SHIP MANOEUVRING &

APPROACHING PILOT
VESSEL /STATION
Introduction:
• Manoeuvrability is defined as the inherent ability of a ship to change its
course/path.
• Right after the launch, a ship undergoes all the necessary trials under
certain predefined conditions to assess her manoeuvring abilities.
• IMO has its own set of rules for conducting these manoeuvring trials to test
the vessel’s manoeuvrability aspects and to ensure that she can safely
navigate under worst-case scenarios.
• Based on the possible manoeuvres the vessel can have, a certain set of trials
are conducted for each form of manoeuvre. The results are then compared
with the pre-defined standards. In case flaws are detected during trials, they
can be rectified prior to the delivery of the ship.
• However, there are certain drawbacks of conducting vessel trials and the
results received from the same. They are as follows:
1. Environmental changes can disrupt the trials & yield inaccurate results.
2. They are costly, time-consuming and cumbersome.
3. They require wide open seas and thus, vessels have to travel a long
distance from their place of launch.
• IMO has laid down certain conditions for conducting the manoeuvring sea
trials. They are as follows:
1. Deep and unrestricted waters: The depth of the water should be more
than 4 times the midship draft. Moreover, it should be done in a place
isolated from other ship traffic and far from any landmass.
2. Calm Sea Conditions: The prevalent weather in that region must be
suitable for the trial to be conducted. The Sea State value must be strictly
less than 4 and the wind speed should be within Beaufort Scale 5.
3. Away from Tidal Influence: All trials should be conducted in areas where
there is lesser influence of tides, currents, swells and even high waves.
4. Proper draft and even keel: All vessels must have proper draft as required
and no trim in the proposed loading conditions.
5. Steady Approach: Before taking a trial, the vessel must be allowed to run
on a steady course for some time. This is done in order to monitor the
propulsion and machinery systems of the ship and to stabilize the
systems.
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 • Some of the common manoeuvring sea trials a ship is put through are:
1. Turning Circle Manoeuvre
2. Collision Avoidance
3. Zig-Zag Test
4. Spiral and Reverse Spiral Test
5. Pull-out Test
6. Stopping Test (including Crash Stop)

Manoeuvring Diagram / Turning Circle Diagram

• The turning circle is the roughly circular path traced by the ship’s centre of
gravity (COG) during a full 3600 turn with constant rudder angle and speed.
• Throughout the turn, her bow will be slightly inside the circle and stern a
little outside the circle.
• Due to some side slip, when the helm is first applied, the circle does not link
up with the original course.
• During the turn, the vessel suffers some loss of speed. After turning
through 900, about 1/4th of her original speed is lost. After turning through a
total of 1800, about 1/3rd of the original speed is lost. Thereafter, speed
remains roughly constant.

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 • Right handed propeller will have circle to port slightly shorter in radius than
circle to starboard. This is due to transverse thrust.
• The dotted track super-imposed on the first circle is the turning circle of a
similar vessel, but having twin-screws, one going ahead and one going
astern, at equal revolutions.
• Manoeuvring diagram uses certain terms that are defined below:

1. Advance: It is the distance travelled by the COG of the ship, along the
original course, measured from the time the rudder is put over until the
vessel’s head has turned by 900. It is about 3 to 4 times the ship’s length.
2. Transfer: It is the distance travelled by the COG of the ship, measured in
the direction perpendicular to that of the original course, from the
original track to a point where the vessel has altered her course by 900.
3. Tactical Diameter: It is the distance travelled by the COG of the ship,
measured in the direction perpendicular to the original course, from the
time the rudder is put over until the ship has altered her course by 1800.
It is the greatest diameter traced by the vessel from commencing the
turn to completing the turn. It is about 4 times the ship’s length. In
simple words, it is the ‘transfer’ for 1800.
4. Final Diameter: It is the diameter of the circle that is ultimately traced by
a ship that continues to circle with a constant rudder angle. It is the
internal diameter of the turning circle.
5. Drift Angle: It is the angle between the ship’s fore & aft line and tangent
to the turning circle. Greater the drift angle, smaller is the turning circle.

PIVOT POINT
• The point on the centerline about which the ship turns when the rudder is
put over is called the Pivot point.
• When the ship is stationary/stopped, the pivot point is almost the same as
the COG (about midship). However, when the vessel goes to anchor, pivot
point moves right forward, effectively holding the bow in one position.
• Just when the ship starts getting underway, due to initial resistance, the
pivot point moves about 1/8th L from the forward and settles at 1/4th L from
the forward when under headway.

