Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2020), 33(2): 456–464

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

& Beihang University
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
cja@buaa.edu.cn
www.sciencedirect.com

Fluid Mechanics and Flight Mechanics–Research Article

Reynolds number effect on compressible cylindrical

cavity flow
Kung-Ming CHUNG a,*, Yi-Xuan HUANG a, Kuan-Huang LEE b,
Keh-Chin CHANG b

a
Aerospace Science and Technology Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 711, China
b
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, China

Received 28 December 2018; revised 24 March 2019; accepted 16 April 2019

Available online 10 October 2019

KEYWORDS Abstract Presence of a cavity changes the mean and fluctuating pressure distributions inside and
Cavity flow; near the cavity. For cylindrical cavity flow, the diameter-to-depth ratio is the dominant factor. In
Compressible flow; this study, flow is naturally developed along a flat plate with two different lengths, resulting in dif-
Convection velocity; ferent incoming boundary layer thicknesses ahead of the cavity. The effect of Reynolds number
Open cavity; based on incoming boundary layer thickness on characteristics of mean and fluctuating pressure dis-
Oscillation tributions is addressed. Pressure sensitive paint was also used to visualize the mean surface pressure
patterns. The effect of Reynolds number on the classification of compressible cylindrical cavity flow
and self-sustained oscillating frequency is not significant. An increase in Reynolds number results in
a reduction in the value of differential pressure or momentum flux near the rear edge.
Ó 2019 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Cavities occur in many engineering applications and flight
vehicles. Flow over such cavities may result in structural load-
ing problems and produce intense tonal pressure fluctua-
tions.1–3 For compressible rectangular cavity flow, the static
surface pressure distributions mainly depend on the length-
to-depth ratio.4–6 A shear layer is formed over an open-type
cavity (length-to-depth ratio <6–8). Uniform static pressure
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kmchung@mail.ncku.edu.tw (K.-M. CHUNG).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
distribution occurs along the cavity floor and discrete acoustic
tones are generated, in association with the feedback loop
between vortex shedding and acoustic disturbance (Rossiter’s
empirical formula).7 Closed-type cavity flow occurs when the
length-to-depth ratio is greater than 9–15. Two distinct separa-
tion regions form downstream from the front face and
upstream from the rear face. The longitudinal static surface
pressure distribution shows an inflection point near the center
of the cavity floor, followed by a plateau region. For a
transitional-type cavity, the amplitude of the static surface
pressure coefficient varies from negative values downstream
from the front face to positive values ahead of the rear face.8
For incompressible cylindrical cavity flows, the diameter-
to-depth ratio, D/H, appears to be the dominant factor. The
static surface pressure in the spanwise direction is symmetrical
for D/H = 5 and there is an asymmetrical flow pattern for

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2019.09.005
1000-9361 Ó 2019 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Reynolds number effect on compressible cylindrical cavity flow 457

D/H = 2.0.9–11 The frequencies of discrete tones can be accu-

rately predicted using Rossiter’s empirical formula.12 Chung
et al.13–15 examined the effect of compressibility on cylindrical
cavity flow. The boundaries for open- and transitional-type
cavities are roughly the same as that of compressible rectangu-
lar cavity flow. The effect of the freestream Mach number, Ma,
is evident only for the static surface pressure upstream from a
cavity and the amplitude of the peak pressure fluctuations. The
trailing-edge expansion and amplitude of the peak pressure
fluctuations decrease as the boundary layer thickness-to-
depth ratio, d/H, increases (fixed boundary layer thickness).
It has been noted that an increase in d/H (
1.0) results in
the smoothing of all pressure gradients in cavity flow.16
This study aims to determine the effect of the Reynolds
number according to d, Red, on distributions of mean and fluc-
tuating pressures over a range of Ma, D/H and d/H. Turbulent
boundary layer flow was naturally developed along a flat plate
with two different lengths ahead of the cavity. Pressure Sensi-
tive Paint (PSP) was also used to visualize the mean surface
pressure pattern. The data are used to characterize compress-
ible cylindrical cavity flow.

