COURSE TOPICS:

1. Overview of Manufacturing
2. Fundamentals of Materials
3. Traditional Machining Processes
4. Machining Economics
5. Numerical Control
6. Additive Manufacturing
Manufacturing Processes I 7. Nano and Micro Fabrication
8. Quality Control
MECH 421 – Spring 2020

Machining Economics

March 18, 2020 American University of Beirut

 Machining Economics

Schedule
Week # (of) Monday Wednesday

1 (Jan 20) No class T1: Introduction and Overview

2 (Jan 27) T2: Fundamentals of Materials T2: Fundamentals of Materials

3 (Feb 3) T2: Fundamentals of Materials T2: Fundamentals of Materials

4 (Feb 10) T3: Theory of Metal Machining (Ch. 17) T3: Theory of Metal Machining (Ch. 17)

5 (Feb 17) T3: Theory of Metal Machining (Ch. 17) Cancelled

6 (Feb 24) T3: Theory of Metal Machining (Ch. 17) T4: Machining Operations (Ch. 18)

7 (Mar 2) Cancelled T4: Machining Operations (Ch. 18)

8 (Mar 9) Exam 1 T4: Machining Operations (Ch. 18)

9 (Mar 16) T5: Cutting Technology T6: Machining Economics

10 (Mar 23) T6: Machining Economics No Class

11 (Mar 30) T7: Numerical Control T7: Numerical Control

12 (Apr 6) T8: Assembly Processes T8: Assembly Processes

13 (Apr 13) No Class T9: Solidification Processes

14 (Apr 20) No Class T9: Solidification Processes

15 (Apr 27) T10: Additive Manufacturing T10: Additive Manufacturing

 Machining Economics

Economic & Product Design Considerations

Will Cover:
1. Machinability Properties of the work material
2. Tolerances & Surface Finish Issues in machining
3. Selection of Cutting Conditions Selecting: feed, depth of cut, cutting speed
4. Product Design Consideration Design guidelines of machining
 Machining Economics

1. Machinability: Criteria in Production

Various criteria used to evaluate machinability:
▪ Tool life: longer tool life for the given work material
means better machinability
▪ Forces and power: lower forces and power
▪ Surface finish: better finish means better machinability
▪ Ease of chip disposal

Performance depends on more than just material:

▪ Important factors: Machining operation, tooling, cutting
conditions
 Machining Economics

1. Machinability: Testing
▪ Most tests involve comparison of work materials
▪ Performance of a test material is measured relative to a
base material
▪ Relative performance is expressed as a machinability rating
(MR)
▪ MR of base material = 1.00 (100%). Base steel B1112 is
often used as the base material in machinability
comparisons.
▪ Materials that are easier to machine than the base have
ratings > 1.00, and materials that are more difficult to
machine have ratings ˂ 1 .00 (i.e., MR of test material >
1.00 (100%) means better machinability)
 Machining Economics

1. Machinability: Example
Example 20.1
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish

▪ Tolerances
▪ Machining provides high accuracy relative to most
other shape-making processes
▪ Closer tolerances usually mean higher costs
▪ Surface finish in machining is determined by:
1. Geometric factors of the operation
2. Work material factors
3. Vibration and machine tool factors
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish

Tolerances in Machining
▪ There is variability in any
manufacturing process, and
tolerances are used to set
permissible limits on this variability.

Typical tolerances that can be achieved

for most machining operations
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish

Surface Finish in Machining

▪ Machining is often the

manufacturing process that
determines the final
geometry and dimensions
of the part
▪ It is also the process that
determines the part’s
surface texture.

Listing of typical surface finishes

that can be achieved in
machining operations
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Tolerance Cost

▪ Does not suggest that looser tolerances
are always good.
▪ It often happens that closer tolerances
and lower variability in the machining of
the individual components will lead to
fewer problems in assembly
▪ Although these costs are not always as
easy to quantify as direct manufacturing
costs, they can nevertheless be
significant.
▪ Tighter tolerances that push the factory
to achieve better control over its
manufacturing processes may lead to
lower total operating costs for the General relationship between tolerance and manufacturing
costs
company over the long run.
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Ideal Surface Roughness

𝑓2
𝑅𝑖 =
32𝑁𝑅

where
𝑅𝑖 = theoretical arithmetic average surface roughness;
𝑓 = feed;
𝑁𝑅 = nose radius (Assume not zero)

