LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 737–743

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Different baking conditions may produce breads with similar physical T

qualities but unique starch gelatinization behaviour
Priscila Bredariol, Marcela Spatti, Fernanda Maria Vanin∗
Food Engineering Department, University of São Paulo, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (USP/FZEA), Laboratory of Bread and Dough Process
(LAPROPAMA), Av. Duque de Caxias Norte 225, 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study evaluated the impact of baking conditions (time, temperature and steam) on the local heating rate and
Macromolecular aspects its consequences on bread attributes. Dough was baked under different temperatures (160, 190 and 220 °C) and
Water loss time (9, 12, 15 and 20 min), with the temperature rise monitored throughout the process. Macroscopic quality
Specific volume and macromolecular aspects of bread were analysed. A higher heating rate was observed for bread crumb baked
Crumb hardness
with steam introduced at the beginning of baking and for bread crust baked without steam, at higher tem-
Steam
peratures. Although different local heating rates were observed with the various baking conditions, the condi-
tions which produced bread with similar quality aspects were identified. However, a similar trend was not
observed for starch gelatinisation, which was unique to each baking condition. Consequently, baking aspects
(time, temperature, steam) can be used to modify or to maintain bread characteristics, in which macromolecular
changes are unique only due to different thermal development and mass transfer characteristics.

1. Introduction
The baking process is the final step of breadmaking, transforming
dough into expanded bread, with the resulting crust colour associated
with aroma, texture and appearance, which are important character-
istics to consumers. Baking requires very high temperatures, typically
between 160 and 250 °C, it thereby needs high thermal energy (Le-bail
et al., 2010). It is estimated that baking bread consumes two to five
times more energy than other thermal treatments normally applied to
food. Another important baking parameter is the steam injection at the
beginning of the baking time, which can account for 10–20% of the
baking energy (Le-bail et al., 2010) and plays a major role in the quality
of the crust, as well as in the global structure of the bread, particularly
in the case of crispy rolls such as a French baguette (Altamirano-
Fortoul, Le-Bail, Chevallier, & Rosell, 2012). However, in some cases
baking is performed without steam injection (Le-bail et al., 2010).
The end of baking depends mostly on quality aspects, which are
critical for the acceptance of the product by consumers, i.e. the surface
colour together with texture and flavour (Ahrné, Andersson, Floberg,
Rosén, & Lingnert, 2007; Purlis & Salvadori, 2007). In accordance to the
type of bread to be baked and the desired bread characteristics, which
vary according to the eating habits of a given population, the baking
process parameters could be determined. For example, colour levels, in
terms of surface lightness, could range from low (usually < 70) to high
values (up to 85) just for typical French breads (Purlis & Salvadori,
2007). Regarding the baking process, time, material properties and
operating conditions are the main interests of engineers and equipment
users (Goñi, Oddone, Segura, Mascheroni, & Salvadori, 2008). So, to
better understand and therefore to predict, optimise and control baking,
it is essential to consider both transport phenomena and quality
changes that occur in bread during baking.
There are currently around twenty periodicals devoted to cereal
science and technological studies involving the bread making process
(Mondal & Datta, 2008). Thus, there are specifically developed tech-
nologies to improve the efficiency of the process while optimising
product quality. Ureta et al. (2018) demonstrated the effect of baking
temperature on local water content at different regions of the bread and
on the water loss. Altamirano-Fortoul et al. (2012) studied the impact of
the steam during baking on the crust features and water diffusivity,
while Mondal and Datta (2011) evaluated the influence of baking
process parameters (baking temperature, baking time and water-
spraying) on the quality of crustless bread. Park and Baik (2007) re-
ported the effects of baking time and temperature on the preparation of
par-baked French bread, and of thawing and second baking conditions
on the characteristics of bread prepared from par-baked bread. The
effect of baking conditions (time and temperature), baking type (fully
baked and part-baked) and storage temperature on the staling of
Sangak bread was evaluated by Izadi Najafabadi, Le-Bail, Hamdami,

