ATMOSPHERE

The Earth and its atmosphere is the greatest natural system. Solar energy is the input which drives the system. This energy is
used, stored and transferred between the Earth and its atmosphere. The output from the system is the energy radiated and lost
into space.

The atmosphere is an envelope of gases wrapped around the Earth. The gravitational pull of the Earth keeps the atmosphere
attached to it.

Structure

The troposphere is the lowest layer, which touches the surface of the Earth. The base of the atmosphere is warmed by
conduction from the Earth's surface so that the temperature falls with increasing height above the ground. The tropopause
(divide between troposphere and stratosphere), is reached at -50 C. It is higher in the tropics than at the Poles. Above this in
the stratosphere, temperatures begin to rise.

Composition of the atmosphere

Nitrogen 78.09%

Oxygen 20.95%

Argon 0.93%

Carbon dioxide 0.03% (percentage tiny but really important)

The Sun as an energy source

Light radiated from the Sun is the source of all energy on Earth. Some absorption takes place in the atmosphere, mainly by
gases (18%). Reflection of light back into space occurs from clouds, gases and dust particles in the atmosphere, and from light-
coloured surfaces(32%). The remainder(50%) is available for absorption by the Earth's surface.

Insolation is the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface that is available as heat. It is higher in the equator and
tropics, and lower in the Poles.

Alternative energy sources

 Water power
 Wind power
 Solar power

Acid rain

Clean rain water has a pH value between 5 and 6, which makes it slightly acid. However rainfall in many industrial regions has a
pH value of between 4 and 5. The increased acidity comes from the presence of pollutants in the atmosphere, mainly sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Both are released when fossil fuels are burnt.

Causes: road transport, power stations and industries.

pH = 7 --> neutral

pH > 7 --> alkaline

pH <7 --> acid

Damage to the ozone layer

The release of a family of chemicals which contain chlorine, the so called CFCs, and halons into the atmosphere are the main
causes. CFCs are used as the propellants in aerosols spray cans and refrigeration systems. Halons are used in extinguishers.
They are stable, which means that they persist in the atmosphere for a long time. Ultraviolet radiation sets off a chain of
chemical reactions in which chlorine converts the ozone into oxygen. This causes the ozone layer to become thinner.

Greenhouse effect

Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb most strongly in the long wavelenghts; therefore they mainly trap heat radiation from
the land rather than light radiation from the Sun. They also re-radiate some of the heat back to the ground. Cloud droplets also
reflect long-wave radiation very effectively. They delay radiation loss commonly called the greenhouse effect.

Causes:

 burning fossil fuels

 deforestation
 burning wood
 decomposition of waste
 rice and cattle farming
 use of CFCs in aerosols and refrigeration systems, and release of halons
 Fertilizers
 Motor transport

Effects of global warming

 Melting of ice sheets in the Arctic and Antarctica

 Rising sea levels
 Flooding of low lying coastal areas
 Sea defenses breached
 Previously populated areas no longer habitable

Weather measuring

In a weather station we can find:

 Anemometer
 Wind vane
 Rain gauge
 Barometer
 Max-Min thermometer
 Sunshine recorder
 Thermometer screen

CLIMATES

Farming

Types:

 arable: growing crops

 pastoral: keeping and grazing animals
 subsistence: growing crops and keeping animals mainly to feed the family
  commercial: growing crops and keeping animals for sale
 extensive: producing a low output per hectare from large areas of land
 intensive: producing a high output per hectare, usually from a small area of land

Factors which affect farming

 Environmental (weather)
 Human (technological, economic and social)

Inputs are what go in the system. Processes are the activities on the farm which turn inputs into outputs. Outputs are the end
products from farming and the money made from sale.

Increased food output and higher yields

Farming output had to increase just to keep pace with the growth in world population.

Techniques:

 Irrigation
 Chemicals
 Mechanization
 Capital
 GM crops

GREEN REVOLUTION

Sustainable agriculture

 Irrigation
 Organic fertilizers
 Mixed cropping
 Natural predators
 New seeds and plant varieties

Biomass

Biofuels: fuels made from crops and mainly used for transport. They are obtained either from vegetable oils or from fermented
and distilled products of crops.

Fuelwood: burning wood as a source of energy

Biogas: This is clean methane gas produced from animal ding and other wastes.

Climatic hazards

 Cyclones: tropical storms which from in the Indian ocean.

 Floods: Most caused by rivers breaking their banks after heavy or prolonged periods of rain. Additionally there is
coastal flooding due to cyclones.
 Droughts: These occur most in the tropics in areas with climates that have a wet season and a dry season.