Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Effects of freezing and frozen storage conditions on the rheological properties

of different formulations of non-yeasted wheat and gluten-free bread dough
Guénaelle Leray, Bonastre Oliete, Sandra Mezaize, Sylvie Chevallier, Marie de Lamballerie *
GEPEA (UMR CNRS 6144), ONIRIS, BP 82225, 44322 Nantes Cedex 3, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Empirical and fundamental rheological measurements were made on fresh and frozen dough to study the
Received 22 October 2009 effects of freezing and frozen storage conditions. Frozen dough was stored at two different temperatures,
Received in revised form 17 March 2010 18 °C and 30 °C, and for 1, 7 and 28 days. Four dough formulations were tested: a standard wheat
Accepted 20 March 2010
dough, a fibre-enriched wheat dough, a standard gluten-free dough and a gluten-free dough containing
Available online 27 March 2010
amaranth flour. No yeast was used in any formulation. The wheat dough is more affected by freezing and
by the first days of storage whereas the gluten-free dough is more affected by a longer storage time. A
Keywords:
storage temperature of 30 °C alters dough rheological properties more than a storage temperature of
Wheat dough
Gluten-free dough
18 °C. The addition of dietary fibres to the wheat dough increases its resistance to freezing and frozen
Dietary fibres storage. The addition of amaranth flour to gluten-free dough also increases its resistance to freezing but
Amaranth decreases its resistance to storage conditions.
Freezing Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Rheological properties

1. Introduction In order to study dough quality, rheological tests are considered

Bread is one of the most widely consumed food products in the
world. For people suffering from celiac disease or other intoler-
ances to gluten consumption, gluten-free breads are now available
on the market. These products have a short shelf-life, and the loss
of freshness has a negative influence on product quality and con-
sumer acceptance. One of the approaches to solve this problem is
to improve the availability of fresh bread by freezing the dough.
Although no information has been found about frozen gluten-free
dough, several problems in the production of bread from frozen
wheat dough have been presented. These are mostly related to
damage of the protein network (Varriano-Marston et al., 1980),
yeast deterioration, a reduction in the water content of the surface
layer of the dough (due to sublimation) and water redistribution in
the system during freezing (Bhattacharya et al., 2003; Carr and
Tadini, 2003; Giannou and Tzia, 2007; Le Bail et al., 1999). If the
process is optimized, bread from frozen dough can have sensory
and textural properties close to those of conventional bread (Barc-
enas et al., 2004). In that sense, it is important to take into account
that frozen dough quality is influenced by both the formulation
and the process parameters during dough making, freezing, stor-
age, and thawing.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 251 785 465; fax: +33 251 785 467.
E-mail address: marie.de-lamballerie@oniris-nantes.fr (M. de Lamballerie).
a very useful tool since they can provide much information about
dough formulation, structure and processing. Many studies have
considered the rheological properties of gluten dough after storage
in sub-zero conditions, but most only analysed individual effects
such as the storage time (Angioloni et al., 2008; Bhattacharya
et al., 2003; Giannou and Tzia, 2007), the storage temperature
(Jiang et al., 2008) or the freezing conditions (Havet et al., 2000).
Consequently, the overall changes that dough undergoes are still
unknown. In gluten-free dough, rheological studies are even more
scarce, and have focused on the effect of different ingredients
(Nunes et al., 2009; Pruska-Kedzior et al., 2008). No information
has been found about the effect of freezing or storage at sub-
zero temperatures on the rheological properties of gluten-free
dough.
Another present concern, for bread as well as for other foods, is
nutritional improvement. For conventional bread, one of the ap-
proaches to improve bread nutritional quality is the addition of
dietary fibres. Indeed, these have very important potential benefits
for human health, such as the prevention of cardiovascular dis-
eases or a reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer. For gluten-free
bread, the addition of amaranth flour is a way of enhancing its
nutritional benefits. The advantage of amaranth is its relatively
high protein content, with an acceptable level of essential amino
acids such as lysine, tryptophan and methionine (Berghofer and
Schoenlechner, 2002). The lipid content of amaranth is also inter-
esting since it is characterized by a high amount of unsaturated