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fernanda.vanin@usp.br (F.M. Vanin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.05.094
Received 6 February 2019; Received in revised form 15 April 2019; Accepted 20 May 2019
Available online 23 May 2019
0023-6438/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Bredariol, et al.
Monteau, and Keramat (2014). Shittu, Raji, and Sanni (2007) demon-
strated the effect of baking temperature and time on some physical
properties of bread made with cassava and wheat flour. Although those
studies have focused on baking effects, a complete understanding of the
entire baking process of conventional wheat bread is still not very clear.
To our knowledge, the effect of baking temperature and time on local
heating rate, and its consequences on bread quality has not been pre-
viously reported. For this reason, the objective of this paper was to
conduct a study of bread baking, simultaneously analysing quality and
process aspects to evaluate the effect of baking conditions on the local
heating rate and its consequences on some bread attributes. Therefore,
several baking conditions were used (Fig. 1) to represent commercially
available breads with different properties. It was hypothesised that (1)
different baking conditions could achieve final bread results with si-
milar quality aspects, however (2) even if quality aspects were similar,
the gelatinization of starch in bread (crumb or crust) would also be
similar, or it could slow down or speed up. For this purpose, experi-
ments on a pilot scale using an instrumented baking oven were coupled
to thermal analyses and a simulation of the baking process was per-
formed in order to investigate “what takes place” at a specific heating
rate by analysing in situ “what is taking place,” which was detected
through the enthalpy transitions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Wheat flour (Bunge, Brazil), salt (Cisne, Brazil), commercial baking
improver (S500) from Puratos (Brazil), and fresh yeast (Fleischamann,
Brazil) were used.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Bread production
First, the dry ingredients (wheat flour, salt, improver, respectively),
fresh yeast and water were added to a spiral kneader (AM-12E, Famag
Brazil) and mixed for 9 min. Then, the dough was covered with plastic
film for 10 min, divided into 100 g portions before resting for 15 min
more (covered with plastic film) enabling the dough to relax. The
dough was then shaped in a bread moulder (MR500, Prática
Technipan), and transferred to a fermentation chamber (CF-20,
Klimaquip, Brazil) at 35 °C and 85% relative humidity until it reached
2.5 times the initial volume. Finally, the breads were baked in an in-
dustrial oven (E250, Prática Technipan) according to the specific
baking process conditions for each treatment.
2.2.2. Baking process conditions
Breads were baked at three different temperatures - 160 °C, 190 °C
and 220 °C for 9, 12, 15 and 20 min, with or without steam in the first
10 s of baking (Fig. 1).
2.2.3. Temperature profile during baking
The temperature profile at the dough centre (crumb) and at the
surface (crust) of breads was monitored using a calibrated thermo-
couple (type T, ؼ 0.2 mm) connected to a Keysight Technologies
34972A data logger (Vanin, Michon, & Lucas, 2013).
2.2.4. Bread analyses
2.2.4.1. Microstructure of bread samples. Bread dough centre was
analysed using a scanning electron microscope (TM-3000, Hitachi) at
15 kV. The samples were attached using carbon conductive adhesive
tape (Datta, Sahin, Sumnu, & Ozge Keskin, 2007).
2.2.4.2. Specific volume. Specific volume (SV) was determined using a
VolScan (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, Reino Unido) with 4 mm
laser distance. Bread SV was calculated by the ratio between volume
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 737–743
(millilitres) and bread weight (grams).
2.2.4.3. Hardness. Central bread slices were cut (2 cm) and crumb
hardness determined using a TA-XT2i texturometer (Bárcenas &
Rosell, 2005).
2.2.4.4. Water loss. Bread water loss (WL) during baking was
determined by weighing breads before and after the end of baking
(Ureta et al., 2018).
2.2.4.5. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC) (DSC 2010, TA instruments, USA) was used with a
previously determined heating rate, calculated with temperature profile
analyses (see section 2.2.3.), to simulate the baking process. Samples
(between 10.48 and 16.62 mg) were maintained at 20 °C for 2 min, then
heated until 120 °C (Izadi Najafabadi et al., 2014). Samples used in DSC
analyses had the same formulation as the bread dough, with a water
content of 44.66 ± 0.65 g of water/100g of dough.
2.2.5. Statistical analyses
Statistical analysis was performed using SAS software (Version 9.2,
SAS, Inc.). Differences between means were determined by Duncan's
test (95% confidence interval).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Local temperature and heating rate
The local temperature measured at the crumb centre not exceed
100 °C for any baking conditions (Fig. 2a1), while at the crust the
temperature quickly exceeded 100 °C, and afterward tended to the oven
air temperature (Fig. 2a2). This trend is in agreement with local crumb
and crust temperature reported in the literature (Vanin, Lucas, &
Trystram, 2009). The local crumb temperature did not exceed 100 °C,