In this Case, 𝑓 and 𝑁𝑅 are principle factors

 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Example

Example 20.2
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Actual Surface Roughness

(1) First compute ideal surface roughness value

(2) Then multiply by the ratio of actual to ideal
roughness for the appropriate class of work
material

where
Ra = the estimated value of actual roughness (Actual);
rai= ratio of actual to ideal surface finish from Figure 20.2, and
Ri = ideal roughness value from previous (Theoretical)
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Work Material Factors

▪ Multiply theoretical
surface roughness
by the ratio of
actual to theoretical
roughness for the
given cutting speed
to obtain estimate
of actual surface
roughness
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Example

 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: Vibration and Machine

Tool Factors

▪ Related to machine tool, tooling, and setup:

▪ Chatter (vibration) in machine tool or cutting tool
▪ Deflections of fixtures
▪ Backlash in feed mechanism
▪ If chatter can be eliminated, then surface roughness is
determined by geometric and work material factors
 Machining Economics

2. Tolerances & Surface Finish: How to Avoid Chatter

▪ Add stiffness and/or damping to setup

▪ Operate at speeds that avoid cyclical forces with
frequencies close to natural frequency of machine tool
system
▪ Reduce feeds and depths to reduce forces
▪ Change cutter design to reduce forces
▪ Use a cutting fluid
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions

▪ One of the tasks in process planning

▪ For each operation, decisions must be made about machine tool,
cutting tool(s), and cutting conditions
▪ Cutting conditions:
1) Depth of cut: Roughing and Finishing Cut
2) Feed: Tooling, Roughing or Finishing, Cutting Forces,
Horsepower, Rigidity
3) Speed: Maximizing Production Rate, Minimizing Cost per
Unit
4) Cutting fluid
▪ These decisions must give due consideration to workpart
machinability, part geometry, surface finish, and so forth
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Depth of Cut

▪ Depth of cut is often predetermined by workpiece geometry and

operation sequence

▪ In roughing, depth is made as large as possible to maximize

material removal rate, subject to limitations of horsepower,
machine tool and setup rigidity, and strength of cutting tool

▪ In finishing, depth is set to achieve final part dimensions

 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Feed

▪ Select feed first, speed second

▪ Determining feed rate depends on:
▪ Tooling – harder tool materials require lower feeds
▪ Is the operation roughing or finishing?
▪ Constraints on feed in roughing
▪ Limits imposed by forces, setup rigidity, and

sometimes horsepower
▪ Surface finish requirements in finishing
▪ Select feed to produce desired finish
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed

▪ Select speed to achieve a balance between high

metal removal rate and suitably long tool life (making
the best use of cutting tool)
▪ Mathematical formulas available to determine
optimal speed
▪ Two alternative objectives in these formulas:
1. Maximize production rate
2. Minimize unit cost
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Maximizing Production Rate (minimizing cutting time per unit)

In turning, three time elements contribute to the total production cycle time for one part:

1. Part handling time Th : the time the operator spends loading the part into the
machine tool at the beginning of the production cycle and unloading the part
after machining is completed.
2. Machining time Tm : the time the tool is actually engaged in machining during the
cycle.
3. Tool change time Tt : At the end of the tool life, the tool must be changed, which
takes time. This time must be apportioned over the number of parts cut during
the tool life. The tool change time per part = Tt /np Where np= the number of
pieces cut in one tool life (the number of pieces cut with one cutting edge until
the tool is changed)
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Maximizing Production Rate
▪ Total time per unit product for operation:
The sum of these three time elements gives the total
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np time per unit produced for the operation cycle:

▪ Cycle time Tc is a function of cutting speed

As cutting speed is increased:

Tm decreases
Tt /np increases
While, Th is unaffected
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Maximizing Production Rate
The total time per part is minimized at a certain value of cutting speed. This optimal speed can be
identified by recasting Tm Eqn. as a function of speed. It can be shown that the machining time in a
straight turning operation is given by

Tm = machining time, min;

𝜋𝐷𝐿 D = workpart diameter, in. (mm);
𝑇𝑚 = L = workpart length, in. (mm);
𝑣𝑓
f = feed, in./rev (mm/rev); and
v = cutting speed, in./min (mm/mm).