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.03.029
 G. Leray et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76
fatty acids, particularly in linoleic acid (Berghofer and Schoenlech-
ner, 2002). These nutritional improvements modify the dough for-
mulations and, consequently, their rheological properties (Mariotti
et al., 2009; Peressini and Sensidoni, 2009) and bread quality char-
acteristics (Wang et al., 2002).
The aim of this work is to study the rheological properties of
wheat dough and gluten-free dough after a frozen period consider-
ing both the formulation and the storage conditions (time and
temperature).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw material
2.1.1. Wheat doughs
Weak wheat flour was used (moisture content 13.72%, ash con-
tent 0.53%, protein 10.58%, Moulins Soufflet Pantin, Nogent Sur
Seine, France). The improver supplied by Puratos (Groot Bijgaar-
den, Belgium) contained di-acetyl tartaric ester of monoglycerides
(DATEM), ascorbic acid, amylase and xylanase. The blend of dietary
fibres (inulin and oat fibres) was also provided by Puratos (Groot
Bijgaarden, Belgium). The salt was provided at the local market.
2.1.2. Gluten-free doughs
The origin of the different ingredients used for gluten-free
dough-making are listed below:
? corn starch – Roquette, Lestrem, France,
? potato starch – superior, PPZ Bronislaw, Sp. z o.o., Poland,
? corn meal – Boly ZRT, Boly, Hungary,
? hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) – Dow Europe GmbH,
Stade, Germany,
? highly methylated pectin (apple) – ZPOW Pektowin Sp. z o. o.,
Jaslo, Poland,
? guar gum – Lotus Gums and Chemicals, Jodhpur, India,
? gluconic acid lactone (E575) – A.H.A. International Co. Ltd.,
Hefei, China,
? locust bean gum – C.E. Roeper GmbH, Hamburg, Germany,
? amaranth flour – Werz, Heidenheim, Germany.
Full cream milk powder, salt, sugar and rapeseed oil were pur-
chased at the local market.
2.2. Sample preparation
2.2.1. Wheat dough formulations and preparation
The wheat dough, which is taken as the reference, was prepared
from the following ingredients: 1200 g of flour, 696 g of water,
21.6 g of salt and 12 g of improver. No yeast was used.
The fibre-enriched dough was obtained by adding 120 g of a
blend of inulin and oat fibres to the reference wheat dough formu-
lation. The quantity of water was adjusted to 724 g.
The ingredients were mixed in a mixer SP10-076 MEL (VMI,
Montaigu, France) for 2 min at slow speed (100 rpm) and 7 min
at fast speed (200 rpm). Dough was divided into 70 g pieces that
were shaped by hand and placed in muffin-like pans.
2.2.2. Gluten-free dough formulations and preparation
The gluten-free dough, which is taken as the reference, was
composed of: 160 g of corn flour, 800 g of starch (corn and potato),
48 g of hydrocolloids (HPMC, guar gum, highly methylated pectin),
5 g of gluconic acid lactone, 50 g of full cream milk powder, 50 g of
sugar, 20 g of salt, 30 g of rapeseed oil and 780 g of water. No yeast
was used.
71
The improved gluten-free dough was obtained by including two
new ingredients to the reference gluten-free formulation: 16 g of
locust bean gum and 90 g of amaranth flour. The quantities of
dry ingredients were adjusted to maintain the dry matter and
the fibre content constant.
The salt was dissolved in a small amount of water. All the ingre-
dients were mixed in the mixer SP10-076 MEL (VMI, Montaigu,
France) for 2 min at slow speed (100 rpm) and 8 min at fast speed
(200 rpm). Dough was divided into 70 g pieces that were placed in
muffin-like pans.
2.2.3. Freezing and storage conditions
Samples in the pans were frozen in an air blast freezer (Serva-
thin, Poissy, France) at 30 °C with an air speed of 3 m/s, until
the in core temperature reached 18 °C (about 30 min). Then, they
were removed from the pans and individually wrapped in coded
hermetic zipped plastic bags (18  22 cm). Samples were stored
at 18 °C or 30 °C for 1, 7 or 28 days. Fresh samples were also
analysed as a control. For every storage temperature and time,
three samples were used. Once the storage time was reached, sam-
ples were thawed, in their plastic bag, at room temperature, for
90 min before analysis.
2.3. Sample analysis
2.3.1. Moisture content
The moisture content of samples was determined by following
the approved methods of AOAC (1996). Samples were dried in an
oven (Memmert, Schwabach, Germany). The moisture content
measurements were done in triplicate using three different sam-
ples from the same batch.
2.3.2. Empirical rheological measurements
Dough machinability of samples was assessed by a Texture Pro-
file Analysis (TPA) method (Bourne, 1978). An LFRA Texture Ana-
lyzer (Brookfield, Maryland, USA) equipped with a cylindrical
plastic probe, 1.27 cm in diameter, was used. A 3.6 cm diame-
ter  2.4 cm tall glass recipient was filled with the sample. The sur-
face was perfectly flattened with a spatula.
The double compression cycle was performed at a rate of 2 mm/s,
with a distance of 40% of compression, a resting period of 30 s and
a trigger force of 44.1 mN. Firmness, gumminess, cohesiveness,
springiness and resilience were measured in the absence of dough
adhesiveness by using a plastic film on the dough surface to avoid
the distortion induced by the negative peak of adhesiveness
(Armero and Collar, 1997; Collar et al., 1999). Dough adhesiveness
was measured separately by running a second TPA without the
plastic film and disregarding the other parameters. These measure-
ments were performed in triplicate using three different samples
from the same batch.
2.3.3. Fundamental rheological measurements
Fundamental rheological measurements were performed with
an AR 1000 Rheometer (TA Instruments, Guyancourt, France)
equipped with parallel-plate geometry (40 mm diameter serrated
plate) at 20 °C. The sample of dough was placed on the lower plate
then the upper plate was lowered until it reached a gap of 1 mm.
The excess dough was trimmed off.
Two different experiments were conducted. First, a strain sweep
test was used to identify the linear viscoelastic region. This test
was performed at a constant frequency of 1 Hz and a relative strain
range of 0.01–100% after 2 min equilibration. On the basis of the
results obtained, a frequency sweep test was performed on each
sample. In this second test, the strain amplitude was maintained
at 0.1% while the frequency ranged from 0.1 Hz to 100 Hz (10
points per decade). The data obtained were the elastic or storage
72 G. Leray et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76
40
30
20°C
20
temperature (°C)
10
2°C/min
0
1,2°C/min
-10
15min
-20
-20°C
-30
2°C/min
-40 10min
-45°C
-50
0 20 40 60 80 100
time (min)