therefore as temperature could not exceed the water boiling tempera-
ture the water content of this location remained almost constant, with
no WL; or an increase in water content at this location could be ob-
served due to the evaporation-condensation-diffusion mechanism
(Wagner, Lucas, Le Ray, & Trystram, 2007). In contrast, the tempera-
ture of the crust rapidly exceeded 100 °C because water evaporates from
the surface faster than it can be transported from the centre. Moreover,
the higher the oven temperature, the higher the heating rate at the
crumb or the crust (Fig. 2b). However, the use of steam enhanced the
heating rate at the centre of the bread (Fig. 2b1), but it resulted in a
lower heating rate at the crust (Fig. 2b2). This difference was obvious
when the same temperature and location were considered; the heating
rates as a function of baking temperature and steam conditions were
statistically different (Fig. 2b). The difference between these two
groups, crumb and crust, may be explained by the presence (baking
with steam) or absence of vapour condensation (without steam) on the
surface of the bread. In the first case, water condensates on the surface
of the bread, slow heat transfer at this location (Fig. 2b2), once the
energy is used to heat the dough and evaporate the condensed moisture
(Le-Bail et al., 2011), thereby obtaining a lower heating rate at the
surface (Fig. 2b2). At the same time, once most of the condensed steam
is evaporated, the heat flux to the centre of the dough increases re-
sulting in a higher heat rate at the crumb centre (Fig. 2b1).
3.2. Microstructure of bread samples
In general, for all baking conditions, pores of the crumb region were
larger and increased with the increase of baking time (Fig. 1a2 and b2);
this is in accordance with Datta et al. (2007). In relation to the baking
temperature effect, when comparing a similar time, the higher the
baking temperature, the higher the pore size, for the baking without
steam (Fig. 1a2) or with steam (Fig. 1b2). Furthermore, for steam
P. Bredariol, et al.
Fig. 1. Experimental plan of different baking conditions evaluated (1) without (a) or with steam (b), and microstructure of bread centre analyzed by using SEM at
magnification 50X (2).
baking pores appear to be larger. This is consistent with the highest
heating rate observed when higher oven temperatures were used and
even higher when steam was applied, respectively (Fig. 2b1). Pores of
breads baked at 160 and 220 °C, without steam, appear to be slightly
different than the other ones. The structure of such bread appears to be
more fragile and with open and larger pores, the pores are no longer
spherical, and they are so close to each other that the gas cells coalesce
to form channels (Datta et al., 2007), this effect could be attributed to
the higher expansion observed (see section 3.4). Moreover, crumb from
breads baked at 190 °C (with or without steam) show fine and closer
pore distribution, which is also in agreement with lower SV observed
for such baking conditions.
3.3. SV, WL and hardness
The SV of breads varied between 2.6 and 3.9 ml/g (Fig. 3a), similar
to that reported by Özkaya, Baumgartner, and Özkaya (2018), Park and
Baik (2007), and Rebellato, Castro Lima, Silva, Steel, and Lima Pallone
(2017). SV values varied significantly with both baking time and tem-
perature. In general, the higher the baking time, the higher the SV of
breads. This effect was less pronounced in baking conditions without
steam (Fig. 3a1), it was only significant for baking at 220 °C when
compared to baking with steam (Fig. 3a2), where the effect was sig-
nificant for baking at 160 and 190 °C. Regarding the baking tempera-
ture, increasing the baking temperature generally promoted significant
effect on the SV of bread (Fig. 3a). However, this effect was not similar
for baking with or without steam. For baking with steam, increasing the
temperature from 160 to 190 °C did not significantly change the SV of
breads. However, at 220 °C there was a significant increase in SV
(Fig. 3a2).
The increase in SV with baking time has been previously reported
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 737–743
(Rouillé, Chiron, Colonna, Della Valle, & Lourdin, 2010; Shittu et al.,
2007), however the effect of steam has received little attention. It is
supposed that when steam is used at the beginning of baking, water
vapour condensates on the surface of the bread, providing greater
elasticity to the dough, which retains its extensibility during the baking
time, thus allowing bread expansion for a longer time when compared
to baking without steam. Le-Bail et al. (2011) observed this effect when
they evaluated the level of baking steam on the SV of breads. They
found that the higher volume could be related to the surface de-
formation, which rapidly forms during baking. Furthermore, the use of
steam at the beginning of baking increased the heating rate at the
centre (Fig. 2b1) of the dough, which in turn favoured gas expansion,
therefore enhancing the SV of the bread.
Bread expansion normally takes place in the early stages of baking,
when dough still retains its strength/stability, which in turn is related
to flour quality and ingredients used in dough formulation (Vanin et al.,
2013), as well as the heating rate and baking time (Sumnu, Datta,
