
allowed to rest for 10 min at ambient temperature before
proofing for 45 min at 35 1C and 80% RH.
2.2. Baking process
The fermented dough was baked in the baking tins
in a deck oven without air circulation (Dahlen-Nova,
Sveba Dahlen AB, Fristad, Sweden) following the 23
factorial design with three central points as described in
Table 2.
During baking, the temperature was measured in the
bread crust at depths of 1 and 2 mm from the surface and in
the centre of the bread. Very thin copperconstantan
thermocouples, 0.07 mm in diameter (type T; Pentronic
AB, Sweden), connected to a logger and a computer were
used to record the temperature.
Additional experiments were done in a convection oven
(Dahlen S400; Sveba Dahlen AB, Fristad, Sweden) to
assess the effect of steam on the water content of the crust
and on acrylamide formation. Steam was injected into the
oven after 5, 10, and 15 min and retained in it until the end
Table 1
Recipe for the bread dough
Recipe Weight (g)
Wheat flour 1850
Water 1000
Yeast 90
Salt 18.5
Improver (Lecimax 2000, Nordbakels, Sweden) 18.5
Total 2977
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1710 L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715

Table 2 Table 3
Experimental design Experiments performed to assess the effect of steam. Baking was
performed at 200 1C, and the total baking time was 20 min
Exp no. T oven (1C) Baking timea (min)
Experiment Steam (t1t2)
1 200 tb (15)
2 230 tb (12) A No steam
3 260 tb (10) B 5–20
4 200 tb+5 (20) C 10–20
5 230 tb+5 (17) D 15–20
6 260 tb+5 (15) E No steam; oven temperature decreased after 5 min baking
7 200 tb+10 (25) F No steam; oven temperature decreased after 10 min baking
8 230 tb+10 (22) G No steam; oven temperature decreased after 15 min baking
9 260 tb+10 (20)
10 230 tb+5 (17) t1, time (min) when steam was turned on; t2, time (min) when steam was
11 230 tb+5 (17) turned off; T(t), temperature time curve.
12 230 tb+5 (17)
a
tb is the baking time necessary to reach a fully developed crumb, i.e. for
The acrylamide content was analysed with liquid
the centre temperature of the bread to reach 98 1C.
chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS
MS) using electrospray ionization. The dried and milled
of baking (20 min). Since steam reduced the crust samples were extracted with water at room temperature,
temperature, other experiments were performed without and deuterium-labelled acrylamide (Polymer Source Inc.,
steam but in which the oven temperature was adjusted to Dorval, QC, Canada) was added as an internal standard.
produce a temperature history curve in the bread similar to Two types of solid-phase extraction columns, Isolute
that occurring during steam baking. Table 3 shows a Multimode (1 g) and ENV+ (1 g) (International Sorbent
summary of the experiments performed. Technology, Hengoed, Mid Glamorgan, UK), were used to
make an extract pure and concentrated enough to enable
the analysis of solid matrices down to 2 mg kg–1. The extract
2.3. Analyses of the bread was then injected three times into the LCMSMS
system. Validation data in the 5–1000 mg kg–1 interval,
Seven loaves of bread made from 200-g dough portions obtained using spiked samples of mashed raw potatoes,
were baked in each experiment. Immediately after baking, were excellent with relative standard deviations of 29%
the crust was separated from the crumb in six loaves. Two and bias of 72%, thus, the limit of quantification (LOQ)
fractions of crust were obtained using a razor blade, crust I was 5 mg kg1. Limit of detection (LOD) was 2 mg kg1. The
consisting of the outer surface crust, and crust II consisting laboratory has also participated in several proficiency tests
of the inner crust in contact with the crumb. for acrylamide in food. Most of the samples (n ¼ 9)
The thickness, water content, and water activity were represented cereals or bread in the 4.9711 mg kg–1 range.
measured in each crust fraction immediately after separa- The obtained z-scores ranged from 0.55 to 0.60 (the limits
tion. Samples of each crust fraction were also collected for for acceptable z-scores are 72.0.), indicating a relevant
acrylamide analysis. The colour was measured at three working range and the applicability of the method in the
different positions on the bread surface using a Minolta present work. A detailed description of the work-up
CR-10 camera. The L*a*b* colour space analysis method procedure, validation results, and results of the proficiency
was used, where L* represents lightness and a* and b* the tests has been published earlier (Fohgelberg, Rosén,
chromaticity co-ordinates. The result was reported in the Hellenäs, & Abramsson-Zetterberg, 2005), as has a
form of a colour difference, dE ab , as follows: description of the LCMSMS procedure (Rosén &
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Hellenäs, 2002).
dE ab ¼ ðdL Þ2 þ ðda Þ2 þ ðdb Þ2 ,
3. Results and discussion
where dL*, da*, and db* are the differences between the
L*, a*, and b* values of the sample and the reference (a 3.1. Traditional baking
white ceramic plate for which L ¼ 93.4, a ¼ –1.8, and