2. Experimental technique

2.1. Transonic wind tunnel and instrumentation

The transonic wind tunnel at the Aerospace Science and Tech-

nology Research Center in National Cheng Kung University is
a blowdown type tunnel. It consists of compressors, air dryers,
storage tanks, a hydraulic system and tunnel. A rotary perfo-
rated sleeve valve controls the stagnation pressure, po. Inside
the stilling chamber, there are acoustic baffles, screens and a
honeycomb to reduce the noise and turbulence intensity of
the flow. The constant-area test section is 600 mm square
and 1500 mm long. The present study uses solid sidewalls
and perforated top/bottom walls. Downstream from the test
section, two choke flaps are employed to monitor Ma under
subsonic conditions.
The NEFF 620 system was used to record the test condi-
tions and monitor the experiments through a high-speed inter-
face. Flush-mounted dynamic pressure transducers (Kulite
XCS-093-25A, B screen with a pressure-sensitive element that
is 0.97 mm in diameter) were used for the mean and fluctuating
surface pressure measurements. The sensors were powered by a
DC power supply (GW Instek PSS-3203) of 10.0 V. Ectron
amplifiers (753 A) at a gain of 20 (roll-off fre-
quency  140 kHz) were used to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio. A National Instruments (NI-SCXI) system was used to
record the output of the sensors. The sampling rate was 5 ls
and each sample record had 131,072 data points. The experi-
mental uncertainty is 2.4% for the static surface pressure coef-
ficient, Cp = (pw  p1)/q1, and 0.4% for the fluctuating
pressure coefficient, Crp = (rp  rp,1)/q1.
2.2. Test models and conditions
The test model, as shown in Fig. 1, was supported by a single
sting and mounted on the bottom wall of the test section. It
consisted of a flat plate and an instrumentation plate with a
cylindrical cavity. The flow was naturally developed along a
flat plate with two different lengths (225 mm for Case A and
Fig. 1 Test configuration.
450 mm for Case B). The boundary layer at the measurement
locations was fully turbulent.17 Nineteen instrumentation
plates (150 mm2) were fabricated and the pressure transducers
were flush-mounted along the centerline of each cavity in the
longitudinal (y/D = 0) and spanwise (x/D = 0.5) directions.
The cavity front face was located at 275 mm or 500 mm from
the leading edge of the flat plate. Ma was 0.64, 0.70 and 0.83
± 0.01. p0 was 172 ± 0.5 kPa (25 psia) when the stagnation
temperature was ambient temperature with a 3 °C drop during
a 10 s run. The incoming boundary layer thickness, d, at
25 mm ahead of the cavity front edge was estimated to be
approximately 4 mm and 7 mm for Case A and Case B, respec-
tively.18 The geometry of the cavities is summarized in Table 1.
For Case A (Red = 8.04  104–9.32  104), the D/H and d/H
ratios were 3.23–43.00 and 0.42–4.0, respectively. For Case B
(Red = 1.41  105–1.63  105),13,15 the D/H ratio ranged from
4.48 to 43.00 and the value of d/H ratio was 0.73–7.0. Note
that D = 31, 43 and 59 mm when H = 1.0–9.6 mm.
2.3. Pressure sensitive paint
Fluorescent paints are sensitive to pressure or temperature,
which is related to the oxygen quenching of a luminescent
molecule. By applying PSP, full-field data, rather than point
measurements, can be obtained.19–22 This study used a
458 K.-M. CHUNG et al.