Fig. 1. Freezable water temperature programme (DSC).
modulus (G0 ), the viscous or loss modulus (G00 ) and tan d (G00 /G0 ), at a
frequency of 1 Hz. Measurements were performed in triplicate for
each sample.
2.3.4. Freezable water
In order to study the freezable water content of dough, a DSC
test using a micro calorimeter lDSC VII (Setaram Instrumentation,
Caluire, France) was performed on fresh dough. For each sample,
freezable water measurements were carried out in duplicate. The
DSC temperature programme used is presented in Fig. 1. The ice
melting enthalpy was obtained by integrating the ice melting peak
located at about 0 °C on the thermogram. The quantity of freezable
water, in g/g of dough, was calculated by dividing the ice melting
enthalpy (in J/g of product) by the latent heat of ice fusion
(Lf = 333 J/g). This freezable water quantity was next calculated
as a % of total water by dividing the result by the percentage of to-
tal water in the dough and multiplying by 100.
2.4. Statistical analysis
Each formulation was analysed separately with the Statgraphics
Plus software 5.1 version (Statistical Graphics Corp, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA). The effect of freezing and frozen storage conditions on
dough rheological parameters was determined by a factorial ANO-
VA (two factors: time and temperature). The LSD procedure (Fisher
test) at a significance level of 0.05 was used in order to compare
samples.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Reference formulations of wheat and gluten-free doughs
3.1.1. Impact of freezing process
The freezing of wheat dough modifies its rheological properties
since five of its parameters are significantly different (p < 0.05) be-
tween 0 and 1 day of storage (Table 1). Compared to fresh dough,
frozen–thawed wheat dough shows significantly higher values of
adhesiveness, as reported by Yi and Kerr (2009). The firmness,
the gumminess, the cohesiveness, the springiness and the resil-
ience of wheat dough are not, however, affected by freezing.
Regarding the fundamental rheological parameters, both the stor-
age (G0 ) and the loss (G00 ) moduli decrease with freezing, but tan
d increases. These results, in accordance with those of Kenny
et al. (1999) and Ribotta et al. (2004), indicate a greater reduction
of the elastic modulus (G0 ) than the viscous part (G00 ) since tan
d = G00 /G0 , which could be interpreted as either a reduction in elas-
ticity or an increase in viscosity of the wheat dough caused by
freezing. Frozen samples also have a higher moisture content. So,
30°C this study shows that wheat dough quality is altered by the freez-
ing process which reduces its elasticity, as reported by Kenny et al.
(1999) and Ribotta et al. (2004). These modifications of the
rheological properties of frozen–thawed wheat dough could be ex-
plained by ice crystal formation during freezing. Water crystalliza-
tion has many consequences and, in particular, causes mechanical
damage to the gluten matrix (Baier-Schenk et al., 2005; Ribotta
et al., 2004; Selomulyo and Zhou, 2007; Varriano-Marston et al.,
1980) and gluten depolymerisation (Ribotta et al., 2001) which
leads to a reduction in gluten cross-linking. This hypothesis is in
accordance with the increased adhesiveness and decreased elastic-
ity caused by freezing.
120 140 In gluten-free dough, four parameters are significantly different
(p < 0.05) between 0 and 1 day of storage. The freezing process has
very little effect on empirical rheological properties. Indeed, the
firmness of frozen–thawed gluten-free dough is higher than that
of fresh dough, but no significant differences are observed among
the other TPA parameters. Concerning the fundamental rheological
parameters, both the storage and the loss moduli decrease in fro-
zen dough, like in frozen wheat dough, but no significant differ-
ences are observed in tan d, which indicates that G0 and G00
exhibit a similar decrease. The moisture content of gluten-free
dough is also significantly reduced by the freezing process, as for
wheat dough.
So the freezing process has consequences on these two dough
formulations, mostly by modifying the fundamental rheological
properties. In fresh as in frozen samples, elastic behaviour (mea-
sured by G0 ) always prevails over viscous behaviour (measured
by G00 ), in accordance with the results of other authors (Angioloni
et al., 2008; Asghar et al., 2009; Demirkesen et al., 2010; Lorenzo
et al., 2009; Pruska-Kedzior et al., 2008; Ribotta et al., 2004), and
corresponding to a gel-type behaviour of dough. The empirical rhe-
ological parameters (TPA) are only slightly affected since only firm-
ness and adhesiveness among the six TPA parameters are
significantly increased by freezing. Overall, the most important ef-
fects of the freezing process on the rheological properties of dough
are the decrease in elastic (G0 ) and viscous (G00 ) moduli. This indi-
cates that freezing alters both the quality of the frozen dough
and the bread made with it. Indeed, according to Kenny et al.
(1999), the frozen dough that performed best in baking had a high
complex modulus and a low phase angle and, in this study, frozen
dough has a lower G0 and G00 and a higher tan d than fresh dough.
Moreover, this loss of dough strength also causes a decrease in
the retention capacity of CO2 and thus an increase in fermentation
time (Selomulyo and Zhou, 2007). These results also show that the
freezing step affects both wheat dough and gluten-free dough, so
damage of the gluten matrix is not the only consequence. Indeed,
other authors have shown other effects of freezing such as
mechanical damage of starch (Berglund et al., 1991), modification
of starch properties (Ribotta et al., 2003, 2004) and changes in pro-
teins (Gelinas et al., 1995) that could also affect the rheological
properties of frozen gluten-free dough.
3.1.2. Impact of frozen storage conditions
With regard to wheat dough, the effect of frozen storage condi-
tions appears to be less important than the effect of freezing. The
empirical rheological parameters are constant regardless of storage
time or temperature. Most of the parameters remain constant dur-
ing storage, except the moisture content, G0 and G00 (Table 1). This
decreases during the first week and then increases for longer stor-
age times. The elastic and viscous moduli increase significantly
during the first week, approaching the fresh dough values, and
then remain constant up to 28 days. This is in agreement with
other results reporting that the effect of freezing is particularly
important in the first days of storage (Angioloni et al., 2008; Gian-
 G. Leray et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76 73