Sahin, Keskin, & Rakesh, 2007). In the present study, bread samples
were produced from the same formulation, so the variation in SV could
be attributed mainly to different gas expansion evolution and/or bio-
chemical reactions, like starch gelatinisation and gluten denaturation,
as well as differences in baking time and temperature (Vanin et al.,
2013). It should also be mentioned that baking time and temperature
parameters affect moisture retention capacity and viscosity of bread
(Vanin et al., 2013).
The WL of breads (Fig. 3b) between 10.87 and 27.57% is in
agreement with results reported in the literature (Vouris, Lazaridou,
Mandala, & Biliaderis, 2018; Zhang, Doursat, Vanin, Flick, & Lucas,
2017). WL varied significantly with baking time and temperature, the
higher the baking time and temperature, the higher the WL for all
conditions with/without steam. The higher heating rate at a higher
P. Bredariol, et al.
Fig. 2. Local temperature evolution (a) and heating rate (b) of bread crumb (1) and crust (2) baked at 160 °C (▇), 190 °C (●) and 220 °C (▲) without (full symbols) or
with steam (open symbols). * Different lowercase letters indicate statistical difference between baking times for the same baking temperature. ** Different capital
letters indicate statistical difference between the different baking temperatures for the same baking time.
baking temperature (Fig. 2) promotes the migration of water molecules
from the crust to the surface (Hidalgo & Brandolini, 2014), so a greater
WL is also expected.
Bread hardness ranged from 0.270 to 0.636 kg (Fig. 3c), similar to
previously obtained results (Bárcenas & Rosell, 2005; Özkaya et al.,
2018). Bread hardness varied significantly with baking time and tem-
perature (Fig. 3c), the higher the baking time, the higher the hardness
for the same baking conditions (Fig. 3c). In relation to the baking
temperature effect, no clear effect was observed. Shen, Chen, and Li
(2018) also verified increase in hardness with the increase in baking
time.
Bread quality related to texture and volume depends on several
factors such as the protein flour content and dough process conditions
(Gao, Tay, Koh, & Zhou, 2017). In the present paper, only one type of
flour was used and all stages of bread production were established,
therefore any differences in texture could be attributed to different
baking conditions. Steam was introduced at the beginning of baking,
therefore, with the increase of baking time all steam is condensed on
the bread surface and the water is evaporated, so, energy is only used to
heat the bread. Therefore, with more energy available, more water
could be lost. There is a relation between water content and hardness,
the increase in WL result in lower water content and consequently it
also increases hardness.
These correlations can be better observed in the Supplementary
Material 1, where SV, WL and hardness were positively correlated
(r > 0.90, p < 0.01).
3.4. Different baking definition with similar quality aspects
As already mentioned, bread baking is an energy-demanding pro-
cess (Le-Bail et al., 2011), therefore reducing energy consumption
without modifying the products could be an important strategy for the
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 737–743
baking industry. Besides this aspect, bakery industries may have some
strategies in order to attend market demand, i.e. higher market demand
in a short period of time. This sector attempted to determine the baking
conditions in terms of time and temperature to obtain a final product of
similar quality. Table 1 presents the results of SV, WL and hardness of
breads baked at different baking conditions (time and temperature,
with/without steam), with no significant difference in these properties,
providing bread with similar physical aspects, which could be used
according to the objective of these industries. For example, if the in-
dustry requires bread to be made in a short period of time (220 °C for
9 min), or to reduce energy consumption (160 °C for 15 min).
3.5. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
In this section, the terminology “crumb” and “crust” were used to
refer to samples evaluated by DSC using the previously calculated local
crumb and crust heating rates (Fig. 2) according to the different baking
conditions. However, it should be emphasised that although the local
heating rate was successfully simulated in the samples during DSC
analyses, it was not possible to simulate the local water content, as
observed during baking, especially the crust drying.
Table 2 presents the endothermic parameters corresponding to the
starch gelatinisation, simulated according to the baking conditions
previously described. The gelatinisation temperature obtained from
DSC curves was defined as the onset temperature (To) and the required
quantity of energy measured from transition was considered the gela-
tinisation enthalpy (ΔH) (Table 2). The results indicated typical systems
under limited water, where starch/water was lower than 46–48% w/w,
and two endotherms were observed, the first To1 at around 60 °C,
corresponding to starch gelatinisation and the second To2, at around
100 °C, corresponding to the melting of starch crystallites (Biliaderis,
Maurice, & Vose, 1980; Champenois, Colonna, Buléon, Valle, &
P. Bredariol, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 737–743