b ¼ 4.4). The thickness of the crust was measured using a The effect of crust temperature and water content on
digital calliper in three different places. acrylamide formation was studied during the baking of
Total water loss during baking, i.e., g water lost/g initial white bread in a deck oven without air circulation at 200,
weight, was determined by measuring the weight of the 230, and 260 1C. At each temperature, the shortest baking
whole loaf before and after baking. Water content was time was determined as that necessary to obtain a fully
measured using the AOAC method (drying at 70 1C for developed crumb, i.e., the time needed for the centre of the
16 h) and water activity in an AquaLab Series 3 water bread to reach a temperature of 98 1C. To assess the effect
activity metre (Decagon Devices, Pullman, WA, USA). of over-baking, the shortest baking time was increased by 5
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715
Baking time/ 200°C
baking temperature
tb
15 min
tb+10
25 min
Fig. 1. Pictures of the bread baked at 200, 230, and 260 1C at the longest and shortest baking time chosen. tb is the baking time necessary to reach a fully
developed crumb, i.e. for the centre temperature of the bread to reach 98 1C; tb+10 is the tb+10 min.
and 10 min. Fig. 1 gives an idea of the colour of bread
baked at 200, 230, and 260 1C for the longest and shortest
baking times chosen. The higher the baking temperature,
the shorter the baking time needed to bake the crumb fully.
The low thermal conductivity of the bread causes a low
rate of conductive heat transfer to the centre of the bread,
while the temperature at the surface, particularly influenced
by radiative heat transfer from the oven walls to the bread
surface, rises very rapidly. At 260 1C, baking for the time
needed to bake the crumb fully creates an unacceptable
crust colour. Fig. 2 shows in greater detail the temperature
profile in the crumb and crust (1 and 2 mm) when baking
bread at 200 and 260 1C. As the moisture at the surface
evaporates and the surface dries out, the surface tempera-
ture rises towards that of the oven. Decreasing the oven
temperature by 60 1C, from 260 to 200 1C, increased the
time needed for the centre bread crumb to reach 98 1C from
10 to 15 min, at which time the crust temperature reached
200 and 150 1C, respectively. As baking takes place at
atmospheric pressure, the centre temperature of the bread
does not exceed 100 1C.
Although the crust is thin, a difference of approximately
10 1C was observed between the outer (1 mm from the
surface) and inner (2 mm from the surface) crust fractions
at all baking temperatures tested. This temperature
difference, together with restricted water evaporation from
the inner crust, results in a difference between the water
contents of the two crust fractions. Fig. 3 shows a
significant difference of approximately 2% (g water/100 g
crust) between the water contents of the two crust
fractions. As expected, a lower water content was observed
in the case of higher crust temperatures and longer baking
times. Fig. 4 shows the relationship between the maximum
temperature in the two crust fractions and their final water
1711
230°C 260°C
12 min 10 min
22 min 20 min
content: higher water content was observed at lower crust
temperatures, while the water content in the crust tends to
level out towards 2–3% (g water/100 g crust) at higher crust
temperatures.
In accordance with the results reported by Surdyk et
al.(2004) and Brathen and Knutsen (2005), we also
observed a strong correlation between acrylamide forma-
tion and the baking temperature and time. Fig. 5 shows an
increase in the amount of acrylamide formed in the crust
with increased baking temperature; no acrylamide was
observed in the bread crumb (i.e. o2 mg kg1). The highest
concentration of acrylamide was observed in the case of
baking at 260 1C for 15 min. However, in bread baked at
260 1C for 20 min, acrylamide concentration was lower,
being lower in the outer than in the inner crust. Bagdonaite
and Murkovic (2004) have reported similar results for
roasting coffee, where beans roasted at 260 1C for 5 min
contained the most acrylamide, and increased roasting time
reduced the acrylamide concentration. Excluding the
results obtained at 260 1C, the acrylamide concentration
in the inner crust fraction (crust II) was 25–75% of that in
the outer fraction (crust I) for baking at 200 and 230 1C.
In Fig. 6 the concentration of acrylamide in crusts I and
II is plotted against the respective maximum temperatures
and water contents. Fig. 6a shows that the lowest crust
temperature at which acrylamide was measured in these
experiments was approximately 150 1C. A trend line drawn
in Fig. 6 indicates that the formation of acrylamide
apparently starts at approximately 120–130 1C. The highest
acrylamide concentration (230718 mg kg1 crust) was
observed in crust II at 221 1C (Fig. 6a), while crust I at a
concurrent temperature of 231 1C had an acrylamide
concentration of only 135717 mg kg1 crust. Degradation
of acrylamide may have occurred in this temperature
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1712 L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715