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 • Under sternway, the pivot point is about 1/4th L from the stern.
• At the pivot point, the drift angle is zero.
• Ship handling greatly depends on knowing the location of the pivot point.

LATERAL FORCES THAT AFFECT TURNING:

Rudder Force – it is the force exerted by the ship’s rudder which attempts to turn
the ship and drive it forward.
Lateral Resistance – As a ship commences a turn and thereafter, for the duration
of the turn, the ship is sliding sideways, resulting in a large build up of water
resistance, all the way down the ship’s side. This force opposes the rudder force
and is called the lateral resistance.
The balance between these two forces plays a crucial part in shaping all turning
circles.

Effect of Displacement on Turning Circle

• Loaded ship will have increased draft and displacement. Because of this,
more underwater exposed area on the ship side will result in more lateral
resistance.
• When the same rudder force is used for a loaded ship and a ship in ballast
condition, the rudder force used for the loaded ship will have to overcome
more lateral resistance. Hence, turning circle of the loaded ship will be more
than that of the same ship in ballast condition.
• A loaded vessel will be slow in answering to helm making her sluggish in
gathering way whereas a light vessel will be sensitive to her helm allowing
better steerage.
• Also, ships with greater draft and displacement will be more affected by the
current. Turning in a moderate to strong current with a high displacement
will cause the turning circle to be elliptic in shape.

Effect of Trim on Turning Circle

Trim of the vessel influences the turning circle. Let us consider a vessel with trim
by stern and the same vessel with a trim by head. Normally, vessels have a trim by
the stern for better steerage, to develop maximum power and have improved
headway. It is unusual for a ship to be trimmed by head in normal circumstances.

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 TRIM BY STERN
Pivot point is further aft than that if
she was on Even keel.
Vessel’s turning circle will be larger.
Vessel will develop maximum power
and steerage is better.
Vessel will turn more readily down
wind.
TRIM BY HEAD
Pivot point is further forward than that
if she was on Even keel.
Vessel’s turning circle will be smaller.
Vessel will not develop full power and
will be difficult to turn.
Will turn more readily into the wind.
With wind on her quarter, she may
become unmanageable.

Effect of List on Turning Circle

• The effect of list on turning circle is such that the vessel will turn more
readily towards the high side. That means the vessel will have a smaller
turning circle on the high side. The effect of list is to hinder turn in the
direction of list and assist a turn away from the list.
• In twin screw ship, low-side engine will be more effective than the other
engine.

Effect of Speed on Turning Circle

• Turning circles at both speeds i.e. full ahead and slow ahead are identical.
• When the speed is higher, larger rudder force is used in order to counteract
the larger lateral resistance. When the speed is slower, lateral resistance is
less. Thus, lesser rudder force is used.
• In other words, the hydrodynamic forces that counteract the turn are
proportional to the force exerted by the rudder.
• For any turn with a constant RPM, the rudder force and lateral resistance
will always achieve same balance. Hence, the turning circles will be identical.
• However, the rate of turn will increase with increase in speed. In case where
the ship’s speed is increased during the turn (RPM not kept constant), the
diameter of this accelerating turn is significantly less than a turn at constant
RPM.

Effect of Shallow Waters on Turning Circle

• When a vessel turns in shallow waters, her turning circle is bigger. This can
be explained considering a vessel turning to starboard in shallow waters.

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 1. In shallow waters, as the stern of the ship begins to turn to port, the water
pressure building on the port side is more than that in the deep waters. This
is because there is less room
available under the keel; hence
there is restriction of water flow.
2. The rudder force has to
overcome a larger lateral
resistance and is therefore less
efficient.
3. Also, at the bow, because of
reduced UKC, the water which
would normally pass under the
ship gets restricted. This results
in build-up of pressure – both at
the head of the ship and port
bow. This pressure pushes the
pivot point abaft thus reducing
the turning lever.

• Due to the above effects, the ship rapidly looses rudder efficiency that is
available in deep waters and hence, the turning circle in shallow waters is
larger (almost twice) than that in the deep waters.

STOPPING THE SHIP

The most common method of reducing a ship’s speed and stopping her is simply
by putting the engines astern. This is not a very efficient method as the ship’s
propeller is not very effective when going astern. Also, by using this method, the
ship’s heading will change significantly, as much as 900. To avoid this, the ship can
be swung to port prior putting the engines astern (for a right handed propeller).
The rudder must be put to midship when engines are put astern. A large alteration
of course or round turn can also assist in stopping the vessel.