Fig. 3. Evolution of specific volume (a), water loss (b) and hardness (c) for breads baked at 160 °C (▇), 190 °C (●) and 220 °C (▲) for 9, 12, 15 and 20 min without
(1) (full symbols) or with (2) steam (open symbols). * Different lowercase letters indicate statistical difference between baking times for the same baking temperature.
** Different capital letters indicate statistical difference between the different baking temperatures for the same baking time.

Table 1
Baking conditions which produced similar breads in relation to specific volume (SV), hardness (Hd) and water loss (WL).
Baking Condition Response

SV (mL/g) Hd (kg) WL (%)

Without steam 160 °C–15min 3.53 ± 0.43bC 0.41 ± 0.08aAB 16.02 ± 0.43aA
190 °C–12 min 2.85 ± 0.18aA 0.49 ± 0.06aB 16.12 ± 0.60aA
220 °C–9 min 3.19 ± 0.23abB 0.42 ± 0.09aAB 16.12 ± 0.55aA
With steam 160 °C–15min 3.13 ± 0.04abAB 0.44 ± 0.05aAB 15.73 ± 0.59bA
190 °C–12 min 3.01 ± 0.13aAB 0.44 ± 0.09aAB 16.34 ± 0.58bA
220 °C–9 min 3.25 ± 0.24bBC 0.38 ± 0.03aA 14.58 ± 1.05aB

* Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate statistical difference between the different baking times/temperatures considering the same oven humidity
(without or with steam).
** Different capital letters in the same column indicate statistical difference between the different baking times/temperatures considering the different oven humidity
(without or with steam).