The number of pieces machined per tool np is also a function of speed. It can be shown that

𝑇 where T = tool life, min/tool;

𝑛𝑝 =
𝑇𝑚 Tm = machining time per part, min/piece
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Maximizing Production Rate
Both Tm and T are functions of speed; hence, the ratio is a function of speed:

The cycle time per piece is a minimum at the cutting speed at which the derivative of this
equation is zero.

Solving this equation yields the OPTIMUM cutting speed for maximum production rate in the
operation
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Maximizing Production Rate

The OPTIMUM corresponding tool

life for maximum production rate is:
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Minimizing Unit Co$t

▪ In turning, total production cycle cost for one part consists of:
1. Cost of part handling time = CoTh , where Co = cost rate for
operator and machine
2. Cost of machining time = CoTm
3. Cost of tool change time = CoTt/np
4. Tooling cost = Ct/np , where Ct = cost per cutting edge
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Minimizing Unit Co$t

▪ Total cost per unit product for operation:

Cc = CoTh + CoTm + CoTt/np + Ct/np
▪ Again, unit cost is a function of cutting speed, just as Tc is
a function of v
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed Minimizing Unit Co$t: Tooling Cost
Tooling cost is affected by different tooling situations:

For disposable inserts (for example, cemented carbide inserts), tool cost is determined as
Ct = cost per cutting edge, $/tool life
Pt = price of the insert, $/insert
ne = number of cutting edges per insert

This depends on the insert type; for example, if a triangular insert can be used only on one
side (perhaps positive rake tooling) yield three edges per insert; if both sides of the insert can
be used (negative rake tooling), there are six edges per insert; and so forth.

For regrindable tooling (for example, high-speed steel, or brazed carbide tools), the tool cost
includes purchase price plus cost to regrind. C = cost per regrind, $/tool life;
t
Pt = purchase price of the solid-shank tool or brazed insert
ng = number of tool lives per tool, which is the number of
times the tool can be ground before it can no longer be used
Tg = time to grind or regrind the tool, min/tool life
Cg = grinder’s rate, $/min
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed Minimizing Unit Co$t: Total Cost

The sum of the four cost components gives the total cost per unit
(turned) product Cc for the machining cycle.

is a function of cutting speed,

just as Tc is a function of v. The
relationships for the individual
terms and total cost as a
function of cutting speed are
shown in the figure.
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Minimizing Unit Co$t: Optimum Conditions

The OPTIMUM cutting speed that obtains minimum cost per piece for the operation can be
determined by taking the derivative of this equation with respect to v, setting it to zero, and
solving for vmin

The corresponding OPTIMUM tool life is given by

 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
Unit Cost vs. Cutting Speed
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Optimizing Cutting

Speed
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Example 1

Example 20.3: Determining cutting speeds in machining economics
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Example 2

Example 20.4: Production rate and cost in machining economics
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Example 2 Cont’d

Example 20.4: Production rate and cost in machining economics
 Machining Economics

3. Selection of Cutting Conditions: Choice of Cutting Speed

➢ The procedures outlined above for selecting feeds and speeds in

machining are often difficult to apply in practice.

➢ The best feed rate is difficult to determine because the relationships

among feed and surface finish, force, horsepower.

➢ Experience, judgment, and experimentation are required to select the

proper feed. The optimum cutting speed is difficult to calculate
because the Taylor equation parameters C and n are not usually
known without prior testing. Testing of this kind in a production
environment is expensive.
 Machining Economics

4. Product Design Considerations in Machining

Product Design Guidelines

▪ Design parts that need no machining
▪ Use net shape processes such as precision casting, closed die
forging, or plastic molding
▪ If not possible, then minimize amount of machining required
▪ Use near net shape processes such as impression die forging

▪ Reasons why machining may be required:

▪ Close tolerances
▪ Good surface finish
▪ Special geometric features such as threads, precision
holes, cylindrical sections with high degree of roundness
 Machining Economics

4. Product Design Considerations in Machining

▪ Avoid undercuts as in (a)

▪ Additional setups,
operations, and often
special tooling are
required for undercuts
as in (b)
 Machining Economics

4. Product Design Considerations in Machining

▪ Design parts with features that can be produced in a

minimum number of setups
▪ Example: Design part with geometric features that can be
accessed from one side of part

Two parts with similar hole features: holes that must be machined from
two sides, requiring two setups, and holes that can all be machined from
one side.
End of Topic #6: Machining Economics