Stopping Ability of a vessel is judged using a full astern-crash stop manoeuver. It is

measured by the ‘track reach’ and ‘head reach’ realized in a stop engine / full
astern manoeuver till the ahead speed changes sign i.e. the vessel starts going
backwards or stops dead in the water.

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‘Track reach’ is defined as a distance along
the vessel’s track that the vessel covers from
the moment the ‘full astern’ or ‘stop engine’
command is given until the ship changes the
sign of the ahead speed or stops dead in the
water. Track reach is usually less than 15 L. It
can be less than 20 L but never exceed 20 L.

‘Head reach’ is defined as the distance along

the direction of the original course measured
from the moment the ‘full stern’ or ‘stop
engine’ command was given until the ship
the ship is dead in the water.

Stopping distance is defined as the minimum

distance that a vessel may be seen to cover
to come to rest over the ground. Normally,
stopping distances are provided from full
ahead to stop engine and from full ahead to
crash full astern i.e. crash stop.
The vessel’s manoeuvring diagram must indicate head reach for the vessel in
loaded and ballast conditions. The stopping distance of a ship is very important as
it helps the Master to estimate the time and distance required to bring the ship to
a complete stop in case of emergencies.
One must keep in mind that, a large alteration of course or a round turn can lessen
the head reach considerably. As the vessel changes heading by 900, about 1/4th of
her original speed is lost. When the vessel changes heading by 1800, about 1/3rd of
her original speed is lost. The advance for a full round turn is roughly 3 to 4 times
the ship’s length whereas the head reach can be 10-15 times the ship’s length
when the engines are put astern.

Rudder Cycling
Rudder cycling is a very effective method of stopping the ship while maintaining
her directional movement. It uses the resistance of water on underwater hull area
to reduce the speed of the ship. Let us consider a vessel proceeding at full ahead
and needs to stop.

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With Port side safer than starboard side; we must carry out the following actions:
• Put the rudder hard to port. When the
ship has turned to 200 from the original
course, put the telegraph to half ahead.
• When the ship’s heading is 400 from the
original course, put rudder hard to stbd.
• When the ship’s heading just starts to
turn to starboard side, put the engines
on slow ahead.
• When the ship’s heading has returned to
original course, put rudder hard to port.
• When the ship just starts to turn to port,
put the engine to dead slow ahead.
• When the ship’s heading returned to
original course, put the rudder hard to
starboard to check some of the port
swing. When the ship still has some rate
of turn to port, go full astern on engines
to stop the ship. Subsequently, put
rudder to midship and stop engines.

Rudder cycling will stop the ship at considerable lesser distance. We can use this
method for both slowing down and stopping the ship. However, we must be
careful not to lose control of the vessel.

Effect of size, displacement, trim, speed and UKC on stopping distances:

Size – A large vessel will carry her away further than a smaller vessel. Hence,
stopping distance for a large ship will be more than that for a smaller vessel.

Displacement – Deeply laden vessel carries her way longer than a light vessel.
Hence, stopping distance for a laden vessel is more than that of a light vessel.

Smooth & Fine Shaped Hull – Vessel that has recently come from a dry dock will
have a smooth hull means less resistance. Hence, stopping distance for such
vessels will be more than for those with a fouled hull. Also, ships with fine shaped
hulls will carry their way longer than vessels that are beamy or rectangular.

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Trim –A vessel with trim by head will have reduced propeller immersion which will
lessen propulsion efficiency. Hence, we can say, a vessel will have greater
stopping distance when trimmed by head than when she is trimmed by stern.

Speed – A vessel will have greater stopping distance at high speed as she will take
her way further than when at slow speed.

UKC – Vessel in shallow waters displaces water which is not so easily replaced,
therefore leading to a state of partial vacuum. The vessel takes longer time to
respond to helm and engine movements become sluggish. Therefore, a vessel
carries her way longer in shallow waters increasing the stopping distance.

TRANSVERSE THRUST
• The thrust of a propeller blade is divided into two components:
(i) Fore and aft component
(ii) A very small athwartship
component
• The latter is called transverse thrust
or starting bias which is caused by
the wheeling effect and helical
discharge.
• For a right handed propeller, while
going ahead, the bow cants to port,
the swing decreases as way is
gathered. While going astern, the
bow cants strongly to stbd and will
continue to do so until correcting
helm is used.

Effect of Transverse Thrust – Transverse thrust effects are a cause of the single
propeller action where water is displaced to one side or another, causing a
movement of the hull from the deflection of the water flow.