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Table 2
Endothermic parameters obtained from DSC curves corresponding to the starch gelatinisation as a function different heating rate as previously determined during
baking experiments.
Local heating rate calculated from local baking Heating rate calculated and simulated at DSC (°C/ Onset (To1) Onset (To2). Gelatinization enthalpy (J/g)
min)

Crumb Without steam 160 °C 8 61.82 ± 0.66D 101.37 ± 0.94DEF 3.66 ± 0.09A
190 °C 9 62.49 ± 0.57CD 100.83 ± 0.59EF 3.32 ± 0.15AB
220 °C 11 63.15 ± 0.49CD 101.17 ± 0.23EF 3.34 ± 0.06AB
With steam 160 °C 10 62.85 ± 0.97CD 100.77 ± 0.31F 3.31 ± 0.13AB
190 °C 11 63.64 ± 0.98CD 103.17 ± 0.61CD 3.31 ± 0.29AB
220 °C 13 64.16 ± 0.39C 102.38 ± 0.18CDE 3.00 ± 0.08BC
Crust With steam 160 °C 14 64.34 ± 1.74C 102.02 ± 0.29CDEF 3.12 ± 0.27BC
190 °C 17 66.55 ± 1.57B 105.22 ± 0.71B 3.36 ± 0.03AB
220 °C 20 67.24 ± 1.14B 105.38 ± 1.79B 2.69 ± 0.44C
Without steam 160 °C 19 66.19 ± 0.41B 103.48 ± 0.80c 2.77 ± 0.17C
190 °C 24 66.84 ± 0.48B 105.74 ± 1.00B 2.77 ± 0.05C
220 °C 31 69.91 ± 1.26A 107.90 ± 2.90A 2.65 ± 0.14C

* different letters for the response indicate a statistical difference between the different heating rates applied.