Oven 200°C Oven 260°C

250 250

Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200
150 150

100 100
1 mm crust 2 mm crust
50 2 mm crust 50 1 mm crust
center center
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25
Baking time (min) Baking time (min)

Fig. 2. Temperature profile in the crumb and crust (1 and 2 mm) during the baking of white bread at 200 and 260 1C.

14 14 14
200°C 230°C 260°C
12 12
(g water/100 g crust)

12
water content

10 10 10
8 8 8
6 6 6

4 4 4

2 2 2

0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Baking time (min) Baking time (min)
Baking time (min)

Fig. 3. Water content in the crust I (&; 1 mm from the surface) and crust II (’; 2 mm from the surface) during the baking of bread at 200, 230 and 260 1C.

12 acrylamide concentration with decreased crust water

water content (g water/100 g crust)

content in the 4–2% (g water/100 g crust) range. However,

10 it is difficult to separate the effect of temperature from that
of water content. The lower acrylamide concentration
8 produced at a higher temperature was observed in a crust
having a 2.7% (g water/100 g crust) water content.
6 A strong correlation between colour and acrylamide
concentration, when varying baking time and temperature
4 but using a constant recipe, has been reported by Surdyk
et al.(2004). This is supported by our results as long as the
2 colour is within the acceptable limits. Our results indicated
a strong correlation between crust temperature and colour
0 (Fig. 7a); meaning that acrylamide concentration and
120 140 160 180 200 220 240
colour are well correlated only up to a colour value of
Maximum temperature in the crust (°C)
DE ¼ 65, after which acrylamide content decreases simul-
Fig. 4. Relationship between the maximum temperature in the two crust taneously with water content (Fig. 7b). A crust colour
fractions and their final water content (& crust I and ’ crust II). value above DE ¼ 60 is, however, considered unacceptable
for consumption.

range; however, the water content seems to play an 3.2. Steam and falling temperature baking
important role in any such degradation process. Fig. 6b
shows increased acrylamide concentrations with decreased Steam baking is commonly used during the initial stages
water content down to 4% (g water/100 g crust), of baking to improve crust texture and colour. Previous
which seems largely correlated to the increased temperature studies showed that baking cakes in highly humid air
(Fig. 6a). However, thereafter, as the crust temperature lightened the cake crust colour and raised the final water
continues to increase and the water content to decrease, the content of the cake (Xue & Walker, 2003). Since steam can
acrylamide concentration tends to decrease. Fig. 6b influence both the water content and crust colour, in the
indicates great variation and a trend towards decreased present study, steam was supplied to the oven at different
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715 1713

250
200°C 230°C 260°C
Acrylamide (µg/kg) 200

150

100

50

0
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
Baking time (min) Baking time (min) Baking time (min)

Fig. 5. Amount of acrylamide formed in the crust I (&) and crust II (’) during baking at 200, 230 and 260 1C.

300
a b
250
Acrylamide (µg/kg)

200

150
100

50

0
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Maximum temperature in the crust (ºC) water content in the crust (g
water/100 g crust)

Fig. 6. Amount of acrylamide formed in the crust I (&) and crust II (’) against the respective (a) maximum temperatures and (b) water contents.

a b

Water content (g/100 g crust)

250 240 250 9
Crust temperature (°C)

8
Acrylamide (µg/kg)

Acrylamide (µg/kg)

200 220 200 7

200 6
150 150 5
180
100 4
100
160 3
50 50 2
140
1
0 120 0 0
40 50 60 70 80 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Crust colour (dE) Crust colour (dE)