nou and Tzia, 2007) and that the fundamental rheological param-

ab
ab
eters remain constant for a longer storage time (Kenny et al.,

b
b

b
b

a
a
a
a

a
a

a
a
a
a
0.36 ± 0.00
0.36 ± 0.01

0.30 ± 0.00
0.30 ± 0.00
0.30 ± 0.00
0.32 ± 0.01
0.31 ± 0.02
0.35 ± 0.03
0.33 ± 0.01
0.33 ± 0.03

0.34 ± 0.01
0.34 ± 0.02

0.29 ± 0.01
0.29 ± 0.01
0.28 ± 0.01
0.30 ± 0.01
1999). These storage time effects could also be attributed to ice
Tan (d)

crystals growing during storage (Baier-Schenk et al., 2005; Zounis

et al., 2002) and then accentuating the damage to the gluten matrix
Fundamental rheological datac

and other constituents. Moreover, this ice crystal growth causes a

b

b
b

ab
a

bc
124 ± 29 a
117 ± 21 a
99 ± 10 a
redistribution of water provoked by a modification in the water-

b
b
a

a
116 ± 9 a

c
c
85 ± 12
50 ± 20
76 ± 14
74 ± 22
G00 (kPa)

30 ± 2
34 ± 5
27 ± 3
17 ± 3
25 ± 4
19 ± 3
34 ± 6
24 ± 3
binding capacity of dough constituents (Selomulyo and Zhou,
2007). For example, during storage, there is water transport from
the hydrated gluten to the ice phase (Bot and de Bruijne, 2003).