Renault, 1995; Donovan, 1979). The first peak in the DSC thermogram
was used to calculate the enthalpy of starch gelatinisation (Fukuoka,
Ohta, & Watanabe, 2002; Schirmera, Jekle, & Becker, 2011). As ex-
plained by Fukuoka et al. (2002), the precise measurement of the
second peak is difficult and biased, and its contribution to enthalpy is
relatively small.
The patterns of transition enthalpy change during increasing tem-
peratures were significantly affected by the heating rate (Table 2),
which means that the baking condition and dough location, i.e. crust
and crumb (and its different regions), have unique transition pathways.
Enthalpy transition patterns of the treated samples were also dependent
on water content; however, this effect was not considered in this study.
As the heating rate was progressively enhanced, the intensity of the
first endotherm significantly reduced (ΔH, Table 2) and the first and
second endotherm moved to a higher temperature (To1 and To2,
Table 2). When using the heating rates experimentally observed at the
crumb, the gelatinisation enthalpy (ΔH) varied between 3.00 and
3.66 J/g, and when the heating rates applied were those observed at the
crust, between 2.65 and 3.36 g/g; in the same way, the first endotherm
To1 was between 61.82 and 64.16 °C, and 64.34–69.91 °C; and the
second endotherm To2 was between 100.77-103.17 °C and
102.02–107.90 °C, similar to those reported in the literature (Bosmans,
Lagrain, Fierens, & Delcour, 2013; Izadi Najafabadi et al., 2014).
Starch gelatinisation in dough bread during baking or immediately
after preparation has not been evaluated in the literature. Most studies
on starch gelatinisation have been performed using wheat, gluten or
starch suspensions (Biliaderis et al., 1980; Donovan, 1979; Ratnayake,
Otani, & Jackson, 2009). Rouillé et al. (2010) evaluated starch gelati-
nisation in bread dough samples taken at 3 and 5 min of baking, which
were then frozen in liquid nitrogen. For DSC analysis, the samples were
then thawed for 30 min at 20 °C, and more water was added (for each
30 mg sample, 100 mg of water was added). Schirmera et al. (2011) also
evaluated the effect of baking time and temperature on starch gelati-
nisation of bread, but performed DSC analysis one hour after bread
samples were collected from the baking process. The temperatures of
starch gelatinisation obtained by these authors were lower than those
reported in this study, possibly because their samples were not eval-
uated immediately after production, therefore post-treatment sample
preservation and rehydration steps reduced the detection of phase
transition associated with the baking process, increasing the potential
of interference by the polymer re-association process. Furthermore, it is
important to remember that DSC profiles indicate any changes that
could contribute to an endothermic transition remaining in the dough
(Ratnayake et al., 2009), in fact those studies which used bread samples
previously submitted to baking measured the endothermic transition
remaining in the dough. Primo-Martín, Nieuwenhuijzen, Hamer, and
Vliet (2007) were the only which described that ΔH represents the
melting enthalpy of starch crystallites in the sample that did not gela-
tinize during baking.
Therefore, given that the bread crumbs baked at 160 °C without
steam, with a heating rate approximately 8 °C/min (Fig. 2) and a con-
stant water content during baking (data not showed), it can be proposed
that these conditions are more favourable for starch gelatinisation, as
verified by the higher enthalpy when this heating rate was applied in
DSC (Table 2). This is also in accordance with SEM images obtained by
crumb samples baked at 160 °C without steam (Supplementary Material
2a1), where starch granules appear to be more swollen, typical of ir-
reversible granular swelling of gelatinization (Biliaderis et al., 1980),
than those of bread crumb baked at 220 °C with steam (Supplementary
Material 2c2). Unlike crumb samples, starches at the bread crust, where
the water content is limited, were less gelatinised compared to their
respective bread crumb (Table 2). Moreover, at higher heating rates,
i.e., higher baking temperatures, the starch gelatinisation levels were
lower (Table 2). Unfortunately, most studies on starch gelatinisation
report excess water conditions, or in conditions very different from
those observed in real food processes. Consequently, there is a lack of
information about starch gelatinisation in limited water conditions, like
a bread crust.
The amount of native starch present in bread, either in the crust or
in the crumb, will have several important consequences on its physical
properties, i.e., glass transition, water sorption during storage, as well
as on the digestibility of breads, aspects which should be considered in
future studies.
4. Conclusion
Optimal and optimization of process are essential tasks for the in-
dustry. In the present study, different baking conditions were evaluated
and monitored to verify the evolution of bread properties during the
baking process. DSC simulation of baking using the obtained experi-
mental conditions, which perhaps can result in different bread quality
properties, was performed for a wide range of operating conditions.
Thus, this study contributed to better understand bread baking, mainly
from a technological point of view, and it is expected to be considered
as a reference guide for food engineers in the bakery industry; final
parameters and decisions would depend on the specific product and
equipment. Finally, to better understand the role of the heating rate in
starch transition, it will be important to characterise breads in terms of
starch digestibility. Breads with slower starch digestibility would be
expected to result in slower elevation of blood glucose, therefore con-
tribute to the prevention of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular dis-
eases. Indeed, these structural changes occurring at microscopic and
molecular levels in breads have a real impact on loaf expansion, tex-
ture, and probably nutritional aspects, during baking.

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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the São Paulo Research Foundation
(FAPESP) for financial support (2013/12693-0; 2018/03324-5),
Unified Scholarship Program (RUSP-USP) for M.S. fellowship. This
study was financed in part by the “Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES)” - Finance Code 001, P.B.
fellowship.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.05.094.
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