camera (Pco. Pixelfly, 14 bit) with a long-pass (600 nm) filter

Table 1 Geometry of cylindrical cavities.
was used to capture the light emitted from the paint at the
d (mm) D (mm) H (mm) D/H d/H frame rate of 20 Hz. Calibration was carried out in a vacuum
4 43 1.0 43.00 4.00 chamber under reference pressures. Emitted light intensity
4 2.0 21.50 2.00 depends on the partial pressure of oxygen on the model sur-
4 3.0 14.33 1.33 face. A Stern-Volmer plot with four repeated tests is shown
4 4.0 10.75 1.00 in Fig. 2, in which Iref ¼ 0:331 þ 0:653 ppref , where Iref and pref
I
4 5.0 8.60 0.80
4 6.0 7.17 0.67 are emission intensity and pressure under a reference condi-
4 7.0 6.14 0.57 tion, respectively. The wind-on images were acquired during
4 8.0 5.38 0.50 the test and the wind-off reference image was acquired before
4 9.6 4.48 0.42 the test. The data reduction uses prior calibration data. Note
that the pressure and temperature sensitivities for Ru(dpp)
4 31 5.0 6.20 0.80
4 31 9.6 3.23 0.42 are 0.64%/kPa and 1.5%/°C, respectively.
4 59 9.6 6.15 0.42
3. Results and discussion
7 43 1.0 43.00 7.00
7 3.0 14.33 2.33
7 5.0 8.60 1.40 3.1. Surface pressure distributions
7 7.0 6.14 1.00
7 9.6 4.48 0.73 The characteristics of compressible cylindrical cavity flow
7 31 5.0 6.20 1.40 (Case B) were examined by Chung et al.15 Open-type cavity
7 59 9.6 6.14 0.73 flow appeared when D/H  6.14 and a transitional-type cavity
was observed when the value of D/H equals 8.60–21.00. The
effect of Ma is more pronounced on the amplitude of peak
pressure fluctuations near the rear wall. For Case A and
D = 43 mm, the static surface pressure distributions for
polymer-ceramic PSP with a porous material as the supporting Ma = 0.83 are shown in Fig. 3. The value of Cp for
matrix to visualize the mean surface-pressure pattern. The D/H = 4.48–7.17 (open-type cavities) decreases slightly inside
response time is on the order of ten to a few hundred microsec- the cavity up to a value of x/D  0.5, followed by an adverse
onds.23 A silica gel (SiO2, a mean of particle size of 70–90 Å) pressure gradient in the second half of the cavity. The peak
and an RTV-118 were chosen as the porous particle and poly- pressure is observed ahead of the rear face (x/D = 0.919)
mer, respectively. To mix these components (3 g:7 g), toluene and its value (Cp,max = 0.031–0.117) increases with a greater
was used as a solvent. The compound was sprayed onto the value of D/H. Downstream from the rear corner, a drop in
model surface with a spray gun. As a luminophore, the absorp- the value of Cp and a recovery process were observed. For
tion and emission spectra of Ru(dpp) (Tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10- D/H = 8.60–21.50, the flow accelerates slightly over the front
Phenanthroline)ruthenium(II)dichloride) (purchased from face and the amplitude of Cp increases toward the rear face.
ALFA Co.) were 441–467 nm and 597 nm, respectively. Ru This corresponds to transitional-type cavities. The location
(dpp) was dissolved in isopropyl alcohol (IPA) (1 mg:1 mL) of the minimum Cp moves upstream with an increase in the
and paint was applied on the model surface for mean pressure value of D/H. Note that the peak Cp at x/D = 0.919 increases
measurement. Note that fast-responding PSP can be used for along with an increase in the value of D/H. For D/H = 43.00,
full-field unsteady measurements in future study.24–26 a plateau region in the Cp distribution is observed, correspond-
Illumination came from Revox SLG-55 light sources with a ing to a closed-type cavity. For Ma = 0.64 and 0.70, the char-
short-pass filter (550 nm). A Charge Coupled Device (CCD) acteristics of Cp distribution show similar features as those for
Ma = 0.83. The results show that the effect of Red on the clas-
sification of compressible cylindrical cavity flow is not
significant.
Variations of Cp near the rear face of the cavity with D/H
are shown in Fig. 4(a). At x/D = 0.919, the value of Cp
decreases initially for open-type cavities (D/H = 4.48–6.14),
followed by an increase for transitional cavities with greater
D/H. The peak Cp is observed at D/H = 21.50. Notably, the
greatest Cp at x/D = 0.919 for Case B (greater Red) is observed
at D/H = 14.33.15 The amplitude of Cp at x/D = 1.058
decreases with increasing D/H up to a value of 21.50. This indi-
cates a larger favorable pressure gradient near the rear face