Fig. 7. Relationship between crust colour, acrylamide formation, crust temperature and water content. (a) ’ Acrylamide content and & maximum
temperature in the crust; (b) ’ acrylamide content and n water content in the crust.

stages of baking, and its effect on acrylamide formation baking (experiment C) reduced the concentration of
evaluated. Fig. 8 presents an example of the effect of steam acrylamide by almost 50% compared with the level when
on the temperature of the bread crust (at depths of 1 and baking without steam (experiment A). Although no local
2 mm) and crumb during baking. In this case, steam was water measurements were possible during steam baking, we
injected into the oven after 10 min of baking (experiment expected that steam would increase the crust water content,
C) and retained until the end of baking (20 min). Steam resulting in better heat transfer than in the dry crust. To
baking decreased both the crust temperature and the imitate the decreased temperature caused by steam, and to
temperature difference between the outer and inner crust, further elucidate the effect of the water content of the crust,
resulting in a lower acrylamide concentration (Fig. 9) than additional experiments were performed that involved
in baking without steam. decreasing the oven temperature (experiments E, F, and
Baking with steam for a longer time (the last 15 min of G). Fig. 10 shows an example of the crust temperature in
baking; experiment B) produced a lower acrylamide experiment C (with steam) and in experiments E and F
concentration. The use of steam for the last 10 min of (temperature lowered after 5 and 10 min of baking,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1714 L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715

respectively). Lowering the oven temperature after 5, 10 pressure and the crumb temperature did not exceed
and 15 min of baking reduced the acrylamide concentration 100 1C. A significant difference in temperature, water
by 67%, 36%, 35%, respectively (Fig. 9), compared with content, and acrylamide concentration was observed
that produced by constant temperature baking. Fig. 11
presents the colour differences between breads produced 200
under different baking conditions. Using steam, it was
Falling - exp F
possible to bake bread to approximately the same colour 160

Crust temperature (°C)

level as that produced by traditional baking, but with Falling - exp E
considerably lower acrylamide levels (compare A with C Steam - exp C
120
and D). With falling temperature baking, however, though
acrylamide levels are lowered, the bread colour is lighter 80
(compare F and G with A).
40
4. Conclusions
0
This study has shown that acrylamide formation during 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
baking in yeast-leavened white bread occurs in the bread Baking time (min)
crust. No acrylamide was measured in the crumb (i.e.
o2 mg kg1), since baking was done at atmospheric Fig. 10. Temperature in crust I during baking at steam (experiment C)
and falling temperature baking (experiment E and F).

250
60
200
2 mm Steam baking Traditional baking
crurst colour (dE)
Temperature (°C)

C D
50
150 A
1 mm
G
B E
100 F
center 40
Falling temperature baking
50

30
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0 5 10 15 20 25 Acrylamide (µg/kg)
Baking time (min)
Fig. 11. Relationship between colour and acrylamide formation during
Fig. 8. Temperature profile in the bread crust (1 and 2 mm) and crumb steam and falling temperature baking. A: Traditional baking; B, C and D:
during the steam baking (experiment C; Table 3). Oven temperature was (closed symbols) experiments with steam and E, F and G: falling
200 1C and the total baking time 20 min. temperature baking (open symbols).

140
AA crust I
120 AA crust II

100
Acrylamide (µg/kg)

80

60

40

20

0
A B C D E F G

No steam Steam Falling temperature

Fig. 9. Amount of acrylamide formed in crusts I and II during steam and falling temperature baking (see Table 3).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L. Ahrné et al. / LWT 40 (2007) 1708–1715
between the outer and inner crust fractions of the bread.
For baking at 200 and 230 1C, the acrylamide concentra-
tion in the outer crust was 2–3 times higher than in the
inner fraction. Baking at 260 1C decreased the acrylamide
concentration with longer baking times but produced an
unacceptably dark colour; this finding strongly agrees with
those of previous studies of coffee roasting. Examining the
correlations between acrylamide concentration, maximum
crust temperature, crust colour, and crust water content
revealed that both crust temperature and crust water
content significantly affect acrylamide formation. How-
ever, the relatively lower values of acrylamide observed in
the case of high-temperature baking and low water
contents are unacceptable from a consumer standpoint,
as the bread colour is far too dark and other sensory
attributes of the bread are unacceptable.
Steam and falling temperature baking are simple
modifications of traditional baking that can produce
bread with an acceptable crust colour, and significantly
reduce its acrylamide content. The lowest acrylamide
values and an acceptable crust colour were produced by
steam baking.
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