92 ± 12 b
b

b
b

83 ± 10 b
90 ± 16 b
a

102 ± 8 bc
a
a
a
a

114 ± 16 c
115 ± 16 c
On the other hand, the storage temperature has little impact on

66 ± 9 a

53 ± 9 a
282 ± 58
148 ± 74
232 ± 49
230 ± 86
325 ± 26
279 ± 28
362 ± 91
350 ± 75
G0 (kPa)

the rheological properties of wheat dough, and affects only its fun-
damental rheological parameters (Table 2). Samples stored at
b 18 °C show significantly higher G0 and G00 values and lower tan
b
b
a
a
a

a
a

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

d values than samples stored at 30 °C. In addition, G0 , G00 and

0.021 ± 0.001
0.022 ± 0.002
0.021 ± 0.002
0.018 ± 0.002
0.076 ± 0.012

0.015 ± 0.005
0.065 ± 0.009

0.065 ± 0.009
0.069 ± 0.005

0.016 ± 0.004
0.018 ± 0.003
0.016 ± 0.003
0.056 ± 0.008
0.067 ± 0.009
0.065 ± 0.010
0.064 ± 0.004

tan d values of dough stored at 18 °C are closer to those of fresh

wheat dough (0 day) than dough stored at 30 °C. So it appears
that a storage temperature of 30 °C causes more modifications
Resa

to the dough structure, and thus to the rheological properties, than

a temperature of 18 °C. This result could be explained by the glass
b
a
a
a
a
a

a
a
a
a
a

a
a
a
a
a

0.71 ± 0.17
0.53 ± 0.04
0.56 ± 0.10
0.58 ± 0.08
0.85 ± 0.15
0.83 ± 0.11

1.09 ± 0.02
1.03 ± 0.06
1.09 ± 0.03
1.10 ± 0.10
0.83 ± 0.07

0.79 ± 0.05
1.04 ± 0.07
1.00 ± 0.10
1.02 ± 0.09
1.12 ± 0.09

transition temperature (Tg). According to Räsänen et al. (1998), the

glass transition for dough occurs at a temperature around 30 °C.
Sprina

This depends on the water content and the dough formulation, for
example Matuda et al. (2008) found a Tg between 27 and 29 °C
ab

for wheat bread dough. At this temperature, which corresponds

b
b
b
b

a
a
a

a
a

a
a
a
a
a
a
Adha (N  s)

8.68 ± 0.27
9.12 ± 0.48
8.43 ± 0.36
8.35 ± 0.58
1.27 ± 0.07
2.01 ± 0.31
2.09 ± 0.48
1.99 ± 0.80

1.89 ± 0.57
6.40 ± 0.44
6.71 ± 0.37

1.51 ± 0.27
1.31 ± 0.33
1.29 ± 0.54
6.05 ± 0.82
6.08 ± 0.52

more to a temperature range (e.g. 5 °C wide), the dough changes

from a soft, rubbery state to a glassy one where it is more stable
(reduced mobility of water). Therefore, it is usually recom-
mended to store dough below Tg for maximal stability (Bot,
b
a
a
a

2003). However, this glassy state is not thermodynamically stable

a
a

a
a
a
a
a
a

a
a
a

a
Impact of freezing process and frozen storage time on moisture content and rheological properties of four dough formulations.

0.25 ± 0.04
0.22 ± 0.04
0.23 ± 0.05
0.36 ± 0.14
0.53 ± 0.04
0.59 ± 0.03

0.56 ± 0.02
0.52 ± 0.08
0.59 ± 0.02
0.52 ± 0.09
0.57 ± 0.07
0.57 ± 0.06

0.60 ± 0.04
0.59 ± 0.05
0.60 ± 0.04

0.58 ± 0.03

and a small intake of energy can destabilize it. In addition, pro-

For each formulation, values with the same following letter do not differ significantly from each other (p-value < 0.05).

longed storage at a temperature close to the glassy state may ex-

Coha

Firm = firmness, Gum = gumminess, Coh = cohesiveness, Adh = adhesiveness, Sprin = springiness, Res = resilience.

pose the dough to a maximum effect of the cryoconcentration

phenomenon (maximum dehydration of the matrix because most
b
a
a
a

a
a
a
a
a

a
a
a

a
a

of the water is frozen around the Tg). So, at 30 °C, the concen-
Empirical rheological datab

0.17 ± 0.01
0.20 ± 0.03
0.20 ± 0.03
0.31 ± 0.07

1.29 ± 0.17

1.34 ± 0.21
0.66 ± 0.12
2.32 ± 0.34
0.70 ± 0.21
0.60 ± 0.14

2.73 ± 0.44
2.69 ± 0.46
2.97 ± 0.53

1.40 ± 0.03

1.45 ± 0.10
0.55 ± 0.03
Guma (N)

trated phase of the dough will be at its maximum. Small fluctua-

tions in temperature can also take place during frozen storage
resulting in a destabilization of the dough and possibly water
Values represent mean of three measurements ± standard deviation at a frequency of 1 Hz.