and a longer downstream influence for transitional-type cavi-
ties. The differential pressure near the rear face (DCp = Cp,
x/D=0.919  Cp,x/D=1.058) corresponds to momentum flux. As
shown in Fig. 4(b), the amplitude of DCp increases from an
open- to a transitional-type cavity, followed by a decrease
for a closed-type cavity. The peak DCp is observed at
Fig. 2 Calibration curve for Ru(dpp). D/H = 14.33. The effect of Ma is also evident. At a given
Reynolds number effect on compressible cylindrical cavity flow
Fig. 3 Static surface pressure distributions at Ma = 0.83 (Case
A).
D/H, there is a decrease in the value of DCp with a lower Ma.
For Case B at Ma = 0.83, the data are also shown for compar-
ison. Variation of DCp with D/H shows a feature similar to
that seen in Case A. However, an increase in Red results in a
reduction in the value of DCp, implying less momentum flux
near the rear face.
Charwat et al.16 showed that there are smoothing pressure
gradients in cavity flow for d/H
1.0. Near the rear face, this
corresponds to shear layer deflection and mass removal/addi-
tion process. For a given H = 9.6 mm (d/H = 0.42 for Case
A), the Cp distributions for Ma = 0.83 and D/H = 3.23–6.15
(open-type cavities) are shown in Fig. 5. The effect of D/H
on the variation of Cp in the first half of the cavity is less sig-
nificant. Near the rear face, the highest Cp (x/D = 0.919) is
observed for D/H = 6.15 and the value of Cp at
x/D = 1.058 decreases significantly with an increase in D/H.
Variation of DCp with D/H is shown in Fig. 6 (Case A). The
value of DCp with a fixed H increases linearly with D/H for
Ma = 0.64–0.83. The effect of Ma is more pronounced for
D/H = 6.15, i.e. greater DCp can be observed with an increase
459
Fig. 4 Effect of D/H on static surface pressure near rear face.
in Ma. The data for a fixed D = 43 mm; d/H = 0.42–0.67 are
also shown for comparison. There is a slight increase in DCp
with a greater Ma. For a given Ma, variation of DCp with
D/H = 4.48–6.15 is minimal, following an increase for
D/H = 7.17. It is also noted that the value of DCp is lower
than that for a fixed H. Taking H into account, the favorable
pressure gradient on the rear face for a given Ma is approxi-
mately the same, i.e. DCp/H  0.05 for D/H = 6.15. It implies
that mass removal/addition process near the rear face is
approximately the same for d/H  0.67.
At x/D = 0.5 and Ma = 0.83, the Cp distributions in the
spanwise direction, Cps, are shown in Fig. 7. For a given
D/H, there is slight variation in the value of Cps, indicating a
symmetrical flow pattern. This agrees with previous studies of
incompressible cylindrical cavity flows.9–11 For transitional-
type cavities (D/H = 8.60–21.50), the Cps level increases with
a greater D/H. This corresponds to upstream movement for
shear layer impingement, as shown in Fig. 3. Decreases in the
value of Cps near the right and left faces (y/D = ±0.5) are also
observed. The Cps distributions for Ma = 0.64 and 0.70 show a
similar pattern. The static surface pressure pattern is also visu-
alized using PSP. An example at Ma = 0.83 and D/H = 14.33
(Case A) is shown in Fig. 8. A symmetrical flow pattern can be
seen. Note that there is an asymmetrical surface pressure pat-
tern for D/H = 2.0 in incompressible flow.9–11 A horseshoe
structure is clearly observed in the first half of the cavity and
there is adverse pressure gradient in the second half, followed
by favorable pressure gradient downstream from the rear face.
The PSP data and the measurements using Kulite sensors are
shown in Fig. 9. The Cp distributions show similar characteris-
tics. For other test cases, the PSP data also show similar trend
460
Fig. 5 Static surface pressure distributions for open-type cavities
at Ma = 0.83 (Case A).
Fig. 6 Differential pressure near rear face for open-type cavities
(Case A).
as those using Kulite sensors, in which the deviation is approx-
imately 5%.
The effect of Red is of primary interest in this study. The
flow was naturally developed along a flat plate with two differ-
ent lengths (Case A and Case B). The static surface pressure
distributions at Ma = 0.83 are shown in Fig. 10. For the
closed-type cavity of D/H = 43.00, the Cp distributions are
identical for d/H = 4.0 and 7.0. For transitional- and open-
type cavities, the effect of Red is evident only at the peak value
of Cp and the downstream expansion. A decrease in Red (Case