(1) Right Handed Propeller / Going Ahead

• In an ahead movement of a right handed propeller, the helical discharge
from the propeller creates a large pressure on the port side of the rudder.

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 • The speed of the water into a propeller area is uneven and there is more
pressure on the down sweeping blades of the propeller.
• The net result is a tendency for the right handed propeller to give a small
swing to Port when running ahead. This is not very noticeable because of
factors like wind, current, rudder errors, etc.

(2) Right Handed Propeller / Going Astern

• In an astern movement, the helical discharge splits and passes towards
either side of the hull in forward direction. In doing so, it behaves quite
differently.
• On the port quarter, it is inclined down and away from the hull. And on the
stbd quarter, it is inclined up and onto the hull.
• This flow of water striking the stbd quarter can be a great force in tonnes
capable of swinging the stern to port making the bow swing to stbd.

Thus, the effect of transverse thrust while making ahead movement is less
worrying than that on an astern movement. However, a vessel fitted with a
right-hand fixed propeller would benefit from the transverse thrust effect, and
her turning circle, in general, will be quicker and tighter when turning to port
than to starboard.

MANOEUVRING BOOKLET
It is recommended that manoeuvring information in the form of a ‘Pilot Card’,
‘Bridge Poster ’ and ‘manoeuvring booklet’ should be retained on board ships.
Such information should include comprehensive details on the following factors
affecting ship’s manoeuvrability, as obtained from construction plans, trials
and calculated estimates.

1. Ships general particulars

2. Listed main manoeuvring features – Main engine, type and number of units,
together with power output; the number and type of propellers, their
diameter, pitch and direction of rotation; the type and number of rudders;
bow and stern thruster units (if fitted), type and capacity.
3. Hull particulars – Profiles of the bow and stern sections of the vessel and
the length of the parallel middle body (respective to berthing alongside).

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 4. Manoeuvring characteristics in deep and shallow waters – Curves should
be constructed for shallow and restricted waters to show the maximum
squat values at different speeds and blockage factors, with the ship at
variable draughts.
5. Main engine – Manoeuvring speed tables established for loaded and ballast
conditions from trials or estimated; stating critical RPM.
6. Wind forces and drift effects – The ability of the ship to maintain course
headings under relative wind speeds, should also be noted; together with
the drifting effects on the vessel under the influence of wind, when the
vessel is without engine power.
7. Turning circle test results - from trials or estimates for various loaded and
ballast conditions; reflecting ‘advance’ and ‘transfer’ and the maximum
rudder angle employed in the test, together with times and speeds at 90°,
180°, 270° and 360°; details should be in diagrammatic format with ship’s
outline. Data may refer to only stbd turn, unless there is a significant
difference between the Port and stbd turn.
8. Acceleration and speed characteristics – Presentation of speed
performance when the ship accelerates from a stopped position and
deceleration from full sea speed to a position of rest, for loaded and ballast
conditions.
9. Stopping capabilities – Should include following track stopping distances:
Full astern from Full sea speed / Full man. speed / Half Ahead / Slow Ahead
Stop Engine from Full sea speed / Full man. speed / Half Ahead / Slow Ahead
Relevant time intervals for stoppages should also be recorded.

Any other relevant information considered useful to manoeuvring & handling

capabilities of the vessel should be included in the ‘Manoeuvring Booklet’.

THE WAKE CURRENT

• If a beamy, rectangular barge is under headway, a cavity will be created at
its stern. Water flowing down the sides of the barge, will swirl in and fill this
cavity. This water that swirls into the cavity is known as the Wake Current.
• Steering is adversely affected because the rudder will be working in partial
vacuum. The propeller will be working in disturbed waters hence speed is
lost and vibrations are set up.
• Because of all this, ships are so constructed so as to have the aft portion as
fine as possible.

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SIDE SLIP OR SKID:

• When turning under helm, a ship skids about her pivot point.
• There is bodily sideslip due to centrifugal force.
• At high speeds, the skidding has a marked effect in reducing headway.

EFFECT OF STERNWAY:

• A single-screw ship will answer her helm under sternway when there is
sufficient sternway, calm seas and engines stopped.
• In wind, it is possible for the stern to go right into the wind’s eye.
• Response to rudder is generally poor unless vessel has to be swung to stbd,
when rudder assists the transverse thrust. (For a right handed propeller)
• Twin-screw ship steers sternway quite well by varying RPM on each engines.