recrystallization (Genin and René, 1995). Finally, it is assumed that

b
b
b
a

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

a
a

0.91 ± 0.18
0.68 ± 0.04
0.95 ± 0.17
0.92 ± 0.26

2.51 ± 0.11

2.47 ± 0.18
2.58 ± 0.13
1.25 ± 0.34
1.07 ± 0.33
1.27 ± 0.29
3.91 ± 0.38
4.53 ± 0.52
4.57 ± 0.66
5.08 ± 0.78

2.49 ± 0.09
0.91 ± 0.02

in our conditions, storage at 30 °C is very close or covers the tem-

Firma (N)

perature range of the glass transition resulting in a maximum ef-

In bold: parameters significantly affected at a significance level of 5% (p-value < 0.05).

fect of the cryoconcentration of the dough. During storage,

temperature variation may have favoured the diffusion of water to-
bc

ward the ice crystals, which in turn would amplify the cryoconcen-
d

b
b

b
b

b
b

a
a

a
a
a
c
c

46.25 ± 0.06
46.06 ± 0.17
46.08 ± 0.14
45.63 ± 0.34
43.12 ± 0.06

45.49 ± 0.11
44.34 ± 0.17
44.96 ± 0.55
44.58 ± 0.32
45.61 ± 0.13

42.92 ± 0.22
42.57 ± 0.32
42.90 ± 0.23
45.76 ± 0.09
45.56 ± 0.23
45.60 ± 0.30
contentb (%)

tration effect. This could explain why the dough stored at a

Values represent mean of three measurements ± standard deviation.
Moisture

temperature of 30 °C had higher values of G0 and G00 than that

stored at 18 °C. At 18 °C, the biopolymers contained in the
dough were still in the presence of a small fraction of non-frozen
water and were less exposed to dehydration (via cryoconcentra-
storage time (days)

tion) than the samples stored at 30 °C.

Concerning the reference gluten-free dough, more parameters
are affected by frozen storage time and present the same changes
over time. They all remain relatively constant in the first 7 days of
Frozen

storage and change afterwards: gumminess, cohesiveness and

28
28

28
28

1
7
1
7

1
7

1
7

0
0

springiness increase, while G0 and G00 decrease. Therefore, it seems

Gluten-free dough with amaranth

that, for gluten-free dough, unlike wheat dough, the effect of freez-
ing storage is noticeable only after the first week. On the other
Reference gluten-free dough
Fibre-enriched wheat dough

hand, the storage temperature does not affect any rheological

Reference wheat dough

properties of the reference gluten-free dough (neither empirical

nor fundamental parameters). Only the moisture content is signif-
icantly different between samples stored at 18 °C and 30 °C. The
former have the higher moisture content, but this value is closer to
Formulation

that of fresh gluten-free dough than dough stored at 30 °C. So, as
for wheat dough, storage at 30 °C seems to alter the structure and
Table 1

properties of gluten-free frozen dough more than storage at

a

c
b

18 °C.
74 G. Leray et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76

In conclusion, the storage conditions, especially storage time,

0.34 ± 0.03 b
0.32 ± 0.02 a

0.31 ± 0.01 a
0.30 ± 0.01 a
0.35 ± 0.02 a
0.35 ± 0.01 a
0.29 ± 0.01 a
0.29 ± 0.01 a
affect gluten-free dough more than wheat dough (Tables 1 and
2). Overall, among the two frozen storage conditions (time and

Tan (d)
temperature), the frozen storage time has the greatest impact on
dough rheological properties. Yi and Kerr (2009) also found that
Fundamental rheological datac

79 ± 18 b storage time had a greater influence than temperature on dough

64 ± 22 a
113 ± 22 a
115 ± 18 a
extensibility. Frozen wheat dough seems to be more affected by

29 ± 8 b
29 ± 6 a
26 ± 7 a
25 ± 7 a
G00 (kPa)

the freezing process and the first week of storage while frozen glu-
ten-free dough is more altered by the long storage time.
253 ± 72 b
193 ± 80 a

95 ± 29 a
86 ± 23 a
330 ± 79 a
327 ± 54 a
89 ± 24 a
88 ± 20 a 3.2. Nutritionally improved formulations of wheat and gluten-free
G0 (kPa)

doughs

3.2.1. Dietary fibre-enriched wheat dough

3.2.1.1. Impact of dietary fibre enrichment on the freezing resistance of
0.021 ± 0.001 b
0.019 ± 0.002 a
0.068 ± 0.012 a