A) results in an increase in the peak Cp at x/D = 0.919 and a
slight reduction at x/D = 1.058. Variation of DCp with d/H for
open-type cavities is shown in Fig. 11. The value of DCp
decreases when the value of d/H increases for both cases,
indicating less expansion near the rear face. This agrees with
the results of Charwat et al.,16 in which an increase in d/H
results in the smoothing of all pressure gradients in cavity
flow. An increase in Ma results in a slight decrease in the value
of DCp. The effect of Red is also evident. For a given d/H, the
value of DCp for Case B is greater than that for Case A
(lower Red).
K.-M. CHUNG et al.
Fig. 7 Spanwise static surface pressure distributions at
Ma = 0.83 (Case A).
3.2. Surface pressure fluctuations
The feedback loop for a cavity flow results in discrete tones.7
The distributions of Crp for Ma = 0.83 (Case A) are shown
in Fig. 12. Crp represents the relative normalized local surface
pressure fluctuations with respect to the undisturbed flow.
There is slight variation in the level of Crp upstream from
the cavity for all test cases, indicating minor upstream influ-
ence. On the cavity floor, there is a fairly uniform Crp distribu-
tion for D/H = 43.00 (a closed-type cavity). A peak
fluctuating pressure, Crp;peak , is observed near the rear face.
For transitional-type cavities (D/H = 8.60–21.50), a minor
Crp;peak is observed at x/D = 0.36, followed by downstream
damping and an increase toward the rear face. A peak value
is observed at x/D = 1.058. The amplitude of Crp increases
gradually along the longitudinal direction for open-type cavi-
ties (D/H  7.17) and the value of Crp;peak increases with a
Reynolds number effect on compressible cylindrical cavity flow
Fig. 8 Visualization for static surface pressure distributions at
Ma = 0.83 and D/H = 14.33 (Case A).
Fig. 9 Cp distributions at Ma = 0.83 and D/H = 14.33 (Case
A).
decrease in D/H. For a given H = 9.6 mm, as shown in
Fig. 13, the effect in variation of D for open-type cavities is evi-
dent. The value of DCp for D/H = 3.23 is lower than those for
D/H = 4.48 and 6.15. Further, variation of Crp;peak with D/H is
shown in Fig. 14. For a given D = 43 mm; D/H = 4.48–7.17,
open-type cavities, there is slight variation in the value of
Crp;peak with D/H for Ma = 0.64–0.83. The value of Crp;peak
increases with a greater D/H = 3.23–6.15 for a fixed
H = 9.6 mm. The amplitude of Crp;peak for Ma = 0.83
(D/H = 4.48 and 6.15) is lower than that for Ma = 0.64 and
0.70. Moreover, variations of Crp;peak with D/H appear to be
consistent with the trend for DCp, as shown in Fig. 6. This
implies that momentum flux near the rear face is the dominant
factor on the amplitude of Crp;peak for compressible cylindrical
cavity flow.
An example of Crp distributions for Ma = 0.83 is shown in
Fig. 15 to address the effect of Red. Variations of Crp in the
longitudinal direction show similar trends for both Case A
and Case B. For a given D/H, the value of Crp;peak at x/
D = 1.058 increases when there is a reduction in d/H (or
Red). Note that the effect of Red on the distributions of Crp
for Ma = 0.64 and 0.70 are similar to those for Ma = 0.83.
The effects of Ma and d/H (or Red) on the variation in
461
Fig. 10 Static surface pressure distributions at Ma = 0.83 (d/H
effect).
Crp;max are shown in Fig. 16, in which D/H = 4.48–8.60. An
increase in the value of d/H for both Case A and Case B results
in a decrease in the value of Crp;max . This results from the lower
DCp near the rear face. The effect of Red appears to be more
significant at lower values of d/H (<1.00).
Previous studies12,27,28 have demonstrated that high inten-
sity acoustic tones are well predicted by the semi-empirical
Rossiter’s formula for open-type cavities.7 The steepest descent
optimization algorithm is adopted to evaluate the optimal val-
ues of the empirical parameters.29,30 The effective streamwise
pffiffiffi
length (12 pD) is used as the characteristic length.31 Note that
the uncertainty of the Strouhal number, St, is estimated to be
±0.007. Variations of St (the first three modes n) with Ma for
open-type cavities are shown in Fig. 17. For a given
D = 43 mm and D/H = 4.48–7.17, there is a slight decrease
in the values of St at higher value of Ma for all three
modes. For a given H = 9.6 mm and D/H = 6.14–6.20, a
similar trend is observed. The optimized a (phase lag) and kc
462 K.-M. CHUNG et al.