APPROACHING PILOT STATION

• Pilot boarding areas are usually congested. There are other vessels boarding
or disembarking pilots which require changes in speed and course. One
must bear in mind that under these circumstances, the ARPA may take time
to consider these changes in its calculation.
• Some of the tasks that must be accomplished prior and during the pilot
boarding are:
1. Complete all pre-arrival checks and tests.
2. Setting an appropriate watch level on Bridge and in the E/R.
3. Making contact with the Pilot Station confirming ETA, pilot boarding
arrangements (which side pilot ladder and height), boarding speed, etc.
4. Rigging pilot ladder / combination ladder as per IMO regulations.
5. Having anchors cleared and ready for letting go in case of emergency.
6. Ensure Master-Pilot information card is completed.
7. Posting an officer at the Pilot ladder with a radio.
8. Making radio contact with the Pilot boat and VTS as appropriate.

• When all the activities are being conducted, the vessel must be slowed
down and manoeuvred, making a lee for the Pilot boat. With many activities
going on at the same time, the Bridge Team must not forget their primary
duty of manoeuvring the vessel for collision avoidance as per COLREGS.

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 • Radio contact with the pilot boat is important. The operator of the Pilot
boat is usually very experienced and can give advice on manoeuvring the
ship to provide the best lee or make requests for alteration of course and/or
speed.
• The standard approach is to steer a steady course to the Pilot boarding
point at the required speed with the Pilot ladder rigged on the Lee side.
• When the sea is rough or there are confused seas, the best way to provide
smooth water for pilot boarding is by swinging the ship just before the pilot
boards such that the ship’s quarter is swinging away from the pilot boat.
The common term for this manoeuver is ‘sweeping a lee’.
• If the vessel is unable to create a lee in extremely bad weather, it may be
necessary to wait for the weather conditions to improve. Many ports that
are prone to bad weather have alternate pilot boarding areas. Transit to
such areas must be included in the passage plan as a contingency.

PICKING UP PILOT WITH CURRENT AND TIDE:

It is very important for a ship handler to consider the effect of tide and current on
the ship. The effects are felt in restricted waters where there is little room for
error when manoeuvring a vessel. Predictions of their effects should be made
during the passage planning stage and again during the manoeuvers such as
berthing, anchoring, etc.

• Current – Information regarding the currents in a particular area must be

obtained by referring to the appropriate current tables (tidal stream
atlases), charts or Pilot Books. Information includes the direction and
velocity at any given time, times of maximum and minimum current, etc.
Sometimes, this information can also be obtained from VTS. The set and
drift once known can be applied to get the course to steer at different
engine speeds. When handling a ship in a current, due allowance must be
made for the downstream drift of the ship, the amount of which will
depend on the strength of the steam and the period of exposure. Great care
is necessary handling a ship running downstream. It is always better to stem
the stream so as to have easy control due to the braking effect of the
current.

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 • Tide - The ship handler must take into consideration the height of tide and
depth of water available when planning a passage. This information can be
obtained from Tide tables or local hydrographic offices. The height of tide is
needed to establish no go areas and to mark out places with acceptable
UKC, etc. Also, many manoeuvers such as turning the ship, slowing down or
stopping, etc depend on the available depth of water.

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Explain contents of the Wheel House poster.

1. Ships particulars: Name, Call sign, Gross Tonnage, Net tonnage, Max
Displacement, DWT, Block Coefficient at Summer full load draft, etc.
2. Steering particulars – Type of rudder(s), maximum rudder angle, time hard- over
to hard-over with one and two power units, minimum speed to maintain course
when engine is stopped, etc.
3. Propulsion particulars – Type of engine and power, type of propeller, RPM and
speeds in loaded and ballast condition for various engine orders, critical RPM,
time for full ahead to full astern, time for stop engine to full astern, max. no. of
consecutive starts, and astern power w.r.t. % of ahead power.
4. Anchor chain details i.e. number of shackles in port & stbd anchor and maximum
rate of heaving them (min/shackle)
5. Thruster effect at trial conditions – Bow or stern thruster as applicable, its
power, speed above which it is not effective, turning rate at zero speed, etc.
6. Draft increase in loaded condition due to estimated squat and heel effect.
7. Drafts at which manoeuvring data observed in loaded and ballast condition.
8. Turning circles at maximum rudder angles in loaded condition for deep and
shallow waters, and turning circle at maximum rudder angles in ballast condition
for deep waters.
9. Stopping distances and times in loaded and ballast condition.
10. Emergency manoeuvre for rescue of man overboard.

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