0.063 ± 0.008 a
0.063 ± 0.009 a
0.016 ± 0.003 a
0.016 ± 0.004 a
0.070 ± 0.007 a

wheat dough. The dietary fibres modify the rheological properties

of the dough which becomes firmer, gummier, springier, and more
adhesive. However, Table 1 shows that the fibre-enriched wheat
Resa

dough also becomes more resistant to freezing than the reference

wheat dough. Indeed, none of the five parameters significantly af-
1.05 ± 0.11 a

0.61 ± 0.16 a
1.09 ± 0.06 a
1.07 ± 0.07 a
1.04 ± 0.08 a

0.59 ± 0.09 a
0.82 ± 0.10 a
0.83 ± 0.10 a

fected by freezing in the reference wheat dough is significantly al-

tered in fibre-enriched dough. The frozen–thawed fibre-enriched
Sprina

dough has the same properties as the fresh one.

3.2.1.2. Impact of dietary fibre enrichment on the storage resistance of

8.85 ± 0.37 b
8.43 ± 0.55 a
6.12 ± 0.67 a
6.51 ± 0.45 a
1.39 ± 0.49 a
1.60 ± 0.47 a
1.93 ± 0.62 a
1.75 ± 0.53 a
Adha (N  s)

frozen wheat dough. Tables 1 and 2 show that the storage condi-
tions have no more impact on the rheological properties of fibre-
enriched dough than does the freezing process. Indeed, the storage
temperature has no impact on fibre-enriched dough properties
Firm = firmness, Gum = gumminess, Coh = cohesiveness, Adh = adhesiveness, Sprin = springiness, Res = resilience. Mean ± SD.

while storage time affects only two parameters. The moisture con-
0.28 ± 0.12 a
0.59 ± 0.04 a

0.54 ± 0.06 a
0.55 ± 0.07 a
0.59 ± 0.03 a

0.25 ± 0.06 a
0.55 ± 0.06 a
0.58 ± 0.05 a

tent decreases during the first week of storage, and then returns to
For each formulation, values with the same following letter do not differ significantly from each other (p-value < 0.05).

its initial value at the long storage time. Tan d decreases signifi-
Coha

cantly in the first week of storage, and then remains constant.

These results are consistent with those for the reference wheat
dough and agree with the importance of freezing during the first
1.40 ± 0.15 a
1.34 ± 0.15 a
2.66 ± 0.43 a
2.69 ± 0.54 a
0.64 ± 0.14 a
0.61 ± 0.16 a

0.21 ± 0.05 a
0.24 ± 0.08 a
Empirical rheological datab
Guma (N)

15 days of storage (Angioloni et al., 2008; Giannou and Tzia,

Impact of storage temperature on moisture content and rheological properties of four dough formulations.

2007). Like for the reference wheat dough, the frozen storage con-
ditions do not affect the empirical rheological properties of fibre-
Values represent mean of three measurements ± standard deviation at a frequency of 1 Hz.

enriched wheat dough.

2.58 ± 0.11 b
2.45 ± 0.12 a
4.49 ± 0.64 a
4.56 ± 0.79 a
0.82 ± 0.16 a
0.91 ± 0.23 a
1.19 ± 0.34 a
1.06 ± 0.25 a

This decrease in sensitivity to freezing and frozen storage in-

Firma (N)

duced by the addition of dietary fibres could be explained by two

In bold: parameters significantly affected at a significance level of 5% (p-value < 0.05).

phenomena. Firstly, the interactions between fibres and wheat

proteins, and particularly with gluten (Chen et al., 1988), can
strengthen the gluten network and thus improve its resistance to
45.71 ± 0.18 b

46.09 ± 0.20 b
45.49 ± 0.19 a
45.92 ± 0.37 a
42.84 ± 0.37 a
42.92 ± 0.19 a
44.92 ± 0.63 a
44.83 ± 0.56 a

the freezing process and frozen storage. Moreover, the great num-
contentb (%)

Values represent mean of three measurements ± standard deviation.

ber of hydroxyl groups in the fibre structure enables more water

Moisture

interactions through hydrogen bonding (Rosell et al., 2001). Sec-

ondly, the freezable water content of the fibre-enriched wheat
dough is lower than that of the reference wheat dough leading to
temperature (°C)

less ice crystal formation during freezing and less damage. This
hypothesis is in accordance with the result of the freezable water
measurement in fresh dough that went down from 64.2% to
Storage