Fig. 13 Fluctuating pressure distributions for open-type cavities

Fig. 11 Differential pressure near rear face for open-type
at Ma = 0.83 (Case A).
cavities (d/H effect).

Fig. 14 Peak pressure fluctuations near rear face for open-type

cavities (Case A).

(convection velocity) are 0.11 and 0.53, respectively. Note that

the values are 0.12 and 0.48 for Case B. This implies that the
effect of Red on the self-sustained oscillations of compressible
cylindrical cavity flow is minimal.

4. Conclusions

This study aims to characterize compressible cylindrical cavity

flow. The effect of d and Red are presented. The results indicate
that variation in d/H affects the amplitude of peak pressure
fluctuations. For mean surface pressure distributions, the
effect is more significant for an open-type cavity, than for a
transitional-type or closed-type cavity. However, variation in
favorable pressure gradient, corresponding to mass removal/
addition, for open-type cavities is minimized when d/
H  0.67. The effect of Red on the classification of compress-
ible cylindrical cavity flow is not significant and it is evident
on peak value of Cp for transitional- and open-type cavities.
There is an increase in peak Cp when there is a decrease in
Red. The visualization by pressure sensitive paint shows that
the pressure pattern is symmetrical and curved in the spanwise
Fig. 12 Fluctuating pressure distributions for Ma = 0.83 (Case direction. Variation in Red at self-sustained oscillating fre-
A).
Reynolds number effect on compressible cylindrical cavity flow 463

Fig. 17 Mach number effect on Strouhal number for open-type

cavities.

quency is minimized and there is only a minor effect on empir-

ical constants in the Rossiter equation.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Min-

istry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, China (MOST 103-
2923-E-006-006-MY3).

Fig. 15 Fluctuating pressure distributions at Ma = 0.83 (d/H References

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