59.8% of total water content after addition of dietary fibres (Table

18

18
18

18

30
30

30
30

3). Clearly, dietary fibre addition has a positive effect on maintain-

ing the rheological properties of wheat dough during the freezing
Gluten-free dough with amaranth

process.
Reference gluten-free dough
Fibre-enriched wheat dough

3.2.2. Amaranth flour-enriched gluten-free dough

Reference wheat dough

3.2.2.1. Impact of amaranth flour enrichment on the freezing resis-

tance of gluten-free dough. The addition of amaranth flour to the
gluten-free dough decreases the freezing impact (Table 1). The rhe-
ological properties (empirical and fundamental) are not affected at
Formulation

all since no significant differences are observed between the values

of 0 and 1 day of storage. The freezing process only decreases the
Table 2

moisture content. This freezing resistance is not due to a decrease

b
a

in ice crystal formation since the addition of amaranth flour to glu-

 G. Leray et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 100 (2010) 70–76
Table 3
Results of DSC measurements on four formulations of fresh dough.
Formulation DH of ice Freezable water
meltinga proportiona
(J/g) (% of total water)
Reference wheat dough 94.77 ± 0.69 64.19 ± 0.47
Fibre-enriched wheat dough 86.21 ± 0.13 59.83 ± 0.09
Reference gluten-free dough 99.20 ± 0.33 64.64 ± 0.21
Gluten-free dough with amaranth 99.78 ± 0.19 64.78 ± 0.12
a
Values represent mean of two measurements ± standard deviation.
ten-free dough does not modify the freezable water content, which
varies from 64.6% to 64.8% of total water (Table 3). However, the
protein content of amaranth is so high (Berghofer and Schoenlech-
ner, 2002) that it seems to act as a filler of the dough matrix (Mar-
iotti et al., 2009), which therefore becomes more resistant to the
freezing process. So freezing has less impact on the rheological
properties of gluten-free dough improved by amaranth flour than
on the reference gluten-free dough.
3.2.2.2. Impact of amaranth flour enrichment on the storage resistance
of frozen gluten-free dough. Unlike its effect on freezing, the addi-
tion of amaranth flour to gluten-free dough increases its sensitivity
to storage conditions. Indeed, storage time and temperature both
affect many dough properties (Tables 1 and 2). Amaranth addition
accelerates the decrease in G0 and G00 throughout the storage time
while tan d increases with storage time. Regarding the empirical
rheological parameters, gumminess, cohesiveness and springiness
do not change but adhesiveness and resilience significantly de-
crease with storage time in amaranth-enriched gluten-free dough
while they are not affected in the reference gluten-free dough.
Adhesiveness decreases during the first week of storage and then
remains constant until the end of the first month. On the contrary,
resilience remains constant in the first week and then decreases.
The moisture content also decreases after the first week of storage.
The storage temperature, which has little impact on the frozen
reference gluten-free dough, has important consequences on the
frozen improved dough, since it significantly affects five parame-
ters. The dough stored at 18 °C is the firmest and the most adhe-
sive, but it has the lowest resilience. For the fundamental
rheological parameters, the loss modulus (G00 ) is higher for glu-
ten-free improved dough stored at 18 °C than for that stored at
30 °C. The moisture content is also significantly changed by the
storage temperature. The sample stored at 18 °C has a lower
moisture content.
4. Conclusion
Several conclusions can be drawn from this work. Firstly, con-
cerning the methodology, the fundamental rather than the empir-
ical rheological measurements (TPA) are more relevant since they
demonstrate more differences. The empirical rheological parame-
ters, particularly resilience, springiness, cohesiveness and gummi-
ness, are less affected. Concerning freezing and frozen storage, they
alter the quality of the dough and of the bread made with it since
frozen doughs have lower G0 and G00 and higher tan d than fresh
doughs. In addition, the freezing process and the first days of stor-
age have more effect on wheat dough while the gluten-free dough
is more altered by the longer storage time. With regard to the stor-
age conditions, storage time seems to have more impact than stor-
age temperature. Moreover, the formulation of dough plays an
important part in its properties and behaviour after freezing. The
protein-enriched gluten-free dough (improved by amaranth flour
addition) is less affected by the freezing process but it becomes
more sensitive to the storage conditions. On the other hand, the fi-
bre-enriched wheat dough is much more resistant to both the
75
freezing process and the storage conditions. Therefore, the addition
of dietary fibres to wheat dough seems to have a double advan-
tage: nutritional improvement and an increased resistance to
freezing.
Acknowledgements
This study was carried out with the financial support of the
Commission of the European Community, FP6, Thematic Area
‘‘Food quality and safety”, FOOD-2006-36302 EU-FRESH BAKE.
The authors would like to emphasize that this article does not nec-
essarily reflect the views of the Commission and does not antici-
pate the Commission’s future policy in